History of India – 1.4.c.

2a
Neolithic – Chalcolithic cultures in non-Harappan India

GLOSSARY

Chalcolithic Culture – A phase in the development of human

culture also known as Copper Age in which use of early metal
tools appeared alongside the use of stone tools; it occurred in the
4th millennium BC.

Neolithic Culture – A phase in the development of human culture

also known as New Stone Age in which farming came into
existence; it occurred in the 9500 BC.

Harappan Civilization – A Bronze Age civilization discovered in the

Indian sub-continent along the Indus; it was believed to have
flourished over a period of 2200 years between 3500 B.C. and
1300 B.C.

Assemblage – All the artifacts found together in a site or a group

of sites.

Microlithic – a small stone tool usually made of flint or chert and

typically a centimetre or so in length and half a centimetre wide.
It is produced either from a small blade, or a larger blade-like
piece of flint.

Ahar-Banas culture – a Chalcolithic archaeological culture of

southeastern Rajasthan, India, lasting from c. 3000 to 1500 BCE;
contemporary and adjacent to the Indus Valley Civilization.

Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture – a Chalcolithic archaeological

culture of northeastern Rajasthan, India from c. 3800 BCE to 1500
BCE

Malwa and Kayatha culture – Chalcolithic archaeological cultures

of Central India, in the Malwa plateau region
Material culture – artifacts or other concrete things left by past
cultures

Culture – similar assemblage of tools, ornaments and other

products of human labour, or artifacts, that are found in a layer in
one or more sites, along with indicators of similar customs, and
belief systems, and in the of disposal of the dead.

OBJECTIVES

The students will

 Learn about the Ahar-Banas culture of Rajasthan.

 Know about the Malwa culture.
 Study the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture.
 Trace the cultural connections of these civilizations with the
Harappans.

SUMMARY

The Chalcolithic sites in India, outside the orbit of Harappa, are

located in Rajasthan, the Malwa region, and in the Deccan. In
Rajasthan there are two cultures – the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura
culture in the north eastern part, and the Ahar-Banas culture, in
the south eastern region.. These are contemporaneous cultures.
Gilund and Balathal are the two sites of the Ahar-Banas culture.
The cultural complex in Central India, is known as Kayatha
culture, and Malwa culture.

The common feature in all these cultures was the use of copper
artifacts. The dwelling places were made of mud, bricks and
stones. The pottery was unique in each culture. Semi-precious
beads and stone jewellery were also discovered.

Interestingly some of the material objects, like the copper

artifacts, bead jewellery and pottery bear a strong resemblance to
Harappan counterparts, thereby suggesting some kind of
connection with the Harappan culture.

FAQs

1. What does the term Chalcolithic imply?

The term Chalcolithic signifies the first use of copper and bronze in
a lithic context, which means that a full fledge stone tool using
community, first begins to use copper artifacts.

2. Mention the places where Chalcolithic cultures flourished

outside Harappan Civilization.

Chalcolithic cultures that flourished outside the Harappan ambit,

are found in Rajasthan, Malwa region in central India, and in the
Deccan.

3. Highlight the significance of the Chalcolithic culture.

This period is very important in Indian history, because it signifies

certain shifts. It signifies technological innovation on the one
hand, and on the other hand it also signifies cultural contacts
between diverse groups. This is a phase where the intensification
of craft specialization brought about new complexities in early
societies.
4. Where are the Chalcolithic cultures in Rajasthan located?

The Chalcolithic clusters first encountered in India outside the

Harappan orbit, were located in north eastern Rajasthan especially
round the copper mines in Khetri and the Baleshwar area. About
eighty sites have been discovered around the districts of Sikar,
Jhunjhun and Alwar. This cultural complex is called Ganeshwar-
Jodhpura. Another cultural complex has been discovered in the
south east of Rajasthan, at Ahar and which is located in the river
valleys of Banas and Berak. It is called the Ahar-Banas culture.

5. Why is the Ahar culture complex called Banas culture?

The Ahar culture complex is located in the river valleys of Banas

and Berak, which is why it is also called the Banas culture.

6. Describe the economy of the Ahar culture.

The Ahar cultural complex is significant for the use of rice. The
stone tool repertoire contains food processing units like saddle
querns, semi precious stone beads, and bones of domesticated
animals, like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig. It therefore
appears to be a complete culture which practised mixed farm
economy.

7. Describe the wall fortification of Balathal.

Balathal is remarkable because for its fortified enclosure. The

fortification wall is quite substantial, and is built of stone blocks
packed with mud. The four bastions at the four corners are clearly
discernable.
8. Describe the pottery found in Gilund.

The region has produced pottery of an astounding variety. Apart

from red ware, tan ware, red and black ware, and buff colored
ware, there is a different kind of reserve slip ware which has a
very thin red coloured decoration painted on it, and a very thick
red slip with incised designs.

9. How do we know that there was some connection between

Gujarat Harappan and Rajasthan Chalcolithic complex?

Etched carnelian beads, and beads of lapis lazuli, have been

recovered from the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites. These beads are
very typical of the Gujarat Harappan culture, and thus suggests
some kind of cultural connection between the Gujarat Harappan
and the Rajasthan Chalcolithic complex.

10. How do we know that there was cultural connection between

Kayatha and Harappa?

Kayatha might have had connections with the Harappan culture

because the steatite beads from Kayatha, as well as the pottery
and axes resemble the Harappan specimens.

QUIZ Complete

1. The earliest discovered Chalcolithic site is

A) Ahar B) Jodhpura C) Balathal

2. Copper was being smelted and manufactured from

A) Ganeshwar B) Malwa C) Kayatha

3. Balathal is a Chalcolithic site belonging to the

A) Ganeshwar-Jodhpura comples B) Banas Ahar complex
C) Kayatha complex

4. Gilund is located in the district of

A) Udaipur B) Jaipur C) Jaisalmer

5. Storage bins feature quiet prominently at the site of

A) Ahar B) Jodhpura C) Gilund

6. A ritualistic pit was discovered in

A) Dangwada B) Chambal C) Navdatoli

7. Kayatha lies on the

A) Malwa Plateau B) Deccan Plateau C) Chotanagpur Plateau

8. The site that was abandoned in about 1800 BCE was

A) Gilund B) Kayatha C) Balathal

9. The axes from Kayatha resemble the axes from

A) Harappa B) Balathal C) Ganeshwar

10. The typical red on black pottery is found in

A) Jodhpura B) Gilund C) Kayatha
ASSIGNMENT

1. Elucidate the various changes that occured in the Chalcolithic

cultures.

2. Give an account of the three phases at Ganeshwar.

3. Site the evidences that prove that the Rajasthan Chalcolithic

cultures had connection to the Harappans.

4. Describe the site of Balathal.

5. Highlight the material culture found in Kayatha and Malwa.

History of India – 1.4.c.2a

Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures in non-Harappan India

The term Chalcolithic signifies the first use of copper and bronze in
a lithic context, which means that a full fledge stone tool using
community first begins to use copper artifacts. In the context of
Indian prehistory, we find that such Chalcolithic cultures had
flourished over a wide region. The first sites were found in
Rajasthan, the Malwa region in central India, and in the Deccan.
The period ranges from round the third millennium BCE. The
Chalcolithic period is significant for a number of reasons. It was
marked by
technological innovation, and cultural contacts between diverse
groups. This is also a phase when the intensification of craft
specialization brought about certain new complexities in early
societies.

Chalcolithic cultures represent a stage when the early farming

communities began to use non-ferrous metals like copper, but in a
small way. Little change can however be detected in the socio-
economic structure of these communities, when they moved from
the Neolithic phase to the Chalcolithic phase, which means that
the new or improved technologies could not effect changes in the
other aspects of their lives. The simple, tribal, non-Harappan
village communities, did not transform themselves into a more
complex system, in the manner that the Harappan people had
been able to develop. They were contemporary to the Harappans,
but continued to remain at a relatively simple stage. In certain
parts of the subcontinent we notice, that copper began to be used
as early as 3000 BCE.

The Chalcolithic clusters first encountered in India, outside the

Harappan orbit, were located in north-eastern Rajasthan,
especially round the region rich in copper mines, in Khetri and
Baleshwar area. About eighty sites have been discovered in this
region, around the districts of Sikar, Jhunjhunu and Alwar. This
cultural complex goes by the name of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura, in
accordance with the type-sites which were first discovered.

Jodhpura was the earliest to be discovered in 1970. It has yielded

a very early date of civilization, where the first period belongs to a
hunting gathering community (earliest dates being around the last
quarter of fourth millennium BCE), with a continuous occupation
up to 2000 BCE. The distinctive type of pottery that has been
retrieved, is wheel made, ranging in colour from orange to red.
Another site called Ganeshwar is located near the Neemkathana
area.

At Ganeshwar, one comes across three cultural phases. The first

phase starts around 3800 BCE, when the occupiers seem to
belong to the hunting gathering community. The assemblage
consisted mostly of microliths, and some sort of dwelling
signatures.

But it is in period II which belongs to 2800 BCE, that the initiation

of copper occurs. Copper artifacts come in the nature of, fish
hooks, arrow heads, spear heads, as well as a single piece of
copper awl, or sharp needle kind of tool. Inhabitants here appear
to have been living in small circular huts of wattle and daub. The
floors were prepared by plastering with rammed pieces of rock or
pebble.
Period III has revealed a wide range of copper artifacts, like spear
heads, arrow heads, fish hooks, and in addition to these some
special type of axes, knives, as well as ornaments, like copper
bangles and rings. There is a sharp decline in the use of
microliths, and the culture denotes the peak of the Chalcolithic
civilization.

There is evidence of interesting cultural contacts. The pottery from

Ganeshwar resembles the pottery from the early Harappan
context, especially those from the early Harappan sites from
Gujarat. It also seems that the kind of pottery that was found
from the early Harappan context at Banawali was discovered as
surface finds from the site of Ganeshwar, suggesting the
possibility of direct contact.

Dr. Dilip Chakrabarti suggests that it seems that the copper that
was being smelted and manufactured from Ganeshwar was
probably getting transported to the Harappan sites of Kunal and
Kalibangan. He also states that the huge array of copper objects
found from Ganeshwar actually signified a propensity towards
craft specialization among the people at Ganeshwar.

These people were simple tribal folks no doubt, but they had a
specialized occupation of working with metals and probably
supplying metal objects as well as smelted metal to the people in
Kalibangan or Kunal or even farther to the north and west. The
use of copper, and bronze was a catalytic factor in the emergence
of the urban Harappan community. Therefore as a peripheral
culture, the Chalcolithic context of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura probably
contributed to the Harappan cultural orbit.
The Banas culture is contemporary to the north-eastern culture of
Rajasthan, but it was from the south-eastern part of Rajasthan.
About eighty sites belonging to the cultural complex denoted by
the first site have been discovered at Ahar, located on the river
valleys of the Banas and Berak. This culture is thus named Ahar or
Banas, and dates
range from around 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE. Three phases of
culture are present at Ahar which happens to be the type site.
From the very first phase we get copper objects (Chalcolithic). But
it is noteworthy, that from period IB we get a few iron
implements, and in period IC we get more iron implements, along
with some signs of local manufacture of both copper and iron. This
has aroused a lot of debate about the early emergence of iron
metallurgy in the sub continent.

This cultural complex is also denoted by the use of rice. The stone
tool repertoire, consists of food processing units like saddle
querns, and semi precious stone beads. Bones of domesticated
animals like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig, have also been
recovered from this site. All this seems to point to a complete
culture which practised a mixed farming economy.

Balathal is another splendid Chalcolithic site, belonging to the

Banas-Ahar complex. Both the sites of Balathal and Gilund are
located in Udaipur district. Balathal is remarkable for the
presence of a fortified enclosure. The fortification wall is built up
on stone blocks packed with mud, and the four bastions at the
four corners are clearly discernible. The earliest Chalcolithic phase
is found outside this fortification wall, and it comprises of mud-
brick dwellings, mud- plaster floors, and mud- plaster storage
bins. But the later phases witnessed the development of larger
rectangular habitation structures which were built of mud bricks,
or stone bricks, on stone foundations. The complex is relatively
large, about five hundred square metres, inside which there were
three multi-roomed complexes, with separate spaces for kitchen
and storage units. There is a road running inside the enclosure
from a north-west to south-east direction, with a width of about 2
to 4.8 meters. Different types of pottery and semi-precious beads
are among the artifacts found from Balathal.
The discoveries at Gilund were broadly similar to those at Ahar.
The structural remains include a mud-brick complex, measuring
about 30.48 x 24.38 metres, and a wall made of burnt bricks,
resting on a foundation of stone rubble. Storage pits have also
been found. Artifacts include microliths, fragments of copper, and
beads of semi-precious stones. Terracotta figurines of animals like
bulls have also been recovered. There is reason to believe that
there was considerable contact between the cultures of the north-
eastern and south eastern Rajasthan, as Ganeswar type of pottery
has been found at Balathal.
It seems that Gilund was quite a self sustaining unit of village
farming culture.

Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites were using a different kinds of raw

materials, like copper, bronze (copper mines were located
nearby), as well as shell, terracotta, faience, and semi- precious
stones like jasper, agate, carnelian and lapis lazuli. What is
interesting is that the etched carnelian beads, and beads of lapis
lazuli, recovered from the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites, are typical
of the Harappan culture. This serves to indicate that there might
have been some kind of cultural connection with the Gujarat
Harappan, and that the culture and the items had travelled from
Gujarat, into the Rajasthan Chalcolithic complex.

This region has produced pottery of an astounding variety. Apart

from red ware, tan ware, red and black ware and buff coloured
ware, there was a different kind of reserve slip ware, with a thin
red coloured decoration painted on it, and a very thick red slip
with incised designs. Copper artifacts include choppers, razors,
knives, chisels, arrowheads all made of copper, but direct
evidence of copper smelting has not been detected. From the
remains of animal bones we have enough evidence of
domesticated animals including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and
pigs. Plant remains include wheat, barley, two types of millets,
green and black gram, peas, and lentils.

Apart from these, there are other finds like semi precious stone
beads, terracotta balls, grinders, hammer stones and stone
querns. Ornaments include terracotta necklaces and bangles made
of shell, copper and other kinds of stone. According to Dr. Dilip
Chakrabarti, the variety of finds indicate that there existed a kind
of craft specialization in this region.

Although there may not be much direct evidence available from

the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites about local metal smelting, copper
slag, and fragments, at Ahar probably point to local smelting, and
manufacture of copper objects. Given the array of copper objects
that we find both from north-eastern, and south-eastern
Rajasthan cultures, we can definitely put the Rajasthan
Chalcolithic on the map of Indian prehistoric metal innovations.

Chalcolithic cultures in central India start with a cultural complex

known as Kayatha after the type site, dateable to the late 3000
BCE. It lies on the Malwa plateau, which is rich and fertile, and is
washed by various rivers such as the Narmada, Betwa, and
Shipra. Parts of Malwa had close connections with Harappan
Gujarat. But the exact Harappan cultural phase in Malwa is ill-
defined and vague.

A distinctive thick brown slipped pottery, a buff coloured pottery

and a chrome red ware, have been recovered from Kayatha. There
are mud and reed houses, with mud plastered floors, along with
bones of domesticated animals like cattle and horses. There
existed a stone microlithic blade industry, and an elaborate
copper assemblage, which included a large number of copper
objects.

Kayatha has yielded a distinctive type of axe cast in mould, as

well as copper chisels, and copper ornaments like copper bangles.
The axes from Kayatha resemble the Ganeshwar axes, which in
turn point to some type of cultural connection between the two
Chalcolithic cultures. There might even have been connections
with the Harappan culture, as the steatite beads and pottery from
Kayatha, resemble Harappan specimens. So it seems that all
these three regions (the Malwa, Kayatha and Ganeshwar), as well
as the Harappan culture may have been interlinked.

Interestingly the Kayatha site was abandoned sometime around

1800 BCE, but resurfaced once again as a centre of the
subsequent Ahar culture. The Ahar phase of culture is also present
in Kayatha, and other sites of the Chambal valley. There are also
other sites, where remnants of copper artifacts have been found,
indicating a wider use of copper. The most striking feature of the
material culture is the typical red on black pottery, with designs
painted on them that we get from the site. The other striking
feature is the blade tool industry. Other cultural items include
terracotta figurines mostly of animals, some of which are quiet
naturalistic, while others are more stylized figurines. The houses
of these regions closely resemble the Ahar culture dwellings.
Copper seems to have had a marginal use in this region.

The Malwa culture is marked by a very typical pottery that had a

very thick, coarse core and a thick buff slip. Among the structural
remains of this period, we have mostly wattle and daub houses,
with lime plastered floors, and wooden posts which probably
supported the roofs. The crop pattern consisted of different
varieties of wheat, linseed, green gram, black gram, and several
kinds of pulses. The structural remains at Nagda are very striking
because of the use of mud bricks and in Eran we have huge mud
ramparts and a moat.

Microlithic blade assemblage appears prominently among craft

items. Certain copper tools are also available, like the copper axes
with round indentation marks, resembling the copper axes from
Ganeshwar, as well as copper chisels and some copper bangles.
There are also signs of tin and lead alloy. There is a huge
assemblage of semi-precious stone beads, and those made of
shell, jasper, agate, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. The Chalcolithic
assemblage from central India was almost similar in profile to that
of Rajasthan. There seems to have been a continuity from
Rajasthan (especially from the south eastern part of Rajasthan),
into the Malwa plateau. Through south-eastern, and north-
eastern Rajasthan, the cultures probably reached the central
Indian cultural complex and also had access to the Harappans.

Some idea about religious beliefs may be made out from the
objects that have been found.. At the earliest level in Navdatoli,
there is a pit which probably had a ritualistic implication. The walls
and floors were plastered. Some charred wood found from here
seems to indicate some kind of sacrifices. In the middle of the
floor the remains of some hard wood perhaps has the same
implications. A significant find is a huge storage jar on which there
was an image of a shrine done in appliqué technique, with the
picture of a woman to the right, and that of a lizard on the left.
The significance of this is not yet known, but it may have been
used for some ritualistic purpose. Wakankar has said that at
Dangwada he has found a combination of a female torso and a
phallus, which too probably had some ritualistic implications. The
profusion of bull images may also point at the same direction. The
discovery of a fire altar almost certainly indicates some kind of
belief system.

The Chalcolithic complex from central India, had its own local
traits which were growing from within, but with connections to
external cultures like the Ahar culture in Malwa. The region had its
own system of religious beliefs. The use of copper is much scarcer
in the central Indian context, than in Rajasthan, probably due to
the availability of copper, nearer to Rajasthan, whereas Central
India there is not much access. It could even be that the culture
was more oriented towards the use of stone tools, microlithic
blades, and the lesser use of copper. Although there were overall
cultural connections, there were also some kind of indigenous
roots from within.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Same as previous.1.4.a.1