IST 520 Group Project 1

Team 1: Russ Fleming, Gwen Hansen, Lei Sun, Stacey Knapp, Shwetha Prahlad
TASK: Produce a PowerPoint Presentation and Point/Talking Paper on the Theory or Strategy
(chapter 4)

Talking Paper – Cognitivism

PURPOSE: To provide colleagues with information on Cognitivism

1. Principal Elements and Ideas Related to the Theory

Primary Elements of Cognitivism include:
a. Didactic model.
● instructor-centered
b. Mental processes operated on the stimulus constitute human learning and determine
human behaviors.
● stimuli are inputs and behaviors are outputs
● mental states (thinking, imagining, conceptualizing, etc.) are processes that
determine learning and determine how we think and behave
c. Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) - Mind is a processor of information.
● storing, retrieving, transforming, using
● formation of associations
d. Schema Theory - Mental representation and structural knowledge. Thinking uses
symbol systems, concept maps, or graphic organizers to assist in learning and develop
skills. The interrelationships between schema give them meaning.
● schema as memory structure: exist in memory and contains sum of our world
knowledge
● schema as abstraction: higher level of generality (specifics i.e.cat)
● schema as network: concept nodes link together (face)
● schema as dynamic structure: changes as new information/experiences are
acquired
● schema as context: interprets new knowledge, holds the knowledge, and
influences exploration of our environment.
e. Gagne's Instructional Design-Gagne incorporated empirical data on how teachers
behave in the classroom. Instruction as transmission of information to elicit appropriate
student behavior. Learning outcome for student to respond to information effectively.
● Five categories of learning outcomes: verbal, intellectual, cognitive strategies,
attitudes, motor skills
● Specific conditions for learning each outcome
 ● Nine events of instruction - to promote the transfer of knowledge/information
through the stages of memory
○ gaining attention
○ informing the learner of the objective
○ stimulating recall of prior learning
○ presenting the stimulus
○ providing learning guidance
○ eliciting performance
○ providing feedback
○ assessing performance
○ enhancing retention and transfer
2. Social Conditions/Economic/ Technological Context
a. Psychologists involved in the study of learning science. (Early 1920s)
b. Development of linguistics, neurology, psychology, education, and computer science. (Mid-
20th Century)
c. The invention of computer played a very important role. Examples:
● Intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) (Since 1970s)
○ Domain expert-knowledge of the curriculum
○ Student model-knowledge of the learner
○ Tutor-knowledge of teaching strategies
● Artificial Intelligence (AI)
3. Positive Contributions
a. Mental Process Affect Learning: Harasim states, “The power of the mind to influence
and make decisions that are not directly related to an external stimulus was highly
significant” (p. 49). This was an essential change from Behaviorism.
b. Cognitive Information Processes (CIP): Early cognitive science researchers first viewed
the mind similar to a computer’s Central Processing Unit (CPU), or as “mindware—our
thoughts, feelings, hopes, fears, beliefs, and intellect— is cast as nothing but the operation
of the biological brain, the meat machine in our head” (p. 50).
c. Schema Theory: The idea that prior knowledge informs learning displaced the “blank
slate” concept of behaviorism, and profoundly impacted the democratization of learning
by acknowledging that what learners’ bring with them (mindset, experience, prior
understanding, experience) greatly impacts outcomes, for better or worse.
d. Beyond “Operant Conditioning” of Behaviorism: Cognitivism was a response to the
“black box” (Harasim, 2017, p. 50 Figure 4.1) concept of behaviorism. Cognitivists
theorized that the process of learning goes beyond simply “stimulus and response”
(Skinner, 1984). Early Cognitivists, such as Tolmin, claimed that cognition was mediated
 by internal and external processes. Toulmin’s Cognitive maps explained this concept of
mental mapping, or the networks of information.
e. Optimize Internal and External Conditions: Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
mapped the process of learning for future educators, including “methods and procedures
to facilitate specific learning processes” (p. 53). Gagne outlined a process for learning that
could be replicated. “internal conditions were described primarily as learners’ possession
of prerequisite knowledge and external conditions were viewed as instruction” (Ragan
and Smith, p. 629).
f. Mastery Learning: Cognitivists shifted from the behaviorist view of a predictable set of
outcomes. Instead, “Theorizing and modeling the mental structures and processes that
could explain behavior. The emphasis was on mental and cognitive models...to create and
or prescribe learning events that involve more complex behaviors such as problem solving
and decision making” (p. 60). Over time this leads to positive developments in Artificial
Intelligence, machine learning and “personalized” instructional design.
4. Criticisms and who made them
a. Cognitivism gave rise to a constructivist point of view. In that learning is a “construct of
their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing the world and
reflecting on those experiences”. (Harasin, 2017, p.62)
b. Cognitivism researches came to believe the behaviorists point of view as inadequate.
however, on further analysis and the passage of time, behaviorists have analyzed the
cognitivist point of view as failing to recognize the “the emotion challenge” (Overskeid,
2008) and the cognitive science failure to recognize emotion.
5. Major Contributors/their contributions/years of major contributions

Major
Year Contributions
Contributors

Piaget 1930s Stages of development—precursor to Cognitivists. Must

understand the mind, not just behavior. “Assimilation and
Accommodation” (Harasim, p. 52)

Toulmin 1948 Cognitive Maps (mediated by internal and external processes)

Robert Mills 1965 The Conditions of Learning

Gagné 1985 Nine events of instruction. “Put simply it is:
Tell ‘em what you’re gonna tell ‘em; tell ‘em; tell ‘em what you
told ‘em; then test ‘em.” According to Gagne, “It appears that
instruction must take into account a whole set of factors that
influence learning, and that collectively may be called the
‘conditions of learning’.” (Gagne, R.M., Briggs, L.J., &
Wagner, W.W., p. 9)

Ulric Neisser 1967 Publishes "Cognitive Psychology", which marks the official
beginning of the cognitive approach. Book: Cognitive
 Psychology, suggests that the human mind works similar to
computers.

Winn and 1996 Schema Theory: Schema as memory structure.

Snyder “...representation and structural knowledge” (Harasim)
Thorndyke, “network” “concepts that are linked together” graphic
Hayes-Roth organizers help this process.

Andy Clark 2001 Engineering perspective: Mind as a “processor of information”

Now—connects to Artificial Intelligence—programming
computers to model mental processes. Reaction to Behaviorism
by considering “what comes between” (Harasim, p. 49) stimulus
and response (beyond ‘mind is a black box/Pavlov’s dog.)
Instead cognitivists are focusing on the processes of the mind
(including prior experience, schema,etc.). Useful in Cognitive-
behavioral therapy. Identify a thought a person has (I am stupid)
and try to modify that thought by addressing current mental
processes. Also focuses on long term and short-term memory—
in learning. How do students learn? How do we develop lifelong
learning habits of mind?

6. Collective Team Position on Situations of Application

Applying Cognitivist principles in instructional design transformed what was primarily a
behaviorists’ stimulus-response learning environment into a learning experience that included a
consideration of the mental processes that occurred between stimulus and response. For example,
Cognitivists view the cognitive processes in the mind as a structure that interconnects prior
knowledge with new knowledge for improving learning. Therefore, instructional design should
create contexts that activate the learner’s prior knowledge on a subject, but also trigger new
interests by engaging learners in an authentic, problem-solving experience that requires learners
to interpret and develop new knowledge. The Cognitivist nine steps of instruction gives us a
framework to build instructional design.

Events of Instruction Examples of Instructional Strategies

1. Gain Attention Real world scenario; Story telling; Role Play

2. Informing the Learner Expectations and objectives are clearly stated;

of the Objective Inform learners what they can do with the knowledge and skills
they will learn

3. Stimulating Recall of Reflections; Answer questions; Ask students what they learned
Prior Learning from last class
 4. Presenting the Ask learners to solve a problem, such as creating a table,
Stimulus designing a game, synthesize multiple sources, presenting a
process or procedure, analyze a case study to recommend
solutions,

5. Providing Learning Step by step processes and opportunities to practice; Job aids
Guidance

6. Eliciting Performance Debates; Group presentations; Forum discussions; Project labs

7. Providing Feedback Immediate positive and constructive feedback

8. Assessing Pre and post reflection questions; Create checkpoints in project

Performance development (ie rough draft, outlines, prototypes); Quizzes

9. Enhancing Retention Repetition; Rehearsals; Realistic software simulations; Decision

and Transfer making cases that apply to real world scenarios

Designing the learning framework holds equal value to distributing the subject matter to
Cognitivists. With the implementation of new technologies, graphic organizers and visual
elements are examples that can be used in presentations to engage the learners in the e-learning
environment. Learners can construct graphs to illustrate certain information, develop
questionnaires to group or gather information, or create a pros and cons list.
As an instructor-centered theory, instruction is viewed as the transmission of information
and the instructor role is seen as the subject matter expert responsible for content design and
presenting the stimuli correctly and appropriately to elicit the correct behavior from the learner.
Cognitivism had limited emphasis on the participation and collaboration elements in design. To
ensure the efficiency of the transmission of knowledge and information, the educator and the
instructional designer should deliver learning products containing presentation, practice, posting,
production, and collaboration.
 Mapping Cognitive Science Against Learning Approaches

We are developing a rubric to use to compare to learning approaches such as your Capstone
project or to the evaluation of something as complex as a learning theory. If what the cognitive
scientists are saying is valid, then we as teachers and designers and theorists should be informed by
the findings of cognitive science. This draft is worked from the brain-based motivation
considerations and from Gredler, Schumann and the material on how the neurons and glia operate.
As part of this week’s Forum, you will be asked to comment and to add as you see fit. We are
creating knowledge here.

Accounted
For?
Y = Yes
Element of Motivation N= No Comments
NA = Not
Applicable
? = Cannot
Determine

Presentation
Material is relevant to needs and goals of the N Material is instructor-centered
learner transmission of information
to elicit correct
response/behavior from
learner.
Material and/or presentation/stimulus is ? Learning depends on forming
novel, is something new and associations (Schema theory)
interesting to the learner so new content is compared
to existing knowledge to give
content meaning which may
or may not be interesting to
the learner.
Presentation approach is intrinsically Y Learning relates to mental
pleasant/interesting/stimulating/ representations and is a
thought provoking dynamic structure which
changes as we learn new
information through
instruction and adapts to real
life experiences.
Wording, visuals, audio, language is Y Thinking uses symbol
manageable and useable to the systems, concept maps, or
receiving group or individual graphic organizers to assist in
learning and develop skills.
Presentation of the stimulus
through examples, a model, a
 reading, or directions in order
to acquire the information.

In terms of a theory, does the theory Y and N Schema theory considers

provide/consider the above? stimulation and assumes
material is intrinsically
thought provoking. Gagne’s
Theory of Instruction
considers how the stimulus is
presented. However, the
material is prescribed by the
instructor and does not
consider the learners
needs/goals or whether the
material is novel or
interesting to the learner.

Practice
Opportunities are provided to develop Y CIP
proficiency in application of the Human learner is viewed as a
skill, knowledge, ability or concept processor of information
where the mind comprises a
structure to store, retrieve,
transform, and use
information gained. This
provides an opportunity for
users to understand how their
gained skill or knowledge can
be processed.
Schema Theory
Learning is easier when new
material is connected and
added to the existing
knowledge. Learner develops
a stronger hold when s(he)
establishes a connection
between the prior knowledge
and newly gained knowledge.
Gagne’s Instructional
Design
The nine events of instruction
focus on developing,
retaining and applying
knowledge. The specific steps
that focus more to gain
proficiency would be
 Step 2: Informing Learner
about the objective
Step 5: Providing Learning
guidance
Step 6: Eliciting performance
Step 7: Providing Feedback
Step 9: Enhancing retention
and transfer

Practice opportunities appropriate to the Y Gagne’s instruction events

objective(s) are provided include informing learner of
the objective, stimulating
recall of prior knowledge,
providing stimulus for pattern
recognition, and providing
guidance and feedback to
improve the learner’s skills.

Intelligent Tutoring
Systems
ITS was primarily used for
facilitating the student to
learn by problem-solving.
Each problem was designed
to suit the learner’s
knowledge and needs.
Practice activities, to include repetition and Y Gagne’s instructional design
spiraling, are designed to develop focuses on providing
automaticity in responses and activities for long-term
learning. The step 9 focuses
execution if appropriate on several repetition and
iterations of activities for
knowledge retention.
Deleted/Redundant on automaticity Y Focuses on repetitive
activities and practice to
make actions of the learner as
automatic as possible and
retain in the long-term
memory.
Practice is relevant to needs and goals of the N Although Gagne’s
learner instructional theory step 2
informs the learners about the
objective, the focus of
practice was on the
processing of knowledge and
cognitive development of the
learners rather than relevance
 to needs of the learner.

Learner can see that skill/competency Y Stimulating recall of prior

acquisition is taking place learning by relating it to
something they have already
experienced. Assessing
performance via tests and/or
questionnaires.
Practice requirements are within or slightly Y Inform learners of the
above learner’s competency level objective (Expectancy) and
learning transfer will/should
occur.
Learner is able to perform practice Y Role playing can be used to
requirements. demonstrate how to use these
newly taught skills
Practice is designed to lead to correct Y Provide case studies and
response. analogies for knowledge
construction and metaphors to
support learning
Practice, while not necessarily pleasant, Y Providing feedback - allows
generates a feeling of for guidance by the instructor
accomplishment. to provide for positive
reinforcement
In terms of a theory, does the theory provide Y Provided for in cognitivism is
for practice? a model using varied learning
strategies, mnemonics and
role playing to stimulate
semantic encoding and
eliciting performance.

Production and Posting

What is produced is informed and scaffolded Y Problem Solving contexts
by practice—may even be concurrent encourage practice. Visual
with practice, i.e., repetitive practice organizers (such as this table)
are an example of this applied
may not be part of the learning task practice. “From the cognitive
such as writing a paper, but the perspective, structuring
writing is both practice and means supplying a framework
production at the same time. around a task in which
learners develop and test their
own understanding.”
Reflection on learning is
encouraged. “...cognitive
approaches consider the role
of unobservable mental states
and introspection, which are
 part of human behavior”
(Winn & Snyder, 1996).
Considering the how and the
why of learning are key
aspects of this practice.

Opportunity is provided to apply the skill, Y Primary to the theory is the

knowledge/ability or concept being role of authentic, scaffolded
learned learning. “Assessment
becomes integrated,
authentic, and inseparable
from activities themselves”
(Atkins, 1993 qtd in Deubel
(2003). Application from
Cognitivists’ perspective
include doing and reflecting
(rather Behaviorists’ recalling
and naming)
Production reinforces practice activities Y Applied learning and problem
solving are central to this
practice: “Learners may have
to find relevant information
for themselves from sources
provided. This complexity
requires more reflective
thought” (Atkins, 1993).
Metacognitive demands are
greater for loosely structured
learning environments than
for highly structured ones;
therefore, provide prompts
and self-check activities to
aid learners in monitoring
comprehension and adapting
individual learning strategies
(Park & Hannafm, 1993 Qtd
in Deubel (2003).
Whatever is produced by the learner is ? Maybe Cognitivists support this ID,
posted or provided to group for peer but do not require it: “For
view and learning cognitivists, tutoring involves
coaching and scaffolding at
appropriate times…
Assessment becomes
integrated, authentic, and
 inseparable from activities
themselves” (Atkins, 1993).

In terms of theory, does the theory cover or Y Cognitive ID approaches

require production or evidence of value meaningful learning
skill, knowledge, ability or concept and realistic contexts for
application of knowledge and
acquisition? skills (Atkins, 1993).
“Cognitivists emphasize the
motivating effect of learners
as problem solvers or
information seekers.
Emphasis is on intrinsic
feelings of success perceived
by learners who view their
learning as individually
worthwhile in return for their
effort” (Atkins, 1993).

Participation/Collaboration
There is opportunity for synchronous or N Cognitivist learning theory is
asynchronous review of posted instructor-centered, focused
products on individual’s learning.

Teacher and peer feedback promote a Y&N Based on Gagne’s nine events
Community of of instruction, providing
Practice/Wisdom/Knowledge feedback is one of the step for
promoting the transfer of
knowledge and information.
However, theory only
emphasizes the significance of
teacher providing feedback.

Teacher and cohort are able to see who is Y&N Teacher is the one who
contributing and how they are conduct assessment with
contributing to knowledge sharing various techniques and be able
to see learners’ performance
and contribution.

Variation in task readiness and ability to N Group efforts is not applicable

contribute is dealt with by group in the theory.
effort to meet goals
Virtual opportunities to meet and collaborate Y Instructor and students can
are provided for and if face to face meet online through virtual
meetings are not feasible and the technology such as virtual
conference call, but teacher
instruction is online or blended will be the only exporter of
knowledge. Collaboration is
not applicable.

In terms of theory, does the theory provide N Theory demonstrates learning

for collaboration? is the transmission of
knowledge and information
from instructor to students. It
only focuses on individual
learning.
 References

Cognitivism figure 1 as retrieved from:

http://teachinglearningresources.pbworks.com/w/page/31012664/Cognitivism

Deubel, P. (2003). An Investigation of Behaviorist and Cognitive Approaches to Instructional

Multimedia Design. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 12 (1), 63-90.

Harasim, L. (2017). Learning Theory and Online Technologies. 2d ed. Routledge: New York.

Ovweskeid, G. (2008) They should have thought about the consequences: the crisis of cognitivism

and a second chance for behavior analysis. The Psychological Record. 58, (131-151).

Retrieved from https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=tpr

Ulric Neisser (n.d.). Retrieved February 19, 2019 from the Ulric Neisser Wiki:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulric_Neisser