Chapter 2: The Transmission System

The Transmission system
Chapter 2: The Transmission system
In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain describes the main components that
generate power and deliver it to the road surface. This includes the engine,
clutch, transmission (gearbox/transaxle), drive shafts and the rear axle and
differential.
The engine is often referred to as the Power Unit. The clutch,

transmission, propeller shaft (drive shaft), final drive, differential and hub
combined together form the Transmission system.
Each of these components has their own critical function in the

transmission of drive from the engine to the road surface but the function of
any one component is always affected by the component connected to it.
For example, if the clutch is faulty, the gearbox will not be able to perform
its function.
ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 1

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should:
 Have sufficient knowledge of the function of all the components in a

transmission system
 Be able to understand the operational principles of the transmission
system components equipped on our vehicle models
 Have knowledge of the maintenance requirements of transmission
system components equipped on our vehicle models
 Understand the common faults that occur on transmission systems
and their corrections

The clutch
Introduction
Most clutches used in the modern motor vehicles are called friction
clutches. This means that they rely on the friction created between two
surfaces to transmit the drive from the engine to the gearbox. The clutch
fulfils a number of different tasks. The three main ones are:
 It connects/disconnects the drive between the engine and the

gearbox.
 It enables the drive to be taken up gradually and smoothly.
 It provides the vehicle with a temporary neutral.
The three main component parts of a clutch are:
 The driven plate, sometimes referred to as the clutch, centre, or

friction plate.
 The pressure plate, which comes complete with the clutch cover,
springs or diaphragm to provide the force to press the surfaces
together.

 The release bearing, which provides the bearing surface which, when
the driver operates the clutch pedal, disconnects the drive between
the engine and the gearbox.
Through the centre of the pressure plate the input shaft of the gearbox
(sometimes called the spigot, first motion or clutch shaft) is splined to the
middle of the driven plate. On the conventional vehicle layout it is located
on a bearing (called the spigot bearing) in the flywheel.
Coil-spring clutch
The driving members of the multi-spring clutch consist of a flywheel and

pressure plate (both made of cast iron) with the driven plate trapped
between. The pressure plate rotates with the flywheel, by means of
projections on it locating with slots in the clutch cover, which is bolted to the
flywheel. A series of springs located between the cover and the pressure
plate force the plate towards the flywheel, trapping the clutch plate between
the two driving surfaces. The primary (or input) shaft of the gearbox is
splined to the hub of the clutch disc and transmits the drive (called torque,
which means turning force) to the gearbox. The drive is disconnected by
withdrawing the pressure plate and this is achieved by the operation of the
release levers.

Diaphragm-spring clutch
The diaphragm-spring clutch is similar in many ways to the coil-spring type.

The spring pressure is provided by the diaphragm, which also acts as the
lever to move the pressure plate. On depressing the clutch pedal the
release lever is forced towards the flywheel, thus pulling the pressure plate
away from the flywheel. This type has a number of advantages over
the coil-spring type:
 It is much simpler and lighter in construction with fewer parts.

 It has a lighter hold-down pressure and is therefore easier to operate,
thus reducing driver fatigue.
 The clutch assembly is smaller and more compact.
 It provides almost constant pressure throughout the life of the driven
plate.
 Unlike the coil spring, the diaphragm spring is not affected by
centrifugal force at high engine speeds. It is also easier to balance.
One type of diaphragm spring, the strap drive, gives almost frictionless
movement of the pressure plate inside the clutch cover.

Friction plate construction
The important features incorporated in the design of a driven plate can best
be seen by considering the disadvantages of using a plane steel plate with
a lining riveted to each side. A number of serious problems would very
soon be encountered:
 Buckling of the plate can occur due to the heat that is generated
when the drive is taken up.
 The drive may not be disconnected completely (called clutch drag),
caused by the plate rubbing against the flywheel when the clutch
should be disconnected.
 Very small movement of the clutch pedal. The clutch is of the ‘in or
out’ type, with very little control over these two points. This may
cause a sudden take-up of the drive (called clutch judder).
To overcome these problems the plate is normally slotted or ‘set’ in such a

way as to produce a flexing action. Whilst disengaging, the driven plate will
tend to jump away from the flywheel and pressure plate to give a clean

break. Whilst in this position the linings will be held apart and air will flow
between them to take away the heat. During engagement, spring pressure
is spread over a greater range of pedal movement as the linings are
squeezed together. This gives easier control and smoother engagement. In
most cases the hub is mounted independently in the centre of the clutch
plate, allowing it to twist independently from the plate. To transmit the drive
to the plate either springs or rubber, bonded to the hub and plate, are used.
This flexible drive absorbs the torsional (twisting) shocks due to the engine
vibrations on clutch take-up, which could otherwise cause transmission
noise or rattle.
Friction plate materials
Coefficient of friction
This is the relationship between two surfaces rubbing together. On a clutch

both static and sliding friction are necessary. Sliding friction occurs when
the drive is being taken up and static friction when the clutch is fully
engaged.
Wear properties
This relates to the ability of a material to withstand wear. The surfaces of

the flywheel and pressure plate should not become scored or damaged due
to friction as the surfaces slide over each other. If they do become
damaged then any number of clutch faults could become apparent; under
these circumstances they would be replaced. A typical coefficient of friction
for a motor vehicle would be approximately 0.3.
Linings
These should have a high and stable coefficient of friction against the
flywheel and pressure plate surfaces over a wide a range of temperatures
and speeds. They should also have good wear resistance and not score or
cause thermal damage to any of the surfaces with which they are in contact
(e.g. flywheel or pressure plate).

Modern clutch lining materials
The use of asbestos in vehicle brake, clutch, and gasket components has
been prohibited since 1999, with the exception that pre-1973 vehicles could
continue to be fitted with asbestos-containing brake shoes until the end of
2004. It is possible that some old vehicles could contain asbestos and
sensible precautions should be observed when working on such vehicles.
But remember that all brake and clutch dust is potentially harmful, so:
 Never blow dust out of brake drums or clutch housings with an air line
 Use properly designed brake-cleaning equipment that prevents dust
escaping
 Use clean, wet rags to clean out drums or housings and dispose of
used rags in a plastic waste bag (HSE).
Operating mechanisms
The clutch release bearing is fitted to the clutch release fork. When the
clutch pedal is pressed down by the driver, pressure is exerted against the
diaphragm spring fingers by the release bearing forcing them towards the
flywheel; this action disengages the drive from the engine.
The pedal linkage may be either mechanical or hydraulic. It must be flexibly
mounted as the engine (which is mounted on rubbers) may move
independently of the body/chassis.

Hydraulic linkage
In this arrangement, oil is displaced by the movement of the piston in the

master cylinder to the slave cylinder to operate the release fork. The
reservoir on the master cylinder tops up the system as wear in
the clutch takes place.

Mechanical linkage
This operates on the principle of levers and rods or cable. The movement
ratio and force ratio can be arranged to give a large force acting on the
clutch, with a small force acting on the pedal.

Clutch booster
In heavy motor vehicles, a larger effort is required to operate the clutch.

Moreover, commercial vehicle drivers are subject to a lot of stress and
fatigue mainly when driving in heavy traffic.
The clutch booster is a device that assists when driver is operating the
clutch. It uses either air pressure or vacuum acting of a diaphragm to
multiply the driver’s input force on the pedal thus reducing the required
effort from him to operate the clutch.

Power transmitted by a clutch
The amount of power that can be transmitted by a clutch is dependent on

the torque that it can transmit, which is given by the following formula:
Torque transmitted by a friction clutch;
T=sxpxµxr
Where; s is the number of contact faces
p is the spring force
µ is the coefficient of friction
r is the mean radius of the lining

Multiple-plate clutches
In some applications, such as large vehicles, a twin-plate clutch may be

used to provide the extra torque capacity that is required. When two friction
plates are used the number of friction surfaces is increased to four and this
doubles the torque capacity for a given clutch diameter.
Clutch system maintenance
For the clutch to operate efficiently throughout the lifetime of the vehicle,
some attention is required during regular maintenance.
A specified amount of clearance is required between the moving parts in

the clutch activating mechanism. Owing to wear, the clearances may
increase and this increases the amount of free play in the clutch pedal. This
free play is critical to ensure that the clutch is fully disengaged when the
pedal is released but too much free play will prevent the clutch from
disengaging fully when the pedal is depressed. Below is the procedure for
adjusting clutch free play.

A worn clutch disc will reduce the clamping force from the pressure plate
(coil spring clutch) and cause the clutch to slip. If the problem is not

corrected, pressure plate and flywheel damage will occur due to

overheating and contact with the rivet heads.
Clutch fluid is the medium used to transfer the driver’s effort to the clutch.
No fluid = no clutch. Bad fluid = poor clutch.
At every service, the fluid level must be checked and any leakage must be
identified and repaired. If the level drops too low, air will be drawn into the
system. Clutch fluid contamination will reduce its efficiency causing clutch
disengagement issues.

 The fluid used must have a high boiling point and freezing point and
must not be corrosive to the clutch fluid line materials.
 Clutch fluid is hygroscopic (absorbs moisture). As water content
increases in the fluid, its boiling point decreases. This may cause the
fluid to vaporize at high operating temperatures and prevent the
clutch from functioning.
 Most manufacturers recommend changing clutch fluid at least once a
year. In countries with very humid climates, the interval can be
shorter.
Below is the procedure for renewing clutch fluid.

Whenever the clutch fluid line is opened for repairs or if the clutch fluid
reservoir becomes empty, air will be drawn in and trapped into the clutch
line. Air is compressible and will prevent hydraulic action. The trapped air
must be imperatively removed before new fluid is added. The procedure for
removing the air (bleeding) is explained above.

The transmission
Matching the engine with the road and driving conditions
When a vehicle first starts to move it requires extra pushing force to

overcome inertia; once moving the pushing force can be reduced. Extra
pushing force is needed when it becomes necessary to make the vehicle
go faster or to climb a hill. The pushing force is called the tractive effort and
it is applied at the point of contact between the driving wheels and the road
surface.
When the tractive effort (F) is multiplied by the radius (R) of the driving
wheel, the driving torque is obtained.
Unfortunately, the torque directly available from the engine is not always
strong enough for acceleration and hill climbing, and some means must be
employed to multiply the engine torque so that, by the time it reaches the

driving wheels, it is strong enough. One function of the gearbox and

transmission system is to provide a range of torque multipliers that enable
the engine to meet all the demands placed on it e these torque multipliers
are the gear ratios.
Gear Ratio
Imagine the pair of gears shown below to be replaced by a pair of levers

that are hinged at their centres.
The driver gear acts like a simple lever 10 cm long and the large driven
gear a lever 40 cm long. In this example the small driver gear exerts a force
of 1000 N on the large gear, which means that it is applying a torque of
1000 N x 0.10 m = 100 Nm to the large gear. The same force of 1000 N is
applied to the large gear, so the torque on the large gear = 1000 N x 0.40m
= 400 Nm. The torque of the large gear is four times as great as the torque
on the small gear. Now consider the movement that takes place when the
driver gear makes one complete revolution or a distance of 20 teeth.
Because its gear teeth are in mesh with the large gear the driven gear will
rotate by the same amount of 20 teeth, but 20 teeth of movement on the

driven gear amounts to 20/80 = one-quarter of a revolution. In terms of

revolutions the driven gear rotates one-quarter of the revolutions of the
driver. The gear ratio = number of teeth on driven gear ÷ number of teeth
on driver gear. In this case, the gear ratio = 80/20 = 4:1. In most cases in
motor vehicle practice the gear ratio acts as a torque multiplier and a speed
reducer. The exception is an overdrive gear.
Manual gearbox
In addition to providing a range of gear ratios to meet different driving

conditions, the gearbox must provide a permanent neutral and a reverse
gear. A basic manual gearbox is shown below. It meets these
requirements.
The sliding mesh gearbox shown is the manual gearbox in its oldest and
simplest form. It has three shafts:

- The primary shaft, which transmits the drive from the engine and
clutch to the gearbox - it is also called the first motion shaft and it
carries the gear that drives the lay shaft gears.
- The layshaft - the gears on the layshaft are connected together and
they are all driven at the same speed, by the first motion shaft gear.
- The mainshaft - this is splined so that the gears can slide along it.
When a gear ratio is required the required gear on the mainshaft is
moved along until it is engaged with the corresponding gear on the
layshaft. The gears are moved along the shaft by means of the
selector mechanism, which is operated by the gear lever.
The gearbox shown has three forward speeds. When the dog clutch is
engaged with the first motion shaft the drive is direct to the mainshaft - this
provides the third gear, which is also called top gear. The next gear ratio is
second gear; the mainshaft gear is moved along the shaft until it engages
with the second gear on the layshaft - at the same time, the dog clutch
disengages from top gear so that only one gear is engaged. When second
gear is disengaged and returned to its neutral position, first gear can be
engaged - first gear is also called bottom gear.
Considerable skill is required to drive a vehicle equipped with a sliding

mesh gearbox because it is difficult to slide the gears into mesh without
causing them to crash into each other e that is why they are sometimes
referred to as crash gearboxes.

Constant mesh and synchromesh gearbox
The constant mesh gearbox shown above overcomes the difficulty of

engaging sliding gears by using a dog clutch to connect the gears to the
mainshaft as they are required. The basic constant mesh gearbox is similar
in layout to the sliding mesh one, the main difference being that the gears
on the mainshaft are free to rotate on it. In between the mainshaft gears
are the dog clutches that are splined to it - when a particular gear ratio is
required, the appropriate dog clutch is moved along the mainshaft to
connect the gear to it.
Synchromesh
Synchromesh mechanisms of the type shown in below perform the same

function as the dog clutch in the constant mesh gearbox.

The main difference lies in the small cone clutch that is designed to match
the speed of the mainshaft to that of the mainshaft gear that is being
selected - when the speeds are the same (synchronized) the gear can be
connected to the shaft without any grating sounds. The synchromesh hub
is splined to the mainshaft and it moves axially along it when moved by the
gear selector mechanism. The springs and balls that are placed around the
circumference of the hub provide the load that controls the movement of
the sleeve across the hub. The inner edge of the selector ring contains the
dog teeth that engage with the corresponding ones on the gear that is
being selected. Initial movement of the synchromesh unit brings the
synchronizing cones into contact and this action synchronizes the speeds
of the two sets of dog teeth that are being engaged. Further movement of
the selector mechanism causes the sleeve to override the spring and ball to
achieve the fully engaged position - the unit remains in this position until
another gear is selected. When this type of synchromesh is used carefully it
provides a reliable method of achieving smooth gear changing; however, if

hurried gear changes are attempted a certain amount of clashing of the dog
teeth may result. The baulk ring type of synchromesh is a device that is
designed to overcome this difficulty and thus provide for faster gear
changes, where they are required.
Baulk ring synchromesh
The principal differences between the baulk-ring type of synchromesh and

the constant-load one are the baulking rings and the shifting plates. The
baulk rings and spring-loaded shifting plates are designed to prevent the
dog teeth from engaging until the two members that are being connected
are rotating at the same speed. Unlike the constant-load synchromesh, the
synchronizing cones (baulk rings) are separate from the hub and they can
rotate a few degrees relative to it. It is this feature that should ensure
synchronization at whatever speed of gear change is required.

Reverse gear
In addition to providing a range of gears for forward motion of the vehicle it

is necessary for the gearbox to provide a means of reversing, and this is
achieved by means of an additional gear called an idler that is interposed
between the mainshaft gear and the layshaft.
Gear selector Interlock mechanism
The selector forks that are attached to the selector shafts fit into the groove
on the synchromesh. When the gear lever is operated, the selector shaft
and fork move the synchromesh device into the required position.
Gear selector mechanisms are designed to prevent more than one gear at
a time being engaged and to prevent reverse gear being accidentally
engaged while the vehicle is moving forward. In order to engage another
gear when one is already in use, the selector mechanism returns to the

neutral position and reverse gear selection normally requires the gear lever
to be lifted, or depressed, when reverse gear is being selected.
The interlocking device shown above has two balls that rest in grooves in
the two outer selector shafts e the interlocking pin rests in a hole that is
drilled through the centre shaft. In the position where no gear is engaged,
any of the shafts can move. When a gear is selected the ball on that shaft
pushes on the interlock pin, which in turn pushes the other ball into the
groove on its shaft. The centre shaft and the upper one are then locked
until the other shaft returns to the central position.

Gear selector detent spring and ball
When a gear is selected the selector shaft pushes the ball out of the groove
against the spring. The additional pressure that is exerted on the ball and
shaft serves to prevent the gear from sliding out of engagement due to
vibration or other effect. Should the ball and groove wear, or the spring
break or become weak, the retaining function may fail and cause the
vehicle to ‘slip out of gear’.
Overdrive
Under certain driving conditions such as light load cruising speed it is

advantageous to let the engine run a little slower whilst maintaining a fairly
high speed. This can be achieved by making the gearbox output shaft
rotate faster than the input shaft. The device that achieves this is called an
overdrive and it can be fitted to the outside of the gearbox or, as is the case
in most modern gearboxes, it can be incorporated as a fifth gear in the
conventional four-speed gearbox.

The propeller shaft

Propshafts, with universal joints, are used on rear- or four-wheel drive
vehicles. They transmit drive from the gearbox output to the final drive in
the rear axle. Drive then continues through the final drive and differential,
via two half shafts to each rear wheel. A hollow steel tube is used as
propeller shaft. This is lightweight, but will still transfer considerable turning
forces and resist bending forces.
Universal joints
Universal joints allow for the movement of the rear axle with the
suspension, while the gearbox remains fixed. Two joints are used on most
systems and must always be aligned correctly.
U-joints cyclic variation
Because of the angle through which the drive is turned by U-Joints, a

speed variation results. This is caused because two arms of the U-Joint
rotate in one plane and two in another. The cross of the U-Joint, therefore,

has to change position twice on each revolution. This problem can be

overcome by making sure the two U-Joints are aligned correctly.
If the two U-Joints on a propshaft are aligned correctly, the variation in

speed caused by the first can be cancelled out by the second. However,
the angles through which the shaft works must be equal. The main body of
the propshaft will run with variable velocity but the output drive will be
constant.
Types of universal joints
The simplest and most common type of U-Joints consists of a four-point

cross, which is sometimes called a spider. Four needle roller bearings are
fitted, one on each arm of the cross. Two bearings are held in the driver
yoke and two in the driven yoke.

Several types of UJ have been used on vehicles. These developed from

the simple ‘Hooke’ type joint to the later cross-type, sometimes known as a
Hardy Spicer. Rubber joints are also used on some vehicles. A smoother
and less harsh drive is obtained by incorporating one or more rubber joints
in the transmission driveline. Three types of rubber joints in use include
moulton, layrub and doughnut.
The moulton type joint is based on a hooke type coupling. It uses moulded
rubber bushings for the transmission of drive between the trunnion and
yokes. These synthetic rubber mouldings require no lubrication and due to
high flexibility they damp the torsional shocks produced when the drive is
transmitted through an angle.
Thw layrub type joint, originally made by the Laycock company, was
constructed of a series of rubber bushings. It uses a number of moulded
rubber blocks, with specially shaped cavities at the ends. These blocks are
sandwiched between two steel pressings. Each shaft is connected by
means of a fork to alternate rubber blocks. This arrangement permits the

rubber blocks to deform making the drive possible for transmission through
a small angle. Also the blocks accommodate small axial and angular
movements for shaft length alteration and torsional damping. This coupling
is relatively large in diameter. The layrub type joint offers several
advantages, such as
(i) it does not require lubrication,

(ii) it is capable of driving through bump angles up to about 15 degrees,
(iii) it allows for axial movement, requiring no splining of the shaft,and
(iv) its resilience damps shocks and insulates vehicle from transmission
noise.
Although large in size, the great flexibility of the doughnut joint provides
soft cushioning. This absorbs the majority of torsional shocks generated by
the action of other joints or by vibration from either the engine or road
wheel. It is near-circular in shape and is moulded around cylindrical steel
inserts, which are bolted alternatively to the three-arm forks fixed to the
shafts. The merits of this coupling are similar to that of layrub joint.
Sliding joint
As the suspension moves up and down, the length of the driveline changes
slightly. As the rear wheels hit a bump, the axle moves upwards. This tends
to shorten the driveline. The splined sliding joint allows for this movement.
However, it will also transfer the rotational drive. Internal splines are used
on the propshaft so that the external surface is smooth. This allows an oil
seal to be fitted in to the gearbox output casing.

Centre bearing
When long propshafts are used, there is a danger of vibration. This is

because the weight of the propshaft can cause it to sag slightly and
therefore ‘whip’ as it rotates. Most centre bearings are standard ball
bearings mounted in rubber.
Constant velocity joints
On front-wheel drive cars, drive shafts with constant velocity (CV) joints
transmit drive from the output of the final drive and differential, to each front
wheel. They must also allow for suspension and steering movements.
A CV joint is a universal joint. However, it is constructed so that the output

rotational speed is the same as the input speed. The speed of rotation
remains constant even as the suspension and steering move the joint.
The inner and outer joints have to perform different tasks.

The inner joint has to plunge in and out, to take up the change in length as
the suspension moves. The outer joint has to allow suspension and
steering movement up to about 45°. A solid steel shaft transmits the drive.
When a normal U-Joint operates, the operating angle of the cross changes
as described above. This is what causes the speed variations. A CV joint
spider (or cross) operates in one plane because balls or rollers are free to
move in slots. The cross therefore bisects the driving and driven planes.
The rubber boot or gaiter keeps out dirt and water, and keeps in lubricant.
Usually, a graphite or molybdenum grease is used, but check the
manufacturer’s specifications to be sure.
Types of CV joints
There are a number of different types of CV joint. The most common is the
Rzeppa (pronounced reh-ZEP-ah).
The inner joint must allow for axial movement due to changes in length as
the suspension moves. It has six steel balls held in a cage between an
inner and outer race inside the joint housing. Each ball rides in its own track
on the inner and outer races. The tracks are manufactured into an arch
shape so that the balls stay in the mid-point at all times, ensuring that the
angle of the drive is bisected. This joint is used on the outer end of a
driveshaft and can handle steering angles of up to 45°.

The other common CV joint is the double offset joint, which is a variation of
the Rzeppa type.
The main difference is that the outer race has long straight tracks. This
allows a plunge (axial movement) of about 50 mm and a steering angle of
up to 24°. This makes it ideal as the inner joint on the driveshaft.
Driveshafts with CV joints are used on front-wheel drive vehicles. They

transmit drive from the differential to each front wheel. They must also
allow for suspension and steering movements. Inner joints must ‘plunge’ to
allow for changes in length of the shaft.
Propeller shaft maintenance



The final drive and differential
The final drive
The final drive holds two purposes: first to transmit the drive through an
angle of 90°, and second to provide a permanent gear reduction and
therefore a torque increase,
usually about 4:1 in most light
vehicles and 5:1 to 11:1 for
trucks and buses.
Several types of bevel gearing

have been used in the drive
between the pinion and the
crown wheel. These are the
straight bevel, the spiral bevel,
the hypoid bevel, and the worm
and wheel.
Straight bevel
The straight bevel (side picture)

is not designed for continuous

heavy-duty high-speed use as in the normal crown wheel and pinion. This
is because only one tooth is in mesh at any one time. The gearing is noisy
and suffers from a high rate of wear, but the design is the basis from which
the final drives are formed.
Spiral bevel
This has more than one tooth in the mesh at a time. It is quieter, smoother,
can operate at much higher loadings, and is used where the shaft operates
centre-line as the crown wheel.

Hypoid bevel
This is similar to the spiral bevel

in action but the shaft operates at
a lower level than the crown
wheel. This has the advantage of
the prop shaft being lower and
not intruding into the floor space
of the passenger compartment.
It is stronger and is the quietest

in operation. Extreme pressure
(EP) oil must be used as a
lubricant because of the frictional
forces and high loadings
generated between the gear
teeth (a disadvantage of this arrangement). The materials used in their
manufacture are a nickel-chrome alloy, which is carburized after machining
and case-hardened to give long life.
Double reduction drive

In the final drives shown previously, there is a single fixed gear reduction.
This is the only gear reduction in most automobiles and light-and
some medium-duty trucks between the drive shaft and the wheels.
Double-reduction final drives are used for heavy-duty trucks. With this
arrangement it is not necessary to have a large ring gear to get the
necessary gear reduction. The first gear reduction is obtained through a
pinion and ring gear as the single fixed gear reduction final drive. Referring
to figure above, notice that the secondary pinion is mounted on the primary
ring gear shaft. The second gear reduction is the result of
the secondary pinion which is rigidly attached to the primary ring gear,
driving a large helical or spur gear which is attached to the differential case.
Double-reduction final drives may be found on military design vehicles,
such as the 5-ton truck. Many commercially designed vehicles of this size
use a single-or double-reduction final drive with provisions for two speeds
to be incorporated.
Hub reduction
Another way of providing further gear reduction is by introducing an

additional set of gears at the wheel hub. An epicyclic gearset like the one
above is commonly used. A sun gear is fitted at the end of the drive shaft.
The axle tube carries an internal ring gear (annulus) at its end. A number of
planet gears attached to the hub runs between the sun gear and the ring

gear to provide gear reduction. This device is called the hub reduction. It
can be used with single speed or two speed rear axles. A typical hub
reduction ratio is between 3.5:1 and 7:1, giving a total driveline reduction of
around 300:1 on first gear with a single reduction final drive.
This implies that for a heavy duty truck with a 400 Nm engine on first gear
pulling at 2000 rpm will produce a wheel speed of 6.67 rpm and the pulling
torque of 12000 Nm.
Differential
The purpose of the differential is to allow the wheels to rotate at different

speeds, whilst still transmitting an equal turning force (torque) to both
wheels. The half-shafts are splined to the sun gear, the planets transmitting
the motion from one sun gear to the other when the vehicle is turning a
corner. When both drive shafts are travelling at the same speed, the planet
gears orbit (rotate) with the sun gears but do not rotate on their shafts. The
whole unit acts as a solid drive.
If one shaft is stopped, the planet

gears turn on their shafts, orbiting
round the stationary sun gear and
driving the other sun gear but twice
as fast. In the final drive the
differential is in a housing
(sometimes called a cage) to which
the crown wheel is bolted. When
the car is travelling in a straight line
the planet gears orbit, but do not
rotate on their shafts, and the unit
drives both half-shafts at the same
speed as the crown wheel and with
the same turning force.
When turning a corner, the sun gear on the inner half-shaft turns more
slowly than the crown wheel; the outer half-shaft, driven by the other sun

gear, turns correspondingly faster. The crown wheel turns at the average of
the half-shaft speeds.
Both the crown wheel and pinion are held in the housing by taper roller
bearings. The cross pin acts as the drive for and the shaft on which the
planet gears rotate.
Limited slip differential
A good way to understand the differential action is to consider the extreme

situation. This is when a corner is so sharp that the inner wheel would not
move at all! Although this is impossible, it can be simulated by jacking up
one wheel of the vehicle. All the drive is transferred to the free wheel. The
planets roll around the stationary sun wheel but drive the free wheel
because they are rotating on their shaft.
The previous extreme example highlights the problem with a differential. If

one of the driven wheels is stuck in the mud, all the drive is transferred to
that wheel and it normally spins. Of course, in this case, drive to the wheel
on the hard ground would be more useful. The solution to this problem is
the limited slip differential (LSD).

Some higher-performance vehicles use an LSD to improve traction. Clutch

plates, or similar, are connected to the two output shafts and can,
therefore, control the amount of slip. This can be used to counteract the
effect of one wheel losing traction when high power is applied.
Differential lock
Differential locks are used

on many off-road type
vehicles. A simple dog
clutch or similar device
prevents the differential
action. This allows far
better traction on slippery
surfaces. An electric,
hydraulic or pneumatic
mechanism is used to lock
the two output pinions
together.
This mechanism is usually activated manually by switch and, when

activated, both wheels will spin at the same speed. If one wheel ends up off
the ground, the other wheel will continue to spin at the same speed.

Servicing and adjustments

The rear axle

Purpose of the rear axle
The rear axle holds several purposes:
1. Contains the final drive and differential assembly

2. Contains the drive shafts transmitting
3. To transmit power from the drive shaft to the wheels
4. Support the weight of the vehicle
Types of Axles
Axles may be divided into two types, the live axle and the dead axle. The
difference is that a dead axle only supports the vehicle and its load,
whereas a live axle not only supports the vehicle and its load, but also
contains the drive.
Axle casings

Three main types of casings are in use:
1. Split casing.
These are formed in two halves and bolted together to contain the
final drive and differential. They are used more in heavy vehicle
applications as they are more rigid in construction and can withstand
heavy loads.
2. Banjo type casing.

Normally built up from steel pressings and welded together. The
crown wheel assembly is mounted in a malleable housing, which is
bolted to the axle. This is the most common type fitted to light
vehicles.
3. Carrier.
This is more rigid than the banjo casing. The final drive assembly is
mounted directly into the axle, and the axle tubes are pressed into the
central housing and welded into place. A cover is fitted to the rear of
the housing to allow for access and repair. It is used in off-road 4 x 4
and LGVs.
Rear hub bearings and axle shaft arrangements

Three layouts are now commonly used and are subjected to various forces
acting on the axle shaft - for example, twisting when accelerating or
braking, bending due to cornering and some of the load, and shear due to
the vertical load imposed on the axle shaft.
1. Semi floating axle

This hub arrangement is used on many small light vehicles. The road
wheel is attached to the half-shaft rather than the hub and the bearing
is fitted between the half-shaft and the axle casing. Therefore, if a
break should occur in the half-shaft inside the axle casing, the wheel
will tilt and very often become detached due to the lack of support at
the inner end of the half-shaft. The shearing point is positioned
between the shaft and the axle casing, and the shaft is subject to
shearing, bending, and twisting forces.
2. Three-quarter floating axle
Used on cars and light vans, the main difference is the position of the
bearing, now shown on the outside of the axle between the hub and
the outside of the axle casing. The casing therefore takes most of the
weight of the vehicle and its load. The shaft is still subject to twisting
and bending forces.
3. Fully-floating axle
In this arrangement the bearings (normally taper roller) are fitted
between the hub and the outside of the axle casing. In this way the
only force to which the axle shaft is subject is a twisting action.
Lubrication
To prevent oil from leaking between the shaft and housing, lip-type oil seals
are pressed into the housing. In some cases an oil slinger washer is
located just inside and next to the bearing to prevent flooding of the seal.
Pressure build-up due to temperature changes during operation is
prevented by a breather in the top of the axle casing.

Chapter 2: The Transmission System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 2: The Transmission System

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 2: The Transmission System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Transmission system

Chapter 2: The Transmission system

The engine is often referred to as the Power Unit. The clutch,

Each of these components has their own critical function in the

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 1

At the end of this chapter, you should:

 Have sufficient knowledge of the function of all the components in a

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 2

 It connects/disconnects the drive between the engine and the

The three main component parts of a clutch are:

 The driven plate, sometimes referred to as the clutch, centre, or

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 3

The driving members of the multi-spring clutch consist of a flywheel and

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 4

The diaphragm-spring clutch is similar in many ways to the coil-spring type.

 It is much simpler and lighter in construction with fewer parts.

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 5

Friction plate construction

To overcome these problems the plate is normally slotted or ‘set’ in such a

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 6

Friction plate materials

This is the relationship between two surfaces rubbing together. On a clutch

This relates to the ability of a material to withstand wear. The surfaces of

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 7

Modern clutch lining materials

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 8

In this arrangement, oil is displaced by the movement of the piston in the

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 9

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 10

In heavy motor vehicles, a larger effort is required to operate the clutch.

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 11

Power transmitted by a clutch

The amount of power that can be transmitted by a clutch is dependent on

Torque transmitted by a friction clutch;

Where; s is the number of contact faces

p is the spring force

µ is the coefficient of friction

r is the mean radius of the lining

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 12

In some applications, such as large vehicles, a twin-plate clutch may be

Clutch system maintenance

A specified amount of clearance is required between the moving parts in

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 13

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 14

corrected, pressure plate and flywheel damage will occur due to

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 15

Below is the procedure for renewing clutch fluid.

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 16

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 17

When a vehicle first starts to move it requires extra pushing force to

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 18

driving wheels, it is strong enough. One function of the gearbox and

Imagine the pair of gears shown below to be replaced by a pair of levers

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 19

driven gear amounts to 20/80 = one-quarter of a revolution. In terms of

In addition to providing a range of gear ratios to meet different driving

ABC Motors Co Ltd |DSD Technical Training 20

Considerable skill is required to drive a vehicle equipped with a sliding