2

Strains
Beyond
Elastic Limit
 Introduction
In our previous discussions of bending, we assumed that the
beams were made of materials that followed Hooke’s law
(linearly elastic materials).

This chapter covers:

a) the bending behaviour of elasto-plastic beams subjected to

different loading conditions.
b) the torsion of elasto-plastic shafts.

In both cases, the loading conditions are such that the material
used is strained beyond its elastic limit. When that happens, the
distribution of stresses is no longer linear but varies according
to the shape of the stress-strain curve.

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 ELASTICITY & ELASTIC LIMIT

Elasticity of a body is the property by virtue of which the body

regains its original size and shape when deformation forces are
removed.

If a component remains deformed (to a certain extent) when the

applied load is removed, it is said to have undergone plastic
deformation.

TENSILE TESTING

The mathematical relationship (Hooke’s law) between stress

and strain is derived on the basis of elastic behaviour of
material bodies.

Consider a standard mild steel specimen subjected to a

gradually increasing pull by a mechanical testing machine. The
typical stress-strain diagram for such a specimen is shown
below:

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STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS

The stress-strain
strain relationship for ductile materials may be
approximated by the idealized
idealize diagram shown below.

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Such a material is said to be strain-hardening; it does not
permit an increase in strain without an increase in stress.

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Idealized 1D Stress-Strain Relationships

In the ensuing discussion, we limit ourselves to linear-elastic,

perfectly plastic materials. The diagram is assumed to be valid
for both tension and compression.

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K.A. | MECH3001Y | Mechanics of Materials & Machines III — Page | 7
 YIELD MOMENT (OR MAXIMUM ELASTIC MOMENT)

Consider a beam made from an elasto-plastic material and

subjected to a bending moment M that causes bending in the
xy plane (refer to diagram).

Case 1 – Bending moment less than yield moment

Owing to the loading condition, the maximum stress in the

beam is less than the yield stress σY . Therefore the beam is in
the same condition as a beam in ordinary elastic bending with a
linear stress distribution (see figure below).

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Recall from the simple bending theory

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Under the loading conditions of case 1, the neutral axis passes
through the centroid of the cross section.

The normal stresses are obtained from the flexure formula

σ = − My
I

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Case 2 – Bending moment reaches yield point

The bending moment is now increased until the stress in the

beam at the point farthest from the neutral axis reaches the
yield stress σ Y , either in tension or in compression.

Bending moment MY in the beam when the maximum stress

just reaches the yield stress σ Y is given by:

MY = −σcY I

MY is the maximum bending moment that can be applied to the

beam without the onset of plastic deformation.

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 PLASTIC MOMENT AND NEUTRAL AXIS

When the bending moment is further increased above the yield

moment MY , the strains in the beam will continue to increase.

The maximum strain will exceed the yield strain ε Y . The

material under consideration follows a linearly-elastic, perfectly
plastic behaviour. Therefore, the maximum stress will remain
constant and equal to σ Y .

Plastic zones develop above and below an elastic core.

When the z-axis is not an axis of symmetry (as is the case

here), the neutral axis moves away from the centroid when the
yield moment is exceeded.

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If the cross section is symmetric both about the y-axis and the
z-axis (doubly symmetric), the neutral axis passes through the
centroid even when the yield moment is exceeded.

When the beam has reached its ultimate moment resisting

capacity, we can idealize the ultimate stress distribution as
consisting of two rectangular parts.

The bending moment corresponding to this idealized stress

distribution is called the plastic moment M P .

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 FINDING THE FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT (HINGE MOMENT)

Neutral axis (NA)

Whatever the state of a beam section (elastic, partially plastic

or fully plastic), equilibrium of forces must always be
maintained. For any section, the tensile forces on one side of
the NA must be equal to the compressive forces on the other
side

1. Let the z-axis

axis be the NA.
2. Points above NA are subjected to compressive stress
st σY .
3. Points below NA are subjected to tensile stress σ Y .

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It follows that since in fully plastic conditions the stress is
uniform and equal to the yield stress, the above equation
reduces to:

∑ (σ Y × area above NA) = ∑ (σ Y × area below NA)

σ Y × ∑ ( area above NA) = σ Y × ∑ ( area below NA)
∑ ( area above NA) = ∑ ( area below NA)
A1 = A2

In fully plastic conditions, the NA divides

the beam section into two equal areas.

Since the plastic moment M P is the moment resultant of the

stresses acting on the cross section, it can be found by
integrating over the cross sectional area A ( A = A1 + A2 ):

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 SHAPE FACTOR

The ratio of the plastic moment to the yield moment is solely a

function of the shape of the cross section and is called the
shape factor f .

MP
f=
MY

The shape factor is a measure of the reserve strength of the

beam after yielding first begins.

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 BEAM OF RECTANGULAR CROSS-SECTION

Consider a beam having a rectangular cross-section made of

an elastoplastic material.

1) Find the yield moment of the beam.

2) Find the plastic moment.

3) Determine the expression of the shape factor.

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4) Suppose that the beam is subjected to a bending moment
M , such that MY ≤ M ≤ M P .

5) Determine the value of the bending moment M .

6) Find the value of the elastic core.

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Problem 2.1 – Elastoplastic Bending
A T-section made of an elastoplastic material is subjected to a
bending moment M (refer to diagram). Calculate
a) the yield moment
b) the fully plastic moment
c) the shape factor

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Problem 2.2 – Elastoplastic Bending
A member of uniform rectangular cross
cross-section
50mm x 120mm is subjected to a bending moment
M=36.8 kN.m. Assuming the member is made of an
elastoplastic material with a yield strength of 240MPa and a
modulus of elasticity of 200GPa, determine
a) the thickness of the elastic core
b) the radius of curvature of the neutral surface.

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 RESIDUAL STRESSES

Experiments indicate that if a ductile material is loaded into the

plastic range , it unloads elastically following the path BC that is
approximately parallel to the initial elastic path OA.

For an idealized elastic-perfectly plastic material, this loading,

unloading, and reloading cycle can be modelled as shown.

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Magnitude and Distribution of Residual Stresses

The principal effect of unloading a material strained into the

plastic range is to create a permanent set, such as the strain
corresponding to OC .

The magnitude and distribution of the residual stresses may be

determined by superimposing the following two stress
distributions:

a) the stress distribution (partly or fully plastic) caused by the

given loading

b) the elastic stress distribution created by the unloading

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Problem 2.3 – Elastoplastic Bending – Residual Stresses
The
he bending moment in Problem 2.2 is decreased from its
maximum value of 36.8kN.m back to zero.
zero Determine
(a) the distribution of residual stresses in the member
(b) the radius of curvature

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K.A. | MECH3001Y | Mechanics of Materials & Machines III — Page | 24
K.A. | MECH3001Y | Mechanics of Materials & Machines III — Page | 25
Problem 2.4 – Elastoplastic Bending
Beam AB has been fabricated from a high-tensile
high tensile low-alloy
low
steel that is assumed to be elastoplastic with E = 200GPa and
σ Y = 350 MPa .
Neglecting the effect of fillets, determine the bending moment
M and the corresponding radius of curvature:
curvature
a) when yield first occurs
b) when the flanges have just become fully plastic

Determine
c) the residual stresses
d) the permanent radius of curvature
when the beam is unloaded from condition in (b)

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 PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS

Torsion analysis of circular bars stressed into the plastic range

is very similar to the analysis of beams subjected to bending.

Shaft Deformations

Consider a uniform bar which is subject to a torque T , e.g.

through the action of two forces F separated by distance d .
Torsion is the resultant twisting of the bar about its longitudinal
axis due to the applied torque.

For equilibrium there must be an equal magnitude torque

applied in the opposite sense at the other end of the bar.

The forces F are applied parallel (or tangential) to the end

surface of the bar. Therefore the force is termed a shear force.

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It follows that the system of stresses induced in the bar are
shear stresses.

Stresses arising from torsion are shear stresses and the

corresponding strain is shear strain.

Shear Angle & Angle of Twist

From observation, the angle of

twist θ of the shaft is proportional
to the applied torque and to the
shaft length.

When subjected to torsion, every

cross-section of a circular shaft
remains plane and undistorted.

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Derive an expression giving the relationship between the
shear angle γ and the angle of twist of the shaft.

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Within the elastic limit of the material, the shearing stress in the
shaft varies linearly with the distance from the axis of the shaft.

τ = Gγ ⇒ τ = cr τ max

Stress Distribution as a Function of Applied Torque

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The internal stresses within the shaft can be related to the
externally applied torque by using the principle
ple of static
equilibrium.

The net effect of the internal stresses caused by the externally

applied torque (T) must be equal to it in magnitude and
opposite in direction..

∫ r(τ dA) = T

τ =Tr
J
The angle of twist of a circular shaft can be given as a function
of the shaft’s geometrical properties (J, L), the constitutive

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material’s characteristics (G) and the externally applied torque
(T).

θ = TL
GJ

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Summary of Useful Equations

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Plastic Deformations

Linear dependence between shear strain and distance from

axis of shaft is a purely geometrical property and is valid
whatever the relationship between the stress and the strain
(linear or some other form).

γ = cr γ max

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 MAXIMUM ELASTIC TORQUE (OR LIMIT TORQUE)

The maximum elastic torque TY that can be applied to a solid or

hollow circular shaft is the limiting torque that can be applied
before the onset of plastic deformations. It is given by

T = Jc τ = 1 π c τ
Y Y
3
Y
2

The angle of twist corresponding to TY is given by

θ = Lcγ
Y
Y

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 BEYOND THE MAXIMUM ELASTIC TORQUE

If applied torque is increased beyond the maximum elastic

torque, a plastic region develops around an elastic core of
radius rY .

The stress distribution corresponding to that particular loading

condition is illustrated on the following drawing:

The stress distribution within the elastic core is given by

τ = τr r Y

The yielded portion of the shaft is subjected to a uniform stress

distribution (obtained from the shear stress shear strain curve
for the material used).

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Knowing the stress distributions in the elastic core and the
outer plastic zone, it is possible to find an expression giving the
externally applied torque in terms of the size of the elastic core.

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Using the principle of static equilibrium, derive an expression
giving the externally applied torque in terms of the internal
shear stresses and the radius of the elastic core.

As the value of the elastic core approaches zero, we obtain the

fully plastic torque.

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 RESIDUAL STRESSES

Plastic region develops in a shaft when subjected to a large

enough torque. When the torque is removed, the reduction of
stress and strain at each point takes place along a straight line
to a generally non-zero residual stress.

Residual stresses are found from the principle of superposition.

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Problem 2.5 – Elastoplastic Torsion
A solid steel shaft of 24mm diameter is so severely twisted that
only an 8mm diameter elastic core remains on the inside. If the
material properties can be idealized as “elastic/perfectly-plastic”
what residual stress and residual rotation will remain upon
release of the applied torque?
Let G=80GPa.

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Problem 2.6 – Elastoplastic Torsion
A hollow shaft of length 120cm, whose cross-section is shown
below, is subjected to a torsional moment T . The shaft is made
of steel, which is assumed to behave as an elastic-perfectly
plastic material with a yield stress τ Y = 180MPa . ( G = 90GPa )
Determine
a) the torque TY at first yielding
b) the relative rotation θ of the two ends when yielding first
takes place
c) the torque T when the radius rD of the interface separating
the elastic and the plastic zones is 30mm
d) the ultimate plastic torque TP
e) the unit angle of twist Θ as the shaft becomes fully plastic,
i.e., T = TP

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Problem 2.7 – Elastoplastic Torsion
(a) A circular shaft is subjected to a torque T . Define any
additional parameter(s) required and derive an expression
for the angle of twist of the shaft, as a function of the
applied torque.
(b) A shaft of radius 25mm transmits a torque of 20kN.m .
i) Calculate its rate of twist.
ii) Find the maximum residual stress on unloading the shaft.
iii) What is the residual rate of twist after unloading the shaft?
Take G = 103.5 GPa and τ Y = 689.5 MPa .

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Problem 2.8 – Elastoplastic bending
A beam of given cross-section (see figure) is made of an
elastic-perfectly plastic material for which the yield stress σ Y is
250MPa . Determine,
i) the maximum elastic moment
ii) the fully plastic moment
iii) the shape factor

The beam is unloaded from condition (ii). Determine the

distribution of residual stresses.

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