Programming

The Raspberry Pi 3: Getting Started With Python

—by UpSkill Learning

Copyright:

Copyright © 2016 by UpSkill Learning All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including
photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior
written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in
critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

Dedication:

Dedicated to the ones who look at the world from a different perspective, the ones who are
restless, the ones who strive for change, the ones who see things differently, the ones who
don’t accept the status quo, the ones who challenge current thinking patterns, the ones who
break down existing barriers, the ones who make the impossible possible, the ones who
build new things…..

Table Of Contents

Introduction - Embedded Systems & The Raspberry Pi

Moving Toward A Smarter Internet – The Internet Of Things

Understanding The Raspberry Pi

Versions & Features

Understanding The Raspberry Pi 3

The Raspberry Pi 3 – Hardware Setup

Operating Systems Required For Raspberry Pi 3

NOOBS for Raspberry Pi 3

Connecting The Raspberry Pi 3

Starting And Programming Raspberry Pi 3

General Purpose Input Output (GPIO)

Understanding And Accessing Python 3

Learn Python In Detail

Python – Features

Setting Up The Environment

Identifiers

Variables
Whitespaces

Comments
Strings

Types Of Operations
Data Types
Flow Of Control/Decision Making

Loops In Python

Functions

Modules
File Handling

Exception Handling

Classes In Python

Tips For Python Beginners

Understanding And Accessing Mathematica

Programming In Mathematica

Accessing Camera In Raspberry Pi 3

Raspberry Pi 3 – Getting Ahead With IOT

Conclusion - Sculpting Your Career In IOT

 Introduction
Embedded Systems & The Raspberry Pi

In the current world embedded systems play a vital role in day-to-day human life. The
world of Electronics has evolved from manual control to semi automatic and now we have
complete smart automations.

So what will be the next evolutionary step?

Today, we have complete automated systems that once programmed can work on their
own. Still there are few aspects in these systems that cannot be completely automated.
Here, the major deciding factors are human judgment and desire.

Let’s see an example; consider a system to control your room temperature - it can be
designed to maintain certain temperature but that certain temperature needs to be set by
user. It won’t be able to start itself prior you enter your room. You first need to enter the
room and then set the temperature.

So the next step in evolution is IOT. It would allow you to control your room temperature
from any place you are. You can setup your air conditioner when you are 15 minutes away
from your home. So that by the time you reach home your room temperature will be
already set at a degree you prefer.

There are many constraints come into picture while designing such advanced level of
system. The systems you design need to respond to minute changes i.e. it should be highly
responsive. Also the Speed of operation is a must; we, humans prefer our system to be
very fast. The system should not take a lot of time in processing the given request. Also
the system should be compact. Bulky systems are difficult to fit in whereas small ones are
always appreciated as they can be adjusted in any corner and give us freedom to choose its
place.

Power is one of the most critical considerations these days. If our system is battery
operated then power will be the highest priority in design considerations. So we need
systems that consume very low power.

As we’ve seen in the previous example, to control system remotely we need Connectivity.
Connectivity is nothing but the ability of a system to connect to other devices and Internet.
This can be achieved by Ethernet port on Pi and full network stack. We also need to
consider other peripherals like ADC, DAC, memory and GPIO.


This information is simply about automation but embedded systems have influence over
all aspects of our life from T.V. to Cars, from radio tower to satellite - nearly all our day to
day life is connected with embedded systems. With these vast application comes
variability.

Is it possible to classify all these systems under only one embedded system? No we can’t
do that. But we can classify according to use, size and application and many more
parameters. Hence embedded systems have been divided into many sub systems.

So remember that, First we need to classify our application under right embedded system
and then decide on its development and design process.

The above diagram shows a small possible division of embedded systems but this can be
further classified in many more ways like appliance systems, automobile embedded etc.
To develop any project its future development must also be kept in mind along with
present requirements. To develop systems many development boards are available in
market, Few examples are Arduino, Raspberry Pi etc.

What is a Raspberry Pi?

A Raspberry Pi is a credit-card sized computer originally designed for education, inspired
by the 1981 BBC Micro. Creator Eben Upton’s goal was to create a low-cost device that
would improve programming skills and hardware understanding at the pre-university
level. But thanks to its small size and accessible price, it was quickly adopted by tinkerers,
makers, and electronics enthusiasts for projects that require more than a basic
microcontroller (such as Arduino devices).

The Raspberry Pi is slower than a modern laptop or desktop but is still a complete Linux
computer and can provide all the expected abilities that implies, at a low-power
consumption level.

The main benefits of using the Raspberry Pi are:

1.) It’s small. You don’t need a computer desk or anything to place it.

2.) Its quiet. You don’t have to worry about noise at all.

3.) Want to learn about hardware + software integration? No problem, you can get an
Arduino setup with a Pi as well.

4.) Its cheap! Yes, you do need only a monitor and keyboard for initial setup.

We only have great things to say about the Raspberry Pi. To get started with your IOT
journey, buy a Raspberry Pi and read this book to understand more about Raspberry Pi.
 Moving Toward A Smarter Internet – The Internet Of Things

Imagine you are living in a world where millions and millions of objects has the super
power to sense, communicate and share information – all interconnected over public or
private Internet Protocol (IP) networks. These interconnected objects have data regularly
collected, analysed and used to initiate action, providing a wealth of intelligence for
planning, management and decision making - This is the world of the Internet of Things
(IOT).

The concept – IOT was coined in 1999 and it has currently become more relevant to the
practical world majorly because of the exponential growth in technology, medical devices,
embedded system, and cloud computing and data analytics.

From 1999 to till now, many visionaries have seized on the phrase “Internet of Things” to
refer to the general idea of things, especially everyday objects, that are readable,
recognisable, locatable, addressable, and/or controllable via the Internet, irrespective of
the communication means (whether via RFID, wireless LAN, wide- area networks, or
other means).


Everyday objects include not only the electronic devices we encounter or the products of
higher technological development such as vehicles and equipment but things that we do
not ordinarily think of as electronic at all - such as food, transportation, logistics and
clothing.

These day to day things of the practical world can be effortlessly integrated into the virtual
world facilitating anytime, anywhere connectivity. In 2010, the number of everyday
physical objects and devices connected to the Internet was around 12.5 billion. Cisco
forecasts that this figure is expected to double to 25 billion in 2015 as the number of more
smart devices per person increases, and to a further 50 billion by 2020

The technological innovation is leaping beyond measures. With more physical objects and
smart devices are getting connected in the Internet of Things landscape, the value and
impact IOT brings our life and business becomes more ubiquitous. Apart from catering to
the seamless operation of high end technology, IOT can benefit common people in their
day to day lives – using
IOT people can make better decisions like which route to take to work that day or which
restaurant to choose to have a romantic dinner. Right from security surveillance to health
care monitoring to smart homes to smart cities to agricultural automation to industrial
automation – IOT creates a bigger impact and makes lives easier.

For government, the convergence of data sources on shared networks improves nationwide
planning, promotes better coordination between agencies and facilitates quicker
responsiveness to emergencies and disasters. For businesses, IOT brings about tangible
business benefits from improved management and tracking of assets and products, new
business models and cost savings achieved through the optimisation of equipment and
resource usage.


Benefits of IOT:

The benefits of IOT are immense. In this practical world, you can integrate IOT into
anything according to your creativity and need. Be it business conglomerates or an
individual small home, the amount of benefit you can derive from IOT is enormous. IOT
is the hot topic in the industry as well as house-holds because of its huge technical
advancements and assistance in making our lives seamless and smarter.

Real time monitoring

The devices that are given Internet access will be updating their status or
condition periodically or on user request. This gives users the exact information of the
condition of that device at that instant which enables you to take necessary actions.

Real time data logging

In previous systems data used to be logged on to system either by taking manual

readings or through other wired protocol. But this limitation can be overcome by giving
the device to update its data over Internet.

Data analytics

The upcoming cloud technologies help to organize and present user data in very
descriptive and graphical ways like bar graphs, graphs, pie charts etc.

Remote monitoring

Any place that has Internet facility can be monitored from all over the world through
GPRS or Ethernet or wired connection.

Control based on actual situation’s data

Controls can be setup automatically on actual situation. Users can also give commands
on basis of data.

Process optimization

As the availability of data is time independent and location independent, work can be
optimized accordingly.

Simplicity to access

Controls are available through mobile devices. Even apps can be developed to give
users ease of access.

Applications of IOT:

IOT has a list of applications ranging from household things to heavy industrial
machinery. There is no end to the usage of IOT in technology, business and personal
lives.

Home automation

Household devices like fans, lights, air conditioners can be connected to internet thus
giving users access to their house hold devices from any part of the world.

 Industrial automation

Automation in industry is very critical, as there are harsh and unpleasant conditions for
human beings. Instead of following manual processes, when taking a step further with
automated control – by connecting the systems and controlling over the Internet, it gives
great control for the employer/manager and monitoring since you can monitor not only
from the company’s premise but from anywhere. This facilitates productivity and ensures
tasks/people can be monitored simultaneously.

Patient monitoring system

Patients can be given small devices that continuously monitor patient health and
updates report to hospital servers. Aged patients can be provided with tracking system to
monitor their whereabouts.

Vehicle management system

Most of people rent out their cars or have travel business, this system helps them
monitor things like time for which A/C was working, vehicle mileage from ECU, engine
and petrol status etc.

 Vehicle tracking system

Vehicles can be tracked by using GPS. This will give vehicles exact location on owner
or registered mobiles. This can be used as theft trackers.

Security system

Burglar alarm, break detectors fitted in house or shops can be connected to Internet.
This will give a high priority alert to owners and nearby police stations.

Agricultural automation

Agricultural fields can be fitted with various sensors like soil moisture, humidity
temperature and even water pumps can be connected to Internet. All this can be controlled
and monitored over Internet.

Vehicle security system

Vehicles can be fitted with security system that not only buzz alarm when unauthorized
person tries to unlock vehicle but also gives instant alert to owner’s mobile.

Emergency SOS beacon system

Incase of emergency a simple system implemented in vehicle, which on crash will

automatically broadcast its location and SOS message to the nearby police station and
hospital. The nearest hospital can respond to that message and help will be provided in
time.

Industrial safety system

As the SOS beacon industries can be implemented with a small system that will notify
fire brigade in case of fire.

Military monitoring system

Military applications can be very vast from soldier health monitoring system, armed
vehicle monitoring system to Tracking of solders, supply trucks, tanks etc. Automated
unmanned vehicles or Bots can also be controlled using IOT.

Understanding the Raspberry Pi

As discussed earlier in the introduction, to develop projects we need systems with many
peripherals like ADC, DAC, GPIO and UART etc as per our requirement. But when we
are developing we must test it on certain assured development devices like development
boards. Once we have complete assurance of our working project we can move for
development of self designed boards.

Logo of Raspberry Pi

One such board is Raspberry Pi. Raspberry Pi boards are credit card sized single board
computers developed by Raspberry Pi Foundation in United Kingdom. Raspberry Pi was
launched with intention to encourage teaching computer basics in schools and developing
countries.

Many versions of raspberry Pi are available in the market for more than 4 years and have
continuously been evolving. The first version i.e. first generation Pi 1 was released in
February 2013. This version was launched with two models A and B. But a year later A+
and B+ models were launched.

Later on in February of 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 was launched and a year later i.e. February
2016 Raspberry pi 3 was launched.

Pi zero which was almost half the size of Pi 2 was launched in November 2015 with
smaller footprint and less GPIO.

Graphic image of Pi zero

The lower specification version of Raspberry Pi is the Module A. It has 256 MB of RAM,
a single USB port but no port for Ethernet

Model B is a variant with higher specification of Raspberry Pi 1. It has 512 MB of RAM,

two USB Ports and additional 100mb Ethernet port.

Later on in November 2014, a bit more advance version of Raspberry Pi 1model A was
launched as Model A+.

This version compared to Model A had 14 more GPIO pins header. So it has GPIO header
of 40 pins whereas previous version had 26 pins. SD card socket was upgraded to push-
push micro SD version. Reduced power consumption by 0.5W to 1W compared to
previous model. A dedicated low noise power supply was incorporated in audio circuit.

Final version of first series was Model B+. In addition to features from model B it has 2
more USB compared to model B. thus model B+ has total of 4 USB 2.0 ports. It also
provided better over-current behaviour. It has all the features from Model A+ i.e. 40
GPIO, better socket for SD card, lower power consumption and better audio.

Raspberry Pi 2 B replaced the Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+ completely. Because of its

advanced features and complete backward compatibility, it’s easily adapted in electronics
market.

Raspberry Pi 2 B has the following major features:

A 900 MHz quad core ARM cortex A-7 CPU

1GB of RAM

Because of its ARM 7 processor it can host all the ARM GNU/Linux distributions
including Snappy Ubuntu and Windows 10.

Apart from these it has other features as noted bellow:

4 USB port
40 GPIO
Full HDMI port
Ethernet Port
Camera interface
Display interface
Micro SD card slot
Video Core IV 25 graphics core

 Understanding The Raspberry Pi 3

In February 2016 Raspberry Pi 3 replaced all the previous models of Raspberry Pi. It has
the features of:

A 1.2 GHz 64 bit quad core ARMv8 CPU
802.11n Wireless LAN
Bluetooth 4.1
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

The above image is Raspberry Pi 3 B

Like Raspberry Pi 2 it has:

4 USB port
40 GPIO
Full HDMI port
Ethernet Port
Camera interface
Display interface
Micro SD card slot
Video Core IV 25 graphics core



The Raspberry Pi 3 – Hardware Setup

Raspberry Pi 3 provides best platform to develop any embedded system. Due to its vast
features it can be used for any project. But before we get started with Raspberry Pi 3, we
need to configure and get a few things ready.

Following is the hardware requirements:

Min 8GB micro SD card for Pi 3 and other models SD card.

(Please verify your Pi model and accordingly get your card)

(If possible get NOOBS pre installed Card. Or still we can manage by downloading
NOOBS)

HDMI cable (or DVI Cable as per your display)

HDMI cable is used to connect your Raspberry Pi with display.


T.V. or Monitor with HDMI or DVI support

Make sure the display you choose supports either of the two but prefer HDMI.

HDMI is easily available and these days every T.V. has HDMI feature. You need not buy
new HDMI cable you can use your set top box HDMI cable if it has HDMI interface.

Any standard USB keyboard and Mouse

Mouse and key board are basic input devices. Raspberry Pi is also a small on board
computer and thus requires these basic input output devices. Use standard USB Keyboard
and Mouse.

A stable 5V micro USB power supply

See the specifications on Raspberry Pi and accordingly select your power supply. It must
that you choose a good quality power supply. Power supplies are critical part of any
system. Small fluctuations in power output may make Raspberry Pi misbehave. Bad
quality power supply may even damage your Raspberry Pi.

Ethernet cable*


To give raspberry Pi internet connectivity you must connect Ethernet cable in RJ45
jack.

Last but the most important part is Raspberry Pi 3….!!!

 Operating Systems Required For Raspberry Pi 3

Raspberry Pi 3 is a mini computer. And we all know that computers need operating system
(OS). Without OS they cannot operate at all. Raspberry Pi does require OS. There are a
variety of OS that can be loaded in Raspberry Pi.

The above image shows the variety of OS that can installed on Raspberry Pi they comprise
of

UBUNTU
SNAPPY
WINDOWS 10 IOT CORE
OSMC
LIBREELEC
PINET
RISC OS
WEATHER STATION

But RASPBIAN is the foundations official supported Operating system. It comes with
preloaded Python, Scratch, Sonic Pi, Java, Mathematica and many others.


Raspbian is based on Debian Jessie. It’s a free operating system optimized for Raspberry
Pi hardware. It is a set of utilities that make your Pi work.

Raspberry comes with 35,000 packages, pre-compiled software bundled in a format easy
to install on Pi. Hence we will go with Raspbian.

 NOOBS for Raspberry Pi 3

To download OS recommended way is to use NOOBS. NOOBS stands for New Out of
Box Software. NOOBS is OS install manager that helps you install any OS without any
worry.

To download NOOBS you have to perform following task. But you can also purchase SD
cards with pre installed NOOBS.

Step 1

Format your micro SD card using software provided by SD association.

The software provide by SD card association cleans up your SD card properly. To

download that software click following Link

https://www.sdcard.org/

Click on the download section on this website.

As per your system, download suitable application i.e. either for windows or Mac.

When you click on you link the webpage will get directed to new page. The new page
shows the End User License Agreement.

If you wish you can go through it and at the end of the page you will find Accept Button




When you click on the Accept button, software downloading will start. Save the zip file in
known directory.

It won’t take too long to download this software, this is roughly 6 Mb software. After
downloading is completed, insert the SD card in your PC or Laptop in SD card slot.

But we are using a micro SD card. So first we have to use the SD card converter.


When you enter SD card, note down the drive name e.g. /I:

Now open the Zip file from SD card formatter and install using double clicking the setup.

It is very simple installation process just follow their instructions.

Now just check whether proper drive is selected. Now in options select and choose FULL
(Erase option) and click on Format.

Now we have completed our proper formatting of SD card.

Step 2

Downloading NOOBS

To download NOOBS click on the below link

https://www.raspberrypi.org/downloads/



You can directly click on RASPBIAN but we advise you to prefer NOOBS.

Click on the NOOBS image and the following webpage will be shown.

We will go for the offline and network install. This might be heavy file but better to
download on PC instead on Raspberry Pi. Hence go for this mode.

NOOBS LITE does not contain any OS image but it will download runtime. Whereas
regular NOOBS has pre installed image of RASPBIAN OS. It may be of size more than
1.40 GB.

After the download finishes extract the zip in known location and then copy extracted files
in SD card.

We are ready to use the OS now.


Connecting The Raspberry Pi 3

Previously we have seen a huge list of hardware requirements for connecting Raspberry Pi
3. Note that the hardware needs to be connected properly to ensure accurate working of
our system. We will go step by step in connecting the hardware.

HDMI cable:

HDMI cable must be connected to T.V. or display and raspberry Pi in proper HDMI port

Ensure that your display or T.V you have selected proper port. Then select software based
display in menu from your T.V e.g. HDMI 1 etc.

Keyboard and Mouse:

Keyboard and mouse have USB connectivity hence needs to be connected to USB port of
the Raspberry Pi module. The following diagram shows the connections.

Be sure NOT to connect power supply yet.

The following image shows the ports on Raspberry Pi

After all the connections are made, connect the power supply.

 Starting And Programming Raspberry Pi 3

When you turn on the power, first the logo of Raspberry Pi will be displayed. Soon a
window of NOOBS will be launched.

This window will have many operating Systems. Select Raspbian and click install.

After you click on install a small process bar will come up as shown in image. This will
take a lot of time!!

Meanwhile you can keep reading some tips and commands displayed above the progress
bar.

Now the process is completed. Click OK

Once you click Ok, Raspbian will start loading.

It will look something similar to following image

This will be the first time that you have booted operating systems in Raspberry Pi. Like
our regular operating system we need to configure the OS. To do so Raspbian itself
launches configure window.

Select your time zone and geographic area appropriately since this will set the time in your
system.

When you have completed all the settings then click on finish.

As soon as you click on finish you will see the following screen.

After you see this screen type Startx and press enter on your keyboard.

This will then load the GUI for Raspbian

And you will see the following screen.

Note: User name is pi and password is raspberry but when you type it, you will find
nothing getting printed on the screen. This is due to LINUX features for security purpose.

There we go… our OS is ready and we are all set to do cool stuff using Raspberry Pi.


General Purpose Input Output (GPIO)

One of the major game changing features of our mini-computer Raspberry Pi is GPIO.

Why are the GPIO game changers?

Our regular computers are indeed advance but to communicate or controlling external
devices or single inputs they need to go through some standard communication protocols.

Example: If you want to control a fan or light using a transistor switch you must either
interface using USB or Ethernet. In this scenario, end-device also need separate controller
or smart device to communicate in this form.

But in case of Raspberry Pi we need not do all these stuff. You can simply connect your
circuits to its GPIO. So this makes it a game changer.

GPIO are pins that provide physical interface between the Pi and the environment. In
layman’s language they can be considered as switches that you can control (input) or Pi
can control them to make something work (output).

We know that we have a total of 40 pins on our Raspberry Pi 3, out of which 26 are GPIO.
But at a beginner level, you just move around GPIO. Do not play with other pins.

If you try to connect things to your Pi that use a lot of power; LEDs are fine, motors are
not. If you are worried about this, then you might want to consider using a breakout board
such as the Pibrella until you are confident enough to use the GPIO directly. T

here are ways by which you can connect heavy devices directly e.g. using transistors or
relays etc.

Raspberry pi can act collectively as switch and D.C source but generally prefer using
Raspberry Pi as sink rather than source. This is a healthy practice in embedded system
development. This is just to avoid excess current drain from Pi.

GPIO outputs are easy; they are on or off, HIGH or LOW, 3v3 or 0v. Inputs are a bit
trickier because of the way the digital devices work.

Although it might seem reasonable just to connect a button across an input pin and a
ground pin, the Pi can get confused as to whether the button is on or off. It might work
properly, it might not. It’s a bit like floating around in deep space; without a reference it
would be hard to tell if you were going up or down, or even what up or down meant!

This is why you will see phrases like “pull up” and “pull down” in Raspberry Pi GPIO
tutorials. It’s a way of giving the input pin a reference so it knows for certain when an
input is received.

GPIO NUMBERING

The numbers don’t make any sense to humans; they jump about all over the place, so there
is no easy way to remember them.

You will need a printed reference or a reference board that fits over the pins. But we have
a way out i.e. physical numbering.

PHYSICAL NUMBERING

The other way to refer to the pins is by simply counting across and down from pin 1 at the
top left (nearest to the SD card). This is ‘physical numbering’ and it looks like follows:



Understanding And Accessing Python 3

Python is very easy yet very powerful programming language. This helps programmers as
well as non programmers do programming with ease.

Python has highly readable syntax and does make it easy to interpret the program.

To start with python let’s first start with Python IDLE.

To launch IDLE click on menu at the left most corner of your Raspbian screen.

A drop down menu will appear, click on programming.

A new menu will extend sideways.

Now you will see Python 3. Click on it.

IDLE gives you a REPL (Read-Evaluate-Print-Loop) which is a prompt you can enter
Python commands in to.

In every language we always start with the “hello world” program for Python we will be
doing the same. Now syntax to print anything is as follows:

Printing
Syntax:
 print(“your text here”)

Program:

Print(“hello world”)
So the above single line will print hello world.

Next we do is calculations but we use REPL so we have simple ways for doing so

Calculations
To add to numbers just enter as follows

>>>>20+30

And press enter you will get response

>>>>50

Variables

The next major thing we will be doing in Python is variables. In python like other
languages it is not need to write the types of variables. Just simply write variable name
and type will be assigned dynamically.

Example:

City = “Delhi”

Distance = 100

LISTS
Python also has lists (called arrays in some languages) which are collections of data of any
type:

Example:
numbers = [1, 2, 3]

Lists are denoted by the use of square brackets [] and each item is separated by a comma.

For loop

For lops are very import to do certain task many times. It will execute certain commands
for certain times.

Syntax:

for i in range(5)

print(“hi”)
This will execute the print statement for 5 times as we have denoted i to range 5.

INDENTATION

If you are familiar with any other programming languages, many languages use curly
braces { } to wrap around lines of code which belong together, and leave it to the writer to
indent these lines to appear visually nested. However, Python does not use curly braces
but instead requires indentation for nesting. For example for loop in Python:

for i in range(10):
print(“Hello”)
The indentation is necessary here. A second line indented would be a part of the loop, and
a second line not indented would be outside of the loop. For example:

for i in range(2):
print(“A”)

print(“B”)

whereas the following:

for i in range(2):

print(“A”)

print(“B”)

would print:

A
B

ITERATION
Some data types are iterable, which means you can loop over the values they contain. For
example a list:

numbers = [1, 2, 3]

for number in numbers:

 print(number)

This takes each item in the list numbers and prints out the item:

Note we used the word number to denote each item. This is merely the word we chose for
this - it’s recommended you choose descriptive words for variables - using plurals for lists,
and singular for each item makes sense. It makes it easier to understand when reading.
Other data types are iterable, for example the string:

emotion = “HAPPY”

for char in emotion:

print(char)

This loops over each character and prints them out:

A
P

P
Y

RANGE

The integer data type is not iterable and tryng to iterate over it will produce an error. For
example:
for i in 3:
 print(i)

will produce:

TypeError: ‘int’ object is not iterable

However you can make an iterable object using the range function:

for i in range(3):

print(i)

range(5) contains the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 (five numbers in total). To get the
numbers 1 to 5 use range(1, 6).

IF STATEMENTS

You can use if statements for control flow:

name = “Joe”

if len(name) > 3:
print(“Nice name,”)

print(name)
else:

print(“That’s a short name,”)

print(name)

Strings

Generally strings are difficult to use in many programming languages but in Python this is
not the case. To write a string just assign a name and write string in double quotes

E.g.
City = “Mumbai”

To print appended string just use

“hello”+ city

This will print

hello Mumbai

LENGTH

You can use functions like len to find the length of a string or a list:

name = “JohnSnow”
print(len(name)) # 8

names = [“lanister”, “stark”, “tyrel”, “targerian”]
print(len(names)) # 4

PYTHON FILES IN IDLE

To create a Python file in IDLE, click File > New File and you’ll be given a blank
window. This is an empty file, not a Python prompt. You write a Python file in this
window, save it, then run it and you’ll see the output in the other window.

For example, in the new window, type:

n = 0

for i in range(1, 101):

n += i

print(“The sum of the numbers 1 to 100 is:”)

print(n)

Then save this file (File > Save or Ctrl + S) and run (Run > Run Module or hit F5) and
you’ll see the output in your original Python window.

EXECUTING PYTHON FILES FROM THE COMMAND LINE

You can write a Python file in a standard editor like Vim, Nano or LeafPad, and run it as a
Python script from the command line but make sure that you save it as .py.

Just navigate to the directory where the file is saved (use cd and ls for guidance) and run
with python, e.g.python hello.py.



Learn Python In Detail

Python is a high-level language. Python is interpreted, interactive and also object oriented
scripting language. Python was designed to be highly reusable which uses English
keywords frequently. It also uses almost same punctuations which are used in the most
programming languages and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages.

• Python is interpreted: This means that it is processed at runtime by the interpreter and
you do not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and
PHP.

• Python is Interactive: This means that you can actually sit at a Python prompt and
interact with the interpreter directly to write your programs.

• Python is a Beginner’s Language: Python is a great language for the beginner
programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications from simple
text processing to WWW browsers to games.

So far Python is matured with two major versions; they are Python 2.x and Python 3.x.
While getting started, you may get confused which language to use for learning and
developing an application. To put it in nutshell, Python 2.x is legacy and Python 3.x is
future. Whichever version you opt to learn or use, it is upto you because both are almost
same programmatically.

The last Python 2.x version was Python 2.7 released in mid-2010 but quickly after that
Python officially stopped support for that version.

History Of Python:

Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties at the
National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.

Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C, C++, Algol-
68, SmallTalk and UNIX shell and other scripting languages. Python is copyrighted. Like
Perl, Python source code is now available under the GNU General Public License
(GPL). Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although
Guido van Rossum still holds a vital role in directing its progress.

Python – Features

Python’s feature highlights include:

• Easy-to-learn: Python has relatively few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly
defined syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language in a relatively short period
of time.

• Easy-to-read: Python code is much more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.
Structure of codes is easy to understand and implement.

• Easy-to-maintain: Python’s success is that its source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.

• A broad standard library: One of Python’s greatest strengths is, the bulk of the library
is portable and importantly cross-platform compatibility on UNIX, Windows and
Macintosh.

• Interactive Mode: Support for an interactive mode in which you can enter results from
a terminal right to the language, allowing interactive testing and debugging of snippets of
code.

• Portable: Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same
interface on all platforms.

• Extendable: You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These modules
enable programmers to add or customize their tools to be more efficient.

• Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

• GUI Programming: Python supports GUI applications that can be created and ported to
many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows MFC, Macintosh and
the X Window system of UNIX.

• Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than shell
scripting.

Python has some special silent features:

• Support for functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large
applications.

• Very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.

• Supports automatic garbage collection.

• It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA and Java.

“Jython is the java implementation of python programming language. But it is
frequently called as JPython. The most popular one is the C implementation of Python.
You can call it CPython or Python.”

If you are trying to learn Python, we presume that you are already familiar with JAVA
or C programming. If you are accustomed to Java / C programming, then you know the
pain of leaving a semi-colon “;” at the end of the line. It is the programmer’s nightmare
and remember that IDE also won’t put the semicolon automatically at the end of line. If
you had this experience frequently, then Python is a boon for you.

We’ve seen the complete history and introduction for Python in the previous chapters, now
we will move to setting up the environment for Python.
 Setting Up The Environment

Python is an interpreted, object-oriented, high-level programming language and it is a
great place for beginners to start learning how to program. Python comes installed on
Macs and with Linux, but you’ll need to install it yourself if you’re using Windows. If
you’re using Mac or Linux computer, you can install the latest version to ensure you have
access to the latest features.

FOR WINDOWS:

To download the setup file, you need to go to the following link.,

https://www.python.org/downloads/
From this website, You can download every detail pertaining to Python - like codes,
snippets, plug-ins and you can read blog articles and documents related to python.

STEP 1:

Once you open this website, it automatically detects that you are using windows and it
will go to the links of windows installer.

STEP 2:

As we’ve already discussed that there are two major versions of python, you can
download any version to engage with it. Currently available versions of Python are: 3.x.x
and 2.7.10. Python’s both versions are available to download, but we advise new users to
choose the 3.x.x version. Download the 2.7.10 if you are going to be working with legacy

Python code or with programs and libraries that haven’t adopted 3.x.x yet.

STEP 3:

Now you have to run the installer, clicking the button for the version you want. Run this
installer after it has finished downloading. Make sure you have checked the “ADD
PYTHON 3.5 TO PATH” button before proceeding. By checking this you can run python
through command prompt itself.


STEP 4:

Now click install. This will install Python with all of its default settings, which should
be fine for most users. If you want to disable certain functions, change the installation
directory, or install the debugger, click “Customize installation” instead and then check or
uncheck the boxes.

STEP 5:

It’s always good to check whether all went correctly, as a programmer it is the important
characteristic you need to have. To verify Python is installed and working correctly, open
the newly-installed interpreter. Click the Start button and type “python” to quickly open it.
You will get something like this.

Python will open to a command line. Type the following command and press ↵ Enter to
display “Hello world!” on the screen:
print(‘Hello world!’)

Open the IDLE development environment. Python comes with a development
environment called IDLE. This allows you to run, test, and debug scripts. You can quickly
launch IDLE by opening the Start menu and searching for “idle”.

Now we are done! You are ready to start exploring the world of programming with
Python.


FOR MAC:

Ste 1 and 2 are same as above (like windows).

STEP 3:

Visit www.python.org/download website and it will automatically detects that you are
using Mac OS or else just select the “Mac OS X” link.

STEP 4:


Double-click the downloaded PKG file to start installing Python. Follow the prompts to
install Python. We recommend using the default settings.

STEP 5:

Launch Python in the terminal. To verify the installation went correctly launch the
terminal and type python3. This should start the Python 3.x.x interface, and display the
version.


STEP 6:

Open the IDLE development environment. This program allows you to write and test
Python scripts. You can find it in the Applications folder.

STEP 7:

Try out a test script. IDLE will open an environment similar to a terminal screen. Type the
following command and press ↵ Enter to display “Hello world!”:

print(‘Hello world!’)
Now everything is set. Its time for your experimentation with python!

TEXT EDITOR:

Python shell is being used as a text editor for python. Python Shell is an in-bulit feature
available in the python package but for a beginner we recommand Notepad++ text editor.

You can download it the below link:

https://notepad-plus-plus.org/download/v6.9.2.html

To run python program, we need to set the path and select .bat or .py ile in python
package. To select that follow the following steps.

Step 1:

After typing the program save it and press f5 key or click Run in menu bar.
A small dialog box will appear as shown below:


Step 2:
Now click the … button. Open dialog box will appear.

Step 3:

Go to the python folder in the program files under C drive or the file location you select
while installing the python in your computer.

After opening the python file (name will be with python versions), click Lib folder.
Under Lib folder you will find the folder name idlelib, click that.


We recommand you to try both and fix the one with which you are comfortable. There is
also idle.pyw i.e python file(no console) don’t select that.

Now click Open button.

Step 4:

Once you selected the Open Button, it will look as shown below:

If you save it and run the program, it will run and open python shell but you may need to
again do the program coding there or had to paste. It is a double task, to avoid that add the
following text along the address.

-r”$(FULL_CURRENT_PATH)”

“C:\Program Files\Python35-32\Lib\idlelib\idle.bat” -
r”$(FULL_CURRENT_PATH)”

The above one is the address path in our system, it may vary in yours.

We recommend you to use idle.bat file because it is handy and comfortable compared to
the idle.py

 Identifiers

If you have experience with programming then you should be familiar with Identifies. It is
the same in Python too.

Python identifiers is the name used to identify everything like variable ,

function,class,module, and any other objects. actually it will be in alphanumeric i.e. with a
letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore (_) followed by zero or more letters, underscores
and digits (0 to 9). Python does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $ and %
within identifiers.

Important things to care about identifiers:

Python is a case sensitive programming language. Thus, USA and usa are two different
identifiers in Python. So you should handle the identifiers carefully.

Identifier naming convention for Python:

• Class names start with an uppercase letter and all other identifiers with a lowercase letter.

• Starting an identifier with a single leading underscore indicates by convention that the
identifier is meant to be private.
• Starting an identifier with two leading underscores indicates a strongly private identifier.

• If the identifier also ends with two trailing underscores, the identifier is a language-
defined special name.
Every programming language have some reserved keywords i.e. it can’t be used as
variables or as identifiers. Following are some of the reserved keywords:


and
assert
break
class
continue
def

del

elif

else

except
exec
finally
for
from
global
if

import

in

is


lambda
not
or
pass
print
raise
return

try

while

with

yield

 Variables

Programiming is not done with assigning the value. Variables will have reserved
memory location to store value. That is, when we create a variable, we are reserving some
space for it in our system memory.

With respect to the datatype of variable ,the interpreter allocates memory and will decide
to be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning different data types to
variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in these variables.

How to assign values to variables?

Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The
declaration happens automatically, when you assign a value to a variable. The equal sign
(=) is used to assign values to variables.

The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the operand to the
right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable.

For example:
my_variable = 9

If you notice the above example, we’ve given variable name and assigned value to it. You
may think it is wrong because we didn’t declare the datatype of variable but it is another
advantage of Python. You don’t need to assign variable type.

Lets look at the following example:


Eg., my_var_int = 9

my_var_float = 9.09

my_var_string = “nine”

Like other programming languages, we can do multiple assignment in python too.

Eg., a = b = c = 9

We are done with assigning a variables now, at later stages we will discuss how effectively
we can use it in our program.
 Whitespaces

Whitespaces play a vital role in pyhton. In python we don’t put curvely braces to make
code blocks instead we use whitespaces.
Let’s give you an example. Take a look at the following snipets.,

1-> def spam():

2-> eggs = 12

3-> return eggs

4-> print spam()

If you don’t understand the above snipet, don’t worry. Just look how the snipet is written.
The function spam() is defined and the block of codes inside those i.e line 2 and 3 are
moved some spaces. These spaces are called whitespaces.

The above code is correctly done with whitespaces. So what will happen if the code is
incorrect? see the below example:


You will get the following error.,

IdentationError: excepted an indented block

 Comments

It is always good practice to add comments in the program. In most of the programming
languages “ // ” and “ /* */ ” are used. The things present inside the // symbol will be
ignored by the compiler or interpretor. In python programming, “ # “ symbol is used for
single line comment and ””” ””” symbol is used for multiline comments. Comments
make your program easier to understand and read. Python won’t try to run those and it is
for human undersatnding.

Eg.,

GETTING OUTPUT:

The end result of the program obtained must have to be visible as a result. How to show
that result in the screen? For that we use print function. In the Python 2.6+ version, to
make print effective for using flush etc, it is need to be imported in your program.
from __future__ import print_function from this package we can do more operation in
print function.

But in Python 3 there is no need for that, as print becomes function in this version.
print “Hello Programmers!”

We learned variable assignment right? Now is the time to print the value of variable.

Following snipets.,

var1 = 9

print var1

So what will be the output?

The “ %s “ is used to insert or append the value of variable to the string in the printing
statement and “ % “ symbol is used to tell which variable is needed to be placed.

Eg.,

Var1 = 10

print( “ Messi jersey number is %s” %(Var1))

output will be.,
Messi jersey number is 10

Now we will see few simple tests:

var1 = “India”
 var2 = “Pakistan”

print (‘ The final match is between %s and %s ’ %(var1,var2) )

guess the output for the above code., I will give three options for it.,

Option A:
The final match is between %s and %s

Option B:

‘The final match is between %s and %s’ %(var1,var2)

Option C:
The final match is between India and Pakistan

What is your answer? If you have guessed option c then you are awesome.

If you guessed any other option, revise the above chapters once again.

 Strings

Handling the strings is always important in Python prorgamming language. String is the
collection of the characters. Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of
characters represented in the quotation marks either single ‘ ‘ or double “ “. Python allows
for either pairs of single or double quotes.

Subsets of strings can be taken using the slice operator ([ ] and [:] ) with indexes
starting at 0 in the beginning of the string and working their way from -1 at the end. The
plus (+) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk (*) is the repetition
operator.

String can be anything – words, numbers, symbols…

Eg., var_1 = “World”

var_2 = “09”

Var_1 = “!!!!”

Even white spaces inside quations will be considered as strings. For cancatenation we use
plus(+) symbol.
Eg ., var_1=”hello”

Var_1=” world”
print var_1 + Var_1

output :
hello world

Symbols & Functionality:

Symbol Functionality

* argument specifies width or precision

- left justification
Format
+ display the sign Symbol &

<sp> leave a blank space before a positive number

# add the octal leading zero ( ‘0’ ) or hexadecimal

leading ‘0x’ or ‘0X’, depending on whether ‘x’
or ‘X’ were used.

0 pad from left with zeros (instead of spaces)

% ‘%%’ leaves you with a single literal ‘%’

(var) mapping variable (dictionary arguments)

m.n. m is the minimum total width and n is the

number of digits to display after the decimal
point (if appl.)

Conversion Do you remember we have used the %s during print section? Well
there are some other format symbols also available, they are

Format Symbol Conversion

%c character

%s string conversion via str() prior to

formatting

%i signed decimal integer

%d signed decimal integer

%u unsigned decimal integer

%o octal integer
 %x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters)

%X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters)

%e exponential notation (with lowercase ‘e’)

%E exponential notation (with UPPERcase

‘E’)

%f floating point real number

%g the shorter of %f and %e

%G the shorter of %f and %E

Now try to print this statement:

print (‘ That is Tom’s car ‘)

The expected output is That is Tom’s car but python may have thrown some error or the
output may be - That is Tom. This is because Python thinks apostrophe in Rama’s end as
the code. So how to overcome this problem?

ESCAPING SEQUENCE:

To overcome the above mentioned problem, we have to use escape sequence. The escape
sequence is the backslash \ symbol. You should use it before apostrophe.
print( ‘ That is Tom\’s car ‘)
now run it. The output will be as we’ve expected i.e. That is Tom’s car .

Try to print this now:

print (‘D:\Movies’)
 The output will be D:\Movies. This is because the python takes first backslash as
escape sequence. For that we need to do print r(’D:\Movies’) now you will get output as
you’ve expected. You’ve got desired result because raw strings do not treat the backslash
as a special character.

STRING INDEX:

The string is a collection of characters. Its index i.e. position of character stating from
0. See the below given example program:

The above example clearly explains the string index concept.

Let’s try to write a code for obtaining ninth letter from word “happiness”.

Code for above question is.,

A= “happiness”[8]

print A
output: s

Explicit Conversion:
 Well sometimes we need to add something to the String which is not a string content.
To do that we need to change non-string to string.

For this we use str() function which is the easiest way.

Try to concatenate the integer with string. Just print the following code.,

print 2 + “hello” + 3 + “world”

If you think 2hello3world is the output, you are wrong; we can’t concatenate the integer
with the string. It will throw error

To overcome that we use str() function. Now try this code

print str(2) + “hello” + str(3) + “world” , this time we will get the expected output.


You may think instead of using str() function we can use double quotes. Right?

Assign two variables with any integer value then concatenate them with string. Try
with and without str() functions. You will get its usage. Try this on your own, answer
will be revealed in next page.

FIND LENGTH OF STRING:

We can find the total length of the string using len() function. Let’s give an example so
you can figure it out by yourself.,

Answer for the above question is puzzled by following examples, just scan the following
codes.,
First without using str() function. Let’s figure out what will be the output.
Now by using str() function.

Got the answer? It’s that simple!

HOW TO GET INPUT FROM USER:

So far we’ve assigned value and printed that value in screen and did some operation
from the assigned value. But what is the motive of application development? It has to be
user interactive. Inorder for the program to be user interactive, the very first step is we
need to get inputs from user. How to do that? Python provides an effective solution for this
by the pre-defined function called raw_input() and input().

PYTHON 2:

In python 2 raw_input() function takes exactly what user types in an string format.
input() function takes the raw_input() and performs an eval() on it as well.

PYTHON 3:

In python 3 raw_input() is renamed as input() and old input() function. But if you want
to use the old input() in python 3, you can use eval(input()).

Let’s look into some examples:

a=input(“what is your name”)

b=input(“who is your inspiration”)

c=input(“what is your favourite color”)

print (“your name is %s and it is great that your inspiration is %s. your favourite
color is %s” %(a,b,c))

Check out the above code and figure out what will be the output!.

First Python asks for the user input. Like args[0] in java. You can tell what is needed to
give as input through message i.e. string between brackets (“what is your name”). When
user press the enter key python moves to next command in program. Then it moves to
print statement which we’ve already discussed.

 Whatever is entered by the user is taken as string by Python.

For input check out the following example, try this code and notice the output you are
getting.

name = input(“What’s your name? “)

print(“Nice to meet you ” + name + “!”)

age = input(“Your age? “)

print(“So, you are already ” + age + ” years old, ” + name + “!”)

If you are using python 2.x version while entering the input to python interpreter key-in “
“ symbol while entering or giving input to the python, well that’s what the difference
between raw_input() and input().
So what will happen if you missed “ “ while giving input. It will throw an error message.
 Types Of Operations

Python has the following Operations:

Arithmetic Operations,
Relation operations,
Assignment operations,
Logical Operations,
Bitwise Operations,
Membership Operations,
Identity operations.

These operations are implemented using the operators. These operators have the same
name as of their operation’s name.

Arithmetic Operators
Comparison (Relational) Operators
Assignment Operators
Logical Operators
Bitwise Operators
Membership Operators
Identity Operators

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS:

Arithmetic operators perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, divisions, exponent and modulus among two operands.
 Operator Description Example

+ Addition Adds values of the operands. 06 + 03 = 09

- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from left 12 – 03 = 09

hand operand.

*Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the 20 * 10 = 200

operator

/ Division Divides left hand operand by right 10 / 5 = 2

hand operand.

// Floor Division The division of operands where the 11//2 = 5and11.0//2.0 = 5.0,
result is the quotient in which the -11//3 = -4, -11.0//3 = -4.0
digits after the decimal point are
removed. But if one of the operands is
negative, the result is floored, simply
rounded away from zero.

% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right 10%3=1

hand operand and returns remainder

** Exponent Performs exponential (power) 5**2= 25 i.e. 5 * 5

calculation on operators

Example:
The above example prints the values just like a calculator does. In the next example we
will a constant value to the variable.

RELATIONAL OPERATOR:

These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the relation among
them. They are also called comparison operators.

Operator Description Example

== If the values of two operands are equal, (8 == 7) is false.

then the condition becomes true.
 != If values of two operands are not equal, (8 != 8) is false
then condition becomes true.

<> If values of two operands are not equal, (8 <> 7) is true. This
then condition becomes true. is similar to !=
operator.

> If the value of left operand is greater than (8 > 7) is true.

the value of right operand, then condition
becomes true.

< If the value of left operand is less than the (8 < 7) is false.
value of right operand, then condition
becomes true.

>= If the value of left operand is greater than (8 >= 7) is true.

or equal to the value of right operand,
then condition becomes true.

<= If the value of left operand is less than or (8 <= 7) is false.

equal to the value of right operand, then
condition becomes true.

Example for relational operator is given below.,

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS:

Assignment operators are the operators which will assign values to the variable by
implementing some operations. Assume a=5, b=6

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands to left c = a + b assigns

side operand value of a + b into c.
Ans: 11

+= Add It adds right operand to the left operand and c += a is equivalent

AND assign the result to left operand to c = c + a. (initially
c=11)
Ans: 16

-= It subtracts right operand from the left operand c -= a is equivalent

Subtract and assign the result to left operand to c = c – a
AND Ans= 11

*= It multiplies right operand with the left operand c *= a is equivalent

Multiply and assign the result to left operand to c = c * a
 AND Ans:55

/= Divide It divides left operand with the right operand c /= a is equivalent

AND and assign the result to left operand to c = c / a

c /= a is equivalent
to c = c / a

%= It takes modulus using two operands and assign c %= a is equivalent

Modulus the result to left operand to c = c % a
AND

**= Performs exponential (power) calculation on c **= a is equivalent

Exponent operators and assign value to the left operand to c = c ** a
AND

//= Floor It performs floor division on operators and c //= a is equivalent

Division assign value to the left operand to c = c // a

Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if a = 60; and b
= 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows −

a = 0011 1100

b = 0000 1101

–––––—
a&b = 0000 1100

a|b = 0011 1101

a^b = 0011 0001

~a = 1100 0011

Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it (a & b) (means
exists in both operands 0000 1100)

| Binary OR It copies a bit if it exists in either operand. (a | b) = 61

(means 0011
1101)

^ Binary XOR It copies the bit if it is set in one operand (a ^ b) = 49

but not both. (means 0011
0001)

~ Binary Ones It is unary and has the effect of ‘flipping’ (~a ) = -61
Complement bits. (means 1100
0011 in 2’s
complement
form due to a
signed binary
number.

<< Binary Left The left operands value is moved left by a << = 240
Shift the number of bits specified by the right (means 1111
operand. 0000)

>> Binary Right The left operands value is moved right by a >> = 15
 Shift the number of bits specified by the right (means 0000
operand. 1111)

LOGICAL OPERATOR:

Logical operators are the operators which perform the logical operations on variables
either side.

Operator Description Example

and Logical AND If both the operands are true then condition (a and b) is
becomes true. true.

or Logical OR If any of the two operands are non-zero (a or b) is true.

then condition becomes true.

not Logical NOT Used to reverse the logical state of its Not (a and b) is
operand. false.

TRUTH TABLE for NOT , AND, OR is given below.,



MEMBERSHIP OPERATOR:

Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as

strings, lists, or tuples. There are two membership operators, they are in and not in.

Operator Description Example

in Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the x in y, here in

specified sequence or false otherwise. results in a 1 if
x is a member
of sequence y.

not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable in x not in y, here

the specified sequence or false otherwise. not in results in
a 1 if x is not a
member of
sequence y.


Data Types

We’ve already discussed in previous chapters that in Python there is no need to define a
datatype of variable while assigning values. Python will take that load for you. The
common datatypes are:

INTEGERS

FLOAT

STRING

BOOLEAN

Data types are having two major divisions, they are

Mutable

Immutable

MUTABLE:

Mutable type: The values in the objects can be changed.

IMMUTABLE:

Immutable type: The values in the objects are not changeable. The content in the
object under immutable couldn’t be changed once they are created.

It is important to understand that variables in Python are really just references to objects in
memory. Feeling stuck? You will definitely learn and understand this concept in this and
upcoming chapters. Now let’s learn few concepts in data types.

Some mutable types:

byte array
list
set
dict

LIST:

A list is a container which holds comma separated values (items or elements) between
square brackets where Items or elements need not to have the same type.

SET:

A set is an unordered collection of unique elements. Basic uses include dealing with set
theory (which support mathematical operations like union, intersection, difference, and
symmetric difference) or eliminating duplicate entries.

DICT: (DICTIONARY)

Python dictionary is a container of unordered set of objects like lists. The objects are
surrounded by curly braces { }. The items in a dictionary are comma-separated list of
key:value pairs where keys and values are Python data type. Each object or value accessed
by key and keys are unique in the dictionary. As keys are used for indexing, they must be
immutable type (string, number, or tuple). You can create an empty dictionary using empty
curly braces.
Some IMMUTABLE types are

Numbers-int, float, long, complex

str
bytes
tuples
frozen set

Numbers:

Numbers are created by numeric literals. Numeric objects are immutable, which means
when an object is created its value cannot be changed.

Python has three numeric types:

integers,
floating point numbers
complex numbers.

Integers represent negative and positive integers without fractional parts. (eg. 3, 8,
9) Floating point numbers represents negative and positive numbers with
fractional parts. (eg.3.0) Complex numbers are combination of the real and imaginary
numbers representing both positive and negative numbers. (eg. 3-5j, 2+4j). first one is
real number and the number with the j is imaginary number.

Str:

Str is string. We have already dedicated a chapter for discussing this topic.

Tuples:

A tuple is container which holds a series of comma separated values (items or elements)
between parentheses. Tuples are immutable (i.e. you cannot change its content once
created and can hold mix data types).

Example:

Tup1 = (“social”, “science”, 1997, 2000);

Tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5);

To create the empty tuple, just put tuple name with empty parentheses,

Example:

Tupe = ()

While writing a single value tuple, you need to add comma after the single value inside the
parentheses.
Example:

Tups = (1, )

There are some built-in functions available, they are given below.

S.no Function name Description

1 cmp(tuple1, tuple2) Compares elements of both tuples.

 2 len(tuple) Returns total length of the tuple.

3 max(tuple) Returns maximum value item from the tuple.

4 min(tuple) Returns minimum value item from the tuple.

5 tuple(seq) Converts list into tuple.

6 del tuple Deletes the tuple.

Indices in tuple:

Indices in tuple is same as the indices in the string. Starting position is zero then last
position will be (n-1)th position.[n is total number of values]

Example,
Tup1 = ( ‘rick’ , ’danny’ , ‘maddy’ )

To make sure you learned indices concept thoroughly try to answer the following
questions on your own, the answer will be revealed a bit later.
Tup1[1] returns which value?

Tup1[3] returns which value?

Tup1[-3] returns which value?

Tup1[-1] returns which value?

Some basic operations in Tuple.

There are some basic tuple operations available - like in strings /concatenation and
length also other operations like repetition, membership, iteration with symbols like +, *.

 Expression Results Description

len((1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5)) 6 Length of tuple

(1, 2, 3,4) + (5, 6, 7, 8) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) Concatenation

(‘YES!’,) * 5 (‘YES!’, ‘YES!’, ‘YES!’, Repetition

‘YES!’, ‘YES!’)

1 in (1, 2, 3,4) True Membership

for x in (1, 2, 3, 4, 1 2 3 4 5 Iteration

5): print x

To learn about tuple more thoroughly, let’s try an exercise: Create a tuple and put four
random values to it. Then print it. Now print the first and last value only. Then delete the
tuple.

Answers:

Tup1 = ( “rick” , “danny” , “maddy” , “jimmy”)

print(Tup1[0])

print(Tup1[-1])

print(“after printing this, now delete”)

del Tup1

List:

The list is a most versatile datatype available in Python like tuples which can be
written as a list of comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. There is no
need to have same data type values in the list.

Creating a list is very simple by putting different comma-separated values between

square brackets.
Example:

List1 = [1, 2, 3, ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]

List2 = [ ‘red’ , ‘black’, ‘blue’ ]

The built-in functions and operations in the list are as same as the tuple. There is no
difference between them.
Indices in list is also like tuple and string. Accessing the values in the list can be done by
matrix.
 Example:

To retrieve value 2 from list1 expression is List1[1].

To retrieve value a,b,c only from list1 expression is List1[3:5].

UPDATING LIST:

Updating the single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-hand
side of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a list by using the
append() method.

List1 = [1, 2, 3, ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]

print(“Value available at index 2 : %s” % (List1[2]))

List1[2] = 4

print(“New value available at index 2 : %s ” % (List1[2]))

Output:

Value available at index 2 : 3

New value available at index 2 : 4

It seems both tuple and list looks similar, but both are different. List is mutable
and tuples is immutable. The main difference between mutable and immutable is
memory usage when you are trying to append an item. When you create a variable, some
fixed memory is assigned to the variable. If it is a list, more memory is assigned than
actually used.


Now you have learned operations and data types in Python, let’s move on to learn a new
concept called Typecasting.

What is Type casting?

Typecasting is nothing but changing one variable’s datatype into another datatype.
Consider a scenario where you want to add the two variables that is user entered. Can you
add two strings? No you can only concatenate two variables. So how to do it? Typecasting
comes handy here!

Think a scenario: You are getting two inputs from user and that is in string data type. Now
you need to add it. How will you add it?

If the following program comes to your mind, then you have learned the concept but
didn’t observe it properly. The following method is a wrong approach, let’s look into it.

a = input(‘enter the value of a’)

b = input(‘enter the value of b’)

c = a + b

print (c)

If you think this is the correct program for above scenario then you have to revisit the
String chapter and study the string concatenation.

Let’s see why you should use Typecasting:

a = int(input(‘enter the value of a’))

b = int(input(‘enter the value of b’))

c = a + b
 print (c)

The input function returns string, so the c = a + b line concatenates by the symbol “+”.
After typecasting the string into int(integer) the third line of code will perform the addition
operation.
a = float(input(‘enter the value of a’))

b = float(input(‘enter the value of b’))

c = a + b

print (c)

It changes the string into float. Do you remember the str() in the string section. It changes
or typecast the integer or float to the string.

 Decision Making

Decision making, it is the most important topic in both life and programming. The right
decision at the right time will make the life better, it rings true in programming concepts
too. While making a decision the most common possible answer is either true (yes) or
false (no).

The above diagram is the basic representation of the decision making.

The statements used for the decision making are:

if statement
if….else statement
nested if statement



IF STATEMENT:

The if statement of Python is similar to that of other languages. The if statement

contains a logical expression using which data is compared and a decision is made based
on the result of the comparison.

Syntax:

if (expression):

statement(s)

If the boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of statements inside the
if statement will be executed. If boolean expression evaluates to false, then the first
set of code after the end of the if statements will be executed.

Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values as true,
and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as false value.

We’ve already discussed whitespaces and its usage and its needs in python. So let’s get
ahead and directly see an example program.

Write a program to find whether the given number is whole number or not.

A = int(input(‘Enter the value’))

if A == 0:

print (“The number is whole number”)

IF ELSE STATEMENT:

Like other languages in Python too we can combine else statement with if
statement. An else statement contains the block of code that executes if the conditional
expression in if statement resolves to 0 or a false value.

The else statement is an optional statement and there could be at most only one else
statement following if.

Syntax:

if (expression):

statement(s)

else:

statement(s)

Let’s move to an example: Get an input from a user and check whether it is even or odd.

A = int(input(“Enter the number”))

if A %2==0:
print “The number is even”

else:
print “The number is odd”


elif Statement

The elif statement allows you to check multiple expressions for truth value and
execute a block of code as soon as one of the conditions evaluates to true.

Like else, the elif statement is optional. However, unlike else, for which there can be at
most one statement, there can be an arbitrary number of elif statements following if.

SYNTAX:

if expression1:

statement(s)

elif expression2:

statement(s)

elif expression3:

statement(s)

else:
statement(s)

The main reason to use the elif statement is, in python we don’t have switch case like we
have in other object oriented programming languages like java or c++. So instead of using
some confusing user-defined functions to implement switch case you can use elif
statement. {This advice is only for Python beginners}

Nested if statements

There may be a situation when you want to check for another condition after a
condition resolves to true. In such situation, you can use the nested if construct.
In a nested if construct, you can have if…elif…else construct inside another if…elif…else
construct.

Syntax:

if expression1:

statement(s)

if expression2:

statement(s)

elif expression3:

statement(s)

else:

statement(s)
elif expression4:

statement(s)
else:

statement(s)

Example:

Get the user mark and return the grade for that mark.


score = int(input(‘Enter your mark’))

if score >= 90:

print( ‘your grade is A’)

else:

# grade must be B, C, D or F

if score >= 80:

print (‘your grade is B’)

else:

# grade must be C, D or F

if score >= 70:

print (‘your grade is C’)

else:

# grade must D or F

if score >= 60:

print (‘your grade is D’)

else:
print (‘your grade is F’)

output:


 Loops In Python

There are more chances for a programmer to face implementation of same

expression or operation repeatedly for n number of times. To handle that problem
effectively we have loops in programming languages. In Python too we have loop
concepts. The 2 loops in Python are listed below:

1. while loop

Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is true. It tests the
condition before executing the loop body.

2. for loop

Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that
manages the loop variable.

3. nested loops
You can use one or more loop inside any other loop.

While loop

A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a target

statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax:

while expression:

statement(s)

Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or block of statements.

The condition may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop iterates
while the condition is true.

When the condition becomes false, program comes out of loops.

Example:

count = 0
while (count < 5):

print (‘The count is:’, count)

count = count + 1

print( “LOOP EXPIRED”)

Output:
The count is: 0

The count is: 1

The count is: 2

The count is: 3

The count is: 4

LOOP EXPIRED

There is one unique facility available in Python which is not available in the other
programming languages i.e. you can use else statement in the looping statement.

If the else statement is used with for loop, the else statement is executed when the loop
has exhausted iterating the list.

If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when the
condition becomes false.

Example:
count = 0

while count < 3:

print( count, ” is less than 3”)

count = count + 1
else:
 print( count, ” is not less than 3”)

Output:

0 is less than 3

1 is less than 3

2 is less than 3
4 is not less than 3


FOR LOOP:

The for loop in Python has ability to iterate over the items of any sequence, such as a
list or a string until the condition is true.

SYNTAX:

for iterating_var in sequence:

statements(s)

simple example is

for x in range(0, 3):

print( “We’re on time %d” % (x))

Nested for loop example,

for x in range(1, 5):

for y in range(1, 5):
print( ‘%d * %d = %d’ % (x, y, x*y))


For loop are used in the list and tuple to print the content one by one.

Example,

colors = [‘red’, ‘yellow’, ‘green’]

for color in colors:

print( ‘Current color :’, color)


Loop Control Statements:

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When
execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are
destroyed.

Python supports the following control statements.

BREAK STATEMENT
CONTINUE STATEMENT
PASS STATEMENT

1. break statement
Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement
immediately following the loop.

2. continue statement

Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its
condition prior to reiterating.

3. pass statement
The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required syntactically
but you do not want any command or code to execute.


Break is used to exit for loop or a while loop, whereas continue is used to skip the current
block, and return to the “for” or “while” statement.

Example for break statement:

for letter in ‘Helloworld’:

print (‘Current Letter :’, letter)

if letter == ‘o’:

break
OUTPUT:

EXAMPLE FOR CONTINUE STATEMENT:

for letter in ‘Helloworld’:

print( ‘Current Letter :’, letter)

if letter == ‘o’:
 continue

print( ‘Current Letter :’, letter)

OUTPUT:


Functions

A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single and
many related action. Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high
degree of code reusing. We have already seen many built-in functions like print(), str(),
input() etc in python in previous sections and also you can create your own functions.

In all the programming languages, functions need to be defined, declared with or without
parameters with set of codes. Actually, functions are a convenient way to divide your code
into useful blocks, allowing us to order our code, make it more readable, reuse it and save
some time. Also functions are a key way to define interfaces so programmers can share
their code.

Defining a Function

The very basic and first step is defining the functions. We can define functions to
provide the required functionality. There are some simple rules to define a function in
Python.
1) Function blocks always begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and
parentheses ( ( ) ).

2) Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses. We can
also define parameters inside these parentheses. The first statement of a function can be an
optional statement - the documentation string of the function or docstring.
3) The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented. [Again
remember white spaces needs and usage].

4) The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an

expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return none
or null.

{Remember you don’t have to use the keywords i.e. reserved words as functions name}

Example:
def my_function():

print (“Hello This is printing from my_function!”)

*) function with arguments or parentheses:

def my_function_with_args(name, color):

print (“Hello, %s , your favourite color is %s”%(username, color))

Here name and color are the arguments or parentheses where the variables passed from the
user by either programmer or user.

*) Functions may return a value to the caller, using the keyword- ‘return’. For example:

def sum_two_numbers(a, b):

print a + b

return a + b

HOW TO CALL THE FUNCTION:

We already saw that function need to be called in the program to implement or to use or
to take actions in the program. So how to implement it?
Let’s see few examples.

def my_function():

print(“Hello This is printing from my_function!”)

def my_function_with_args(name, color):

print( “Hello, %s , your favourite color is %s”%(name, color))

def sum_two_numbers(a, b):

print a + b
return a + b

my_function()

my_function_with_args(“Jimmy”, “red”)

x = sum_two_numbers(5,4)

OUTPUT:

Hello This is printing from my_function!

Hello, Jimmy , your favourite color is red

The above picture showcases clear example of all the function / facilities in one roof. But
it is necessary for a programmer and especially for a beginner to learn about each and
every important concept so let’s look into some more definitions and pertaining examples.
You also have to solve some logical problem in this section so it will be useful for you to
understand the concepts.

Arguments in Functions:


You can call a function by using the following types of formal arguments:

• Required arguments

• Keyword arguments
• Default arguments

• Variable-length arguments

REQUIRED ARGUMENTS:

Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order.
Here, the number of arguments in the function call should match exactly with the function
definition. To call the function myfunction(), you definitely need to pass one argument,
otherwise it would give a syntax error as follows:

def myfunction( str ):

“This prints a passed string into this function”

print (str)

return

myfunction(“hello world”)

OUTPUT:
hello world

Keyword arguments:
Keyword arguments are related to the function calls. When you use keyword
arguments in a function call, the caller identifies the arguments by the parameter name.

This allows you to skip arguments or place them out of order because the Python
interpreter is able to use the keywords provided to match the values with parameters.

def myfunction( str ):

“This prints a passed string into this function”

print (str)

return

myfunction( str = “hello world”)

output:

hello world

In the above program we passed the argument defining variable itself.

To understand this we are providing another example which may give you a clear
understanding about it.

def myfunction( str, str1 ):

“This prints a passed string into this function”

print (str)

print (str1)
return

myfunction( str = “hello world”, str1=”programmer”)

output:
 hello world

programmer

Default arguments:

A default argument is an argument that assumes a default value if a value is not

provided in the function call for that argument. Following example gives an idea on
default arguments, it would print default age if it is not passed:

def myfunction( name, age = 30 ):

“This prints a passed info into this function”

print( “Name: “, name)

print (“Age “, age)

return

myfunction( age=50, name=“Jim” );

myfunction( name=“carry” );

OUTPUT:
Name: Jim
Age: 50

Name: carry
Age: 30


The return Statement:

The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression
to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None.

def sum_two_numbers(a, b):

return a + b

x = sum_two_numbers(5,4)

print( “Sum= “ , a + b)
OUTPUT:

Sum= 9

Scope of Variables:

All variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations in that program. This
depends on where we have declared a variable. The scope of a variable determines the
portion of the program where you can access a particular identifier.

There are two basic scopes of variables in Python:

• Global variables
• Local variables

Variables that are defined inside a function body have a local scope, and those defined
outside have a global scope. This means that local variables can be accessed only inside
the function in which they are declared, whereas global variables can be accessed
throughout the program body by all functions. When you call a function, the variables
declared inside it are brought into scope.

Example:

We’ll give you a same program in two ways, check out how the output differs:

PROGRAM 1:

i = 0
count = 0

#global variable
while ( i < 5):

print (‘count=’, count)

count= count + 1

i = i + 1
else:
print (‘i greater than 5, out of loop’ )

Output:


PROGRAM 2:

i = 0

while (i < 5):

#local variable

count = 0
print (‘count=’,count)

count = count+1
i = i + 1

else:
print (‘i greater than 5, out of loop’)output:

Analyzing the output of both the programs, you may get some clear picture about the
scope of the variable. For your better understanding, let’s look into the following example
that gives even more detailed picture.

var1 = 1

def my_function1():

var2 = 5

print (var1 + var2)

def my_function2():
var2 = 5
print (var1 - var2)

my_function1()
my_function2()

output:

Modules

Grouping the related codes into modules make the program easier,
understandable and also paves way to the reusability of program. Simply put, a module is
a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions, classes and variables. A
module can also include runnable code.

Import Statement:

You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement in
some other Python source file.
syntax:

import module1[, module2[,… moduleN]

When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the
module is present in the search path. A search path is a list of directories that the
interpreter searches before importing a module.

Example:

def my_function( name ):

print (“value passed and printed by import” , name)

return
save the above program as printimport.py

Now to use it in another program, just include import statement in the next program.

import printimport

printimport.my_function(“Jimmy”)

While you execute the second program, the output will be
value passed and printed by import Jimmy

Let’s explain what happened here, while python interpreter encounters the import
statement it will bring all functions, classes, variables into its stack and in the second line
we call my_function() function by object then all happened like actual pass by value
argumented function.

Well before going to the next statements in the modules, we will elaborate the previous
example program for understanding.

Program 1:

def my_function( name ):

print (“value passed and your name is” , name)

return

def my_function1( num ):

print (“value passed and your age is”, num)

return

def my_function2( color ):

print (“vaue passed and your favourite color is”, color)

return
save it has printimport.py

Program 2:

import printimport
printimport.my_function(“Jimmy”)

output :
value passed and your name is Jimmy

from…. Import statement:

Python’s from statement lets you import specific attributes from a module into the
current namespace.

Example:
from printimport import my_function1

By this program, the my_function1() from program 1 only imported to the second
program.

from…. import* statement:

symbol * means ALL - it will import all modules into the current workspace.

 File Handling

FILE HANDLING:

So far you’ve learned giving input to the program by getting user

input or by passing values in program. There is also another way i.e. by connecting the
files to the program. The output of the program also can be printed in the output. In java it
is simple and in python it is even simpler because mostly there is no need to import any
python file. File can be any type - text, audio, video or image. It can open, write, read,
alter or delete.

File opening

To open a file we use open() function. It requires two arguments, first the file path or
file name, second in which mode it should open.

Modes are like

r -> open with read only, you can read the file but can’t edit / delete anything in the
file.
w -> open with write power, i.e. if the file exists then we can delete all content,
delete certain contents and open it to write.
a -> open in append mode, i.e. opening the file in write mode and adding content at
the end of the file.

If you didn’t provide any mode, it will automatically open the file as read only. Which
means read mode is the default mode.

Example:

File1 = open(“world.txt”)

File closing

To close a file we use close() function. It is necessary to close the file after
its use because you can only be able to open some amount of file, if it reached its limit;
there is a high chance of crashing the application or program. So make sure you properly
close the file after its use.

Example:

File1.close()

Reading a file:

To read a file, read() function is used. This function reads the whole file. We
can read the file line by line, for that we use readline() function and readlines() function.
The readline() function read one line after another whereas readlines() function is used to
read multiple lines.

Example:
File1.read()

Writing a file:

To write a content in the file, use write() function. We can write any number of lines in
the file. To use write function don’t forget to open the file in either write mode or append
mode.

Example:

File1.write(“anything”)

Thinks to remember

If you opened the file in write mode, you can’t use read() function. If you opened
the file in read mode, you can’t use write() function.

While opening a file by giving full path or address of the file, don’t forget to put
directory.

Also use \ because \ inside the double quotes or single quotes will make it as
escaping tag.

Always properly/fully close the file after its use. Don’t forget to do that,
because being a programmer it is your duty to take care of all things and avoid the
things that may mess the application or program.

To learn the file handling in depth, try for yourself the following exercise:

Task: Write a code to do the following tasks.

Create a file, read its content and print it. Now update the file and again print it.

Sounds easy right, just try by yourself first then check out the below code.

The answer for the above task is,

file = open(‘C:\Users\Desktop\world.txt’)

print(“real file content\n”)

s=file.read()

print(s)

file = open(‘C:\Users\Desktop\world.txt’,‘a’)

file.write(‘\n earth\n’)

file.write(‘mars\n’)
print(“updated content\n”)

file = open(‘C:\Users\Desktop\world.txt’)
d=file.read()

print(d)
file.close()

The output for this program is:



Now replace read() function with readline() function, readlines() function in the above
program to see the varying output inorder to thoroughly learn those functions.

Output when using readline() function

Output when using readlines() function
 Exception Handling

EXCEPTION HANDLING:

As per dictionary definition, exception means abnormal condition. Handling exception

is one of the most powerful features that every programming language gives and python is
no exception for it. So far you have faced some syntax errors while coding, or you might
face some truncation error or white space error.

When your program / coding is wrong, it is okay to get error but you will get some
error even when the program is syntactically correct. These errors can be solved by
yourself with little more practice but there are some errors which occurs unexpectedly like
less memory, connection failure, resource unavailability or may be due to the error
occurred by the operating system. How these errors can be solved while your client or
customer is using the application or program that are not programmed to handle the
situation by you. This exception or error can’t be solved by you at the time of occurrence.
For tackling this, exception handling is used.

There are many type of error occurs. Some of them are:

EXCEPTION NAME DESCRIPTION

Exception Base class for all exceptions

StopIteration Raised when the next() method of an iterator

does not point to any object.

SystemExit Raised by the sys.exit() function.

StandardError Base class for all built-in exceptions except

StopIteration and SystemExit.

ArithmeticError Base class for all errors that occur for numeric
calculation.
OverflowError Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum
limit for a numeric type.

FloatingPointError Raised when a floating point calculation fails.

ZeroDivisonError Raised when division or modulo by zero takes

place for all numeric types.

AssertionError Raised in case of failure of the Assert

statement.

AttributeError Raised in case of failure of attribute reference

or assignment.

EOFError Raised when there is no input from either the

raw_input() or input() function and the end of
file is reached.

ImportError Raised when an import statement fails.

KeyboardInterrupt Raised when the user interrupts program

execution, usually by pressing Ctrl+c.

LookupError Base class for all lookup errors.

IndexError Raised when an index is not found in a

sequence.

KeyError Raised when the specified key is not found in

the dictionary.

NameError Raised when an identifier is not found in the

local or global namespace.

UnboundLocalError Raised when trying to access a local variable in

a function or method but no value has been
assigned to it.

EnvironmentError Base class for all exceptions that occur outside

 the Python environment.

IOError Raised when an input/ output operation fails,

such as the print statement or the open()
function when trying to open a file that does
not exist.

OSError Raised for operating system-related errors.

SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.

IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified

properly.

SystemError Raised when the interpreter finds an internal

problem, but when this error is encountered the
Python interpreter does not exit.

SystemExit Raised when Python interpreter is quit by

using the sys.exit() function. If not handled in
the code, causes the interpreter to exit.

TypeError Raised when an operation or function is

attempted that is invalid for the specified data
type.

ValueError Raised when the built-in function for a data

type has the valid type of arguments, but the
arguments have invalid values specified.

RuntimeError Raised when a generated error does not fall

into any category.

NotImplementedError Raised when an abstract method that needs to

be implemented in an inherited class is not
actually implemented.


NameError

When one starts writing code, this will be one of the most common exception they will
find. NameError happens when someone tries to access a variable which is not defined.

>>> print(var)
Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>

NameError: name ‘var’ is not defined

The last line contains details of the error message, the rest of the lines show the details of
how it happened or what caused that exception and where it happened.

TypeError

TypeError is also one of the most found exception. This happens when someone tries to
do an operation with different kinds of incompatible data types. A common example is to
do addition of Integers and a string.
>>> print(1 + “a”)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>

TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: ‘int’ and ‘str’

Syntax Errors


Syntax errors are also known as parsing errors, and they are the most common error you
may incur while learning Python:
>>>

>>> while True print(‘Hello world’)

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in ?

while True print(‘Hello world’)

^

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

The parser repeats the offending line and displays a little ‘arrow’ pointing at the earliest
point in the line where the error was detected. The error is caused by (or at least detected
at) the token preceding the arrow: in the example, the error is detected at the
function print(), since a colon (‘:’) is missing before it. File name and line number are
printed so you know where to look in case the input came from a script.

Exceptions

Exception means abnormal condition - which is also called as error or bug.

The following are some of the exception and the reply message from python

>>> 9 * (9/0)
Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in ?

ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

“””anything divided by zero is infinity by mathematical rule. So python can’t answer it

which is turned as ZeroDivisionError””””
>>> 4 + var*3

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in ?

NameError: name ‘var’ is not defined

>>> ‘3’ + 3

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in ?

TypeError: Can’t convert ‘int’ object to str implicitly

How to handle exceptions?

We use try…except blocks to handle any exception. The basic syntax looks like:

try:

statements to be inside try clause

statement2
statement3

…
except ExceptionName:

statements to be evaluated in case of ExceptionName happens

It works in the following way,

First all lines between try and except statements will be considered and try block
will be executed.
If ExceptionName happens during execution of the statements then except clause
statements execute
 If no exception happens then the statements inside except clause does not execute.
If the Exception is not handled in except block then it goes out of try block.

The above points explain the step by step execution of exception handling mechanism.
The exception handling in python is almost similar as other OOPs languages like JAVA,
C++. So understanding it is easy, only the keywords are different here.

Now we will see some example in exception handling by solving a scenario.

You need to take the integer input from user and throw or ping him, if any other datatype
input like string or float is entered by user.

def int_number():
“Returns int number”

number = int(input(“Enter any number: “))

return number

while True:

try:

print(int_number())

print(“this is from the try block”)

except ValueError:

print(“You entered a wrong value. this is from except block”)

Output:

In the above example, 9 is integer value so python takes it to execute in try block. While
user enters 7.0 (a float value) python takes it to except block.

The try … except statement has an optional else clause, which, when present, must follow
all except clauses.

Raising Exceptions

The raise statement allows the programmer to force a specified exception to occur. For
example:

raise NameError(‘this is sparta’)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in ?

NameError: this is sparta

The sole argument to raise indicates the exception to be raised. This must be either an
exception instance or an exception class (a class that derives from Exception). If you need
to determine whether an exception was raised but don’t intend to handle it, a simpler form
of the raise statement allows you to re-raise the exception:

try:
raise NameError(‘this is sparta’)
except NameError:

print(‘An exception came by’)

raise

Output:
An exception came by

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 2, in ?

NameError: this is sparta



FINALLY:

This is being used in the socket, file programs. Commonly they will be used while closing
the file or socket connections.

A finally clause is always executed before leaving the try statement, whether an exception
has occurred or not. When an exception has occurred in the try clause and has not been
handled by except clause (or it has occurred in except or else clause), it is re-raised after
the finally clause has been executed. The finally clause is also executed “on the way out”
when any other clause of the try statement is left via a break, continue or return statement.
Example:

try:

file1 = open(“world.txt”, “w”)

result = 9/ 0

except ZeroDivisionError:

print(“We have an error in division”)

finally:

file1.close()
print(“Closing the file object.”)

We have an error in division

Closing the file object.

In this example we are making sure that the file object we open, gets closed in the finally
clause.

USER-DEFINED EXCEPTION:

A programmer can’t always encounter built in errors, sometimes he may also face some
exception which are not predefined by any language. To overcome that, the programmer
will create some user defined exception which will help him solving the problem – this is
usually done by the exception class. Programs may name their own exceptions by creating
a new exception class. Exceptions should typically be derived from the Exception class,
either directly or indirectly.

For example:

class MyError(Exception):
def __init__(self, value):

self.value = value

def __str__(self):

return repr(self.value)

try:

raise MyError(2*2)

except MyError as e:
print(‘My exception occurred, value:’, e.value)

OUTPUT:

My exception occurred, value: 4

raise MyError(‘oops!’)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in ?

__main__.MyError: ‘oops!’

In this example, the default __init__() of Exception has been overridden. The new
behaviour simply creates the value attribute. This replaces the default behaviour of
creating the args attribute.

Exception classes can be defined as which does anything that other classes can do, but
they are usually kept simple, often only offering a number of attributes that allow
information about the error to be extracted by handlers for the exception. When creating a
module that can raise several distinct errors, a common practice is to create a base class
for exceptions defined by that module, and subclass to create specific exception classes for
different error conditions.

class Error(Exception):

“““Base class for exceptions in this module.”””

pass

class InputError(Error):

“““Exception raised for errors in the input.

Attributes:

expression — input expression in which the error occurred

message — explanation of the error ”””

def __init__(self, expression, message):

self.expression = expression

self.message = message
class TransitionError(Error):
“““Raised when an operation attempts a state transition that’s not allowed.

Attributes:
previous — state at beginning of transition

next — attempted new state

message — explanation of why the specific transition is not allowed ”””
 def __init__(self, previous, next, message):

self.previous = previous

self.next = next

self.message = message

Most exceptions are defined with names that end in “Error,” similar to the naming of the
standard exceptions. Many standard modules define their own exceptions to report errors
that may occur in functions they define.

Exception hierarchy:

Below given are some of the exceptions available in Python and its hierarchy.

The class hierarchy for built-in exceptions is:

BaseException

+— SystemExit

+— KeyboardInterrupt

+— GeneratorExit
+— Exception
+— StopIteration

+— StopAsyncIteration
+— ArithmeticError

| +— FloatingPointError
| +— OverflowError

| +— ZeroDivisionError
+— AssertionError

+— AttributeError
+— BufferError

+— EOFError

+— ImportError

+— LookupError
| +— IndexError

| +— KeyError

+— MemoryError

+— NameError
| +— UnboundLocalError

+— OSError

| +— BlockingIOError

| +— ChildProcessError

| +— ConnectionError

| | +— BrokenPipeError

| | +— ConnectionAbortedError

| | +— ConnectionRefusedError

| | +— ConnectionResetError
| +— FileExistsError

| +— FileNotFoundError
| +— InterruptedError

| +— IsADirectoryError
| +— NotADirectoryError

| +— PermissionError
| +— ProcessLookupError
| +— TimeoutError

+— ReferenceError
+— RuntimeError
 | +— NotImplementedError

| +— RecursionError

+— SyntaxError

| +— IndentationError
| +— TabError

+— SystemError

+— TypeError

+— ValueError
| +— UnicodeError

| +— UnicodeDecodeError

| +— UnicodeEncodeError

| +— UnicodeTranslateError

+— Warning

+— DeprecationWarning

+— PendingDeprecationWarning

+— RuntimeWarning

+— SyntaxWarning
+— UserWarning

+— FutureWarning
+— ImportWarning

+— UnicodeWarning
+— BytesWarning

+— ResourceWarning

The total number of exceptions is being updated in each and every version update of
Python. It is somehow not important to know all these exceptions as a beginner, but for the
advanced level of programming and debugging, knowing these exceptions will help you in
getting better programming results.

We have covered all the important concepts of Python programming language till now.
Let’s get ahead to learn one of the most important concepts in almost every programming
language which evolved from the normal procedural language to the superpower object
oriented programming language.


Classes In Python

Python is an object oriented programming language. Unlike procedure oriented

programming or procedural language, in which the main emphasis is on functions, object
oriented programming stresses on objects. Object is simply a collection of data (variables)
and methods (functions) that act on those data. Python’s class mechanism adds classes
with a minimum of new syntax and semantics. It is a mixture of the class mechanisms
found in C++ and Modula-3.

Python classes provide all the standard features of Object Oriented Programming: the
class inheritance mechanism allows multiple base classes - a derived class can override
any methods of its base class or classes, and a method can call the method of a base class
with the same name.

In python the class structure is simple and compared to the other languages it has less
number of line of codes.

Syntax:
class nameoftheclass(parent_class):
statement1

statement2
statement3

Defining a Class in Python

As function definitions begin with the keyword def, in Python, we define a class using
the keyword class. The first string is called docstring and has a brief description about the
class. Although not mandatory, this is recommended. Here is a simple class definition.

class Firstclass:

”‘This is a docstring. We have created a new class”’

pass

A class creates a new local namespace where all its attributes are defined. Attributes may
be data or functions. There are also special attributes in it that begins with double
underscores (__). For example, __doc__ gives us the docstring of that class.

Now defining object for a class is another important concept to learn. We hope you do
remember the file object we used during while learning the chapter file handling.

Example:

class Secondclass(object):

# This is the second class.

a = 90 #attribute

b = 88 #attribute
p = Secondclass() #p is object

print(p.a)

In the above program, class name is Secondclass, a and b are the class variables. p is class
object.
After initialising the class object, in the next line we are printing the variable value of a by
having class object.

Output for the above program:

Here’s another example. Try to get an explanation for it by yourself.

class ThirdClass:

“This is my third class”

a = 9

def func1(self):

print(‘Hello’)

m = ThirdClass()
print(m.a)
m.func1()

print(m.__doc__)

Output for the above program is



__init__ METHOD:

__init__ is a special method in Python classes, it is the constructor method for a class.

In the following example you can learn how to use it.

class contact(object):

””” Returns a “`contact“` object with the given name, number and address.”””
def __init__(self, name, number, address):
self.name = name

self.number = number
self.address = address

print(“A Contact object is created.”)

def print_details(self):

“““Prints the details of the student.”””

print(“Name:”, self.name)

print(“Number:”, self.number)
 print(“Address:”, self.address)

__init__ is called whenever an object of the class is constructed. That means whenever we
create contact object we will see the message “A Contact object is created” in the
prompt. You can see the first argument to the method is self. It is a special variable which
points to the current object (like this in C++). The object is passed implicitly to every
method available in it, but we have to get it properly in every method while writing the
methods.

Example:

std1 = contact()

Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>

TypeError: __init__() takes exactly 4 arguments (1 given)

con1 = contact(‘Jim’,98888,‘walls street’)

A Contact object is created

In this example, at first we tried to create a Contact object without passing any argument
and Python interpreter complained that it takes exactly 4 arguments but received only one
(self). Then we created an object with proper argument values and from the message
printed, one can easily understand that __init__ method was called as the constructor
method.

Now we are going to call print_details() method.

con1.print_details()

Name: Jim
Number: 98888
Address: walls street

Deleting an object

As we already learned how to create an object, now we are going to see how to delete
Python object. We use del for this.

del con1
If you try to see object you will get an error:

Example
Traceback (most recent call last):

File “<stdin>”, line 1, in <module>

NameError: name ‘con1’ is not defined

INHERITANCE:

Inheritance is a powerful feature in object oriented programming. It refers to defining a

new class with little or no modification to an existing class. The new class is called
derived (or child) class and the one from which it inherits is called the base (or parent)
class. Derived class inherits features from the base class, adding new features to it. This
helps in re-usability of code.

Classes can inherit from other classes. A class can inherit attributes and behaviour
methods from another class, called the superclass. A class which inherits from a superclass
is called a subclass, also called heir class or child class.

Python Inheritance Syntax

class DerivedClass(BaseClass):

body_of_derived_class

Example:

class Car(object):
“““Returns a car name. ”””
def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

def get_details(self):
“Returns a string containing name of the car”

return self.name

class model(Car):
 “““Returns a model object, takes name, modelid, price”””

def __init__(self, name, modelid, price):

Car.__init__(self,name)

self.modelid = modelid
self.price = price

def get_details(self):

“Returns a string containing model deatils.”

return “%s , %s value is %s.” % (self.name, self.modelid, self.price)

OUTPUT:

Above example is a single level inheritance example, where Car is super class and model
is derived class.

We are inheriting the name attribute i.e. car name and made it available in the derived
class.

We will now see syntax for multiple inheritance:

class Base1:

pass
class Base2:

pass

class MultiDerived(Base1, Base2):

pass
syntax for multi-level inheritance is

class Base:

pass

class Derived1(Base):

pass

class Derived2(Derived1):

pass

Method overriding

In Python method overriding occurs when defining in the child class a method with
the same name of a method in the parent class. When you define a method in the object
you make this latter able to satisfy that method call, so the implementations of its
ancestors do not come into play i.e. base class method will not be implemented.

class base1(object):

def __init__(self):
self.value = 9


def get_value(self):

return self.value

class derive1(base1):

def get_value(self):

return self.value + 1

Output:

Inheritance delegation occurs automatically, but if a method is overridden the

implementation of the ancestors i.e. base class is not considered at all. So, if you want to
run the implementation of one or more of the ancestors of your class, you have to call
them properly/clearly.

 Tips For Python Beginners

Now we’ve almost come to the end and for a beginner level you have learned all the
important concepts in Python. What we’ve taught you in this tutorial is the fundamental of
Python Programming and it is the base for the higher concepts like Implementing Python
in networking, CGI, Application development and Server scripting etc., .

While debugging the program definitely you will have errors. Here we are talking about
syntax error, it may be because of syntax missing or IndentationError problem. We advise
you not to give up and loose hope – keep learning and keep trying, you will get ahead with
Python Programming very shortly.

IndentationError is an error which can be easily solved if you focus on the left most corner
of the text editor.

Check out the line 5 to 6, new sub line occurs in line 7 right? so if you adjust that you
will get the correct output. It is very common that while typing program quickly we may
press enter. If you press that in between block or module, sub branch will be created
inside that. It will show like in line 5 and 9. This also creates IndentationError.


If you can’t solve the error, simply copy the error and paste it in google and find solution.
Stackoverflow members are experts in it so try that website.
ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING PYTHON:

Easy to learn

High efficiency compared to other languages

Faster than c, c++, java and slightly slower than perl, php, which makes it an

average speed language. Though the speed is lesser comparatively, Python is highly
efficient with latest hardware which makes it a favourite language.

Python gained quick publicity and many communities are developing the

language.

It is an open source

Whatever the field may be, Python can be used.

Less lines of code compared to others.

Best suitable for start-ups looking for quick profit.

Understanding And Accessing Mathematica

Mathematica is a computational programming tool used in science, maths, computing and

engineering. It was first released in 1988. It is a proprietary software that you can use for
free on the Raspberry Pi and has been bundled with Raspbian and NOOBS since late
2013.

Using this you can draw shapes, perform simple calculations and many more easier tasks.
Since it is a free software, it provides a large scope for many development areas.
Programmers familiar with Matlab will find a lot of similarities with Mathematica and
find it easy to use.

To start Mathematica follow the steps in this chapter. This chapter will guide you to
program Raspberry Pi using Mathematica.

Double-click the Mathematica icon on the Desktop or open it from the applications menu
to start. You’ll see a splash screen with the red Mathematica logo while the program loads:


This won’t take much time. After the system has loaded there will be two windows i.e.
Wolfram information dialog and Mathematica notebook

Wolfram information dialog


The Wolfram information dialogue shows web links to:

Wolfram Language Documentation Center

Wolfram + Raspberry Pi Website

Wolfram Community

These links will open in the web browser on the Raspberry Pi, provided you’re connected
to the internet.


Programming In Mathematica

Click on the notebook window and enter:

Print[“Hello world”]

Press Shift + Enter; it will run the command and print “Hello world” to the screen like so:

You can perform mathematical calculations, for example:

In[2]:= 5 + 2

Out[2]= 7

In[31]:= 400 / 20

Out[31]= 20

In[6]:= 123 *10

Out[6]= 1230

Editing in Notebook:
Notebook and other editors help users to create, store and reuse previously developed
code. They help in error detection and correction and are easy to maintain.
You can revisit a previously entered command by clicking it or moving the edit cursor
with the keyboard. You can then delete, edit, or add something and press Shift + Enter to
execute the new command in its place.

You can save a notebook and come back to it later, send it to a friend, post it online, or
even hand it in as your homework! Just go to File > Save As in the notebook window.
When you open up a saved notebook, all the previous entries will be shown, including all
the inputs and outputs. You can execute each cell again with Shift + Enter or all at once by
selecting Evaluation > Evaluate Notebook from the menu.

VARIABLES
We are all familiar with what are variables. We can store the results of calculations in
variables:

radius = 5;

diameter = 2 * radius;
circumference = 2 * Pi * radius;

area = Pi * radius^2;

To suppress the output we have to add semicolon at the end of command. I.e. command
that has semicolon at the end will not display its output.

SYMBOLIC VALUES

Note the use of the built-in symbol Pi which contains a symbolic value of Pi. This means
that if you pass it into an equation the reference to the true value of Pi is preserved, not
converted to decimal and rounded:

In[29]:= Pi

Out[29]: π
In[31]:= tau = 2 * Pi

Out[31]: 2 π

To get the decimal representation of a symbolic value, use the N function:

In[5]:= N[Pi]

Out[5]: 3.14159

The default number of significant figures given is 6, but more can be given by specifying
the number in the second argument:

In[6]:= N[Pi, 10]

 Out[6]: 3.141592654

Note this is the number of figures, not decimal places; so the 3 is included in the count,
leaving 9 decimal places.

LISTS

Similar to Python You can store collections of data in a list:

nums = {9, 3, 6 , 7, 1}

people = {“superman”, “Batman”, “Clark”, “Bruce”}

RANGE

The Range function can be used to produce a list of numbers (again this is same as
Python):

Range[10] (*The numbers 1 to 10*)

Range[3, 9] (*The numbers 3 to 9*)

Range[1, 10, 2] (*The numbers 1 to 10, in steps of 2*)

TABLE

The Table function is a method of generating the values of a list with a function:

Table[i ^ 2, {i, 10}] (*Squares of the numbers 1 to 10*)

Table[i ^ 2, {i, 5, 10}] (*Squares of the numbers 5 to 10*)

Table[i ^ 2, {i, nums}] (*Squares of the items in the list nums*)


LOOPING

One of the most important necessities of embedded systems.You can run a loop a number
of times or over the items in a list, with Do:

Do[Print[“Hello”], {10}] (*Print “Hello” 10 times*)

Do[Print[i], {i, 5}] (*Print the numbers 1 to 5*)

Do[Print[i], {i, 3, 5}] (*Print the numbers 3 to 5*)

Do[Print[i], {i, 1, 5, 2}] (*Print the numbers 1 to 5, in steps of 2*)

Do[Print[i ^ 2], {i, nums}] (*Print the square of each item in the list nums*)

FUNCTION HELP

There are a few inbuilt functions. You can get usage help for a function by preceding the
function name with a question mark (?) and pressing Shift + Enter:

FUNCTION SEARCH
You can also search for functions by entering part of the function name to find matches.
Just start with a (?) and add an asterisk (*) on the end as a wildcard:

In[15]:= ?Device*
You can use multiple wildcards:

In[16]:= ?*Close*

COMMENTS

As seen in earlier examples, you can leave comments (notes that are ignored in the
program) in scripts by using brackets ((&)) and asterisks (*):

Print[“Hello”] (*Print “Hello” to the screen*)

WOLFRAM COMMAND LINE ACCESS

You can also access the Wolfram language from the command line by entering wolfram in
the terminal, or double-clicking the Wolfram Desktop icon. This will give a text-only
(non-graphical) programming environment with the In [x]/Out[x] style interface, but
without interactive notebook functionality. The Mathematica functions will still work as
expected:

You’ll find the command line interface faster to use due to the lack of graphical processing
required to run the notebook, however it lacks the graphical interface’s interactivity and
pretty printing. To exit, press Ctrl + D.

RUNNING SCRIPTS WITH WOLFRAM

You can write a program, save it as a normal file (usually with a.m or .wl file extension),
and execute the script from the command line by adding the -script flag.

To run test.m:

wolfram -script test.m

LIST OPERATIONS
You can apply an operation or function to all items in a list:

In[21]:= 2 * {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}


Out[21]: {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

In[22]:= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ^ 2

Out[22]: {1, 4, 9, 16, 25}

In[23]:= Sqrt[{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}]

Out[23]: {1, Sqrt[2], Sqrt[3], 2, Sqrt[5]}

Note that in the last example the square roots of 1 and 4 were given exactly, as they yield
integer value; however the square roots of 2, 3 and 5, which are irrational, are given
symbolically.

MATRICES

One of the most useful additional components of a mathematical programming language is

the ability to do [matrix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics) ) operations.
Of course, Mathematica has these available.

To create a matrix first enter the values as a list of lists, making sure the dimensions are
rectangular, i.e. n x m where n and m are integers:

m = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}};

You can view this list as a matrix by typing:

m // MatrixForm

You can perform matrix operations such as dot product:

m = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}};

m2 = {{10, 20, 30}, {40, 50, 60}};

m . m2 // MatrixForm

PLOTTING
You can plot interesting things using Mathematica:

For example, plot an echidnahedron with the following command:

Graphics3D[{Opacity[.8], Glow[RGBColor[1,0,0]], EdgeForm[White], Lighting ->

None, PolyhedronData[“Echidnahedron”, “Faces”]}]

GPIO

You can access the GPIO pins from Mathematica using the DeviceWrite and DeviceRead
functions.

To access the GPIO pins you’ll need to be running as root. To do this, run sudo wolfram
from the terminal (this will run the command line wolfram environment), or sudo
mathematica & to run the Mathematica notebook as root.
The following command turns on GPIO pin 14 (using BCM pin numbering):

DeviceWrite[“GPIO”, 14 -> 1]

The following command turns pin 14 off:

DeviceWrite[“GPIO”, 14 -> 0]

You can also read the status of a GPIO input device (to check if a button is pressed, for
example) with DeviceRead, in a similar way:

button = DeviceRead[“GPIO”, 14]

The variable button should now contain 0 for off or 1 for on.
 Accessing Camera In Raspberry Pi 3
These days camera is implemented in many of the embedded systems. Keeping this in
mind Raspberry Pi has been provided with its own camera interface. The recently
launched camera module is v2 which is a Sony IMX219 8-megapixel sensor. Compared to
its previous version that was 5-megapixel OmniVision OV5647 sensor new version has lot
more clarity. Camera can be used to take high definition videos or still picture. The major
implementation of camera is in security systems.

There are a few steps that you need to follow for using camera with raspberry pi. They are
very simple and easy to implement.

Raspberry Pi has been provided with separate port to connect camera and has certain set of
libraries to implement its function.

First of all, with the Pi switched off, you’ll need to connect the camera module to the
Raspberry Pi’s camera port, then start up the Pi and ensure the software is enabled.

Locate the camera port and connect the camera:



Start up the Pi.

Open the Raspberry Pi Configuration Tool from the main menu:

Ensure the camera software is enabled:



*If it’s not enabled, enable it and reboot your Pi to begin.

Now your camera is connected and the software is enabled, you can get started by trying
out the camera preview.

Open Python 3 from the main menu:

*Refer to Python chapter regarding the use of Python

Open a new file and save it as camera.py. It’s important that you do not save it as
picamera.py.

Enter the following code:

from picamera import PiCamera

 from time import sleep

camera = PiCamera()

camera.start_preview()

sleep(10)
camera.stop_preview()

Save with Ctrl + S and run with F5. The camera preview should be shown for 10 seconds,
and then close. Move the camera around to preview what the camera sees.

The live camera preview should fill the screen.

If your preview was upside-down, you can rotate it with the following code:

camera.rotation = 180

camera.start_preview()

sleep(10)

camera.stop_preview()

You can rotate the image by 90, 180, or 270 degrees, or you can set it to 0 to reset.

You can alter the transparency of the camera preview by setting an alpha level:

from picamera import PiCamera

from time import sleep

camera = PiCamera()
camera.start_preview(alpha=200)

sleep(10)
camera.stop_preview()

alpha can be any value between 0 and 255.

The next important task for any camera is still image. Amend your code to reduce the
sleep and add a camera.capture() line:
 camera.start_preview()

sleep(5)
camera.capture(‘/home/pi/Desktop/image.jpg’)

camera.stop_preview()

It’s important to sleep for at least 2 seconds before capturing, to give the sensor time to set
its light levels.
Run the code and you’ll see the camera preview open for 5 seconds before capturing a still
picture. You’ll see the preview adjust to a different resolution momentarily as the picture
is taken.
You’ll see your photo on the Desktop. Double-click the file icon to open it:

Now you’ve used the camera to take still pictures, you can move on to recording video.
Amend your code to replace capture() with start_recording() and stop_recording():

camera.start_preview()
camera.start_recording(‘/home/pi/video.h264’)
 sleep(10)

camera.stop_recording()

camera.stop_preview()

Run the code; it will record 10 seconds of video and then close the preview.

To play the video, you’ll need to open a terminal window by clicking the black monitor
icon in the taskbar:

Type the following command and press Enter to play the video:

omxplayer video.h264

Using Mathematica to capture image:

You can take pictures with the camera using the DeviceRead function.
To take a still picture with the camera, type the following command:

img = DeviceRead[“RaspiCam”]

Then to save the image as a file, use Export and supply the save path and the variable
containing the image:

Export[“/home/pi/img.jpg”, img]
 Raspberry Pi 3 – Getting Ahead With IOT

During the past several years, in the area of wireless telecommunications a novel
paradigm named “the Internet of Things” (IOT), which was first used by Kevin Ashton in
a presentation in 1998, has gained more and more attention in academia and industry.

By embedding short-range mobile transceivers into a wide array of additional gadgets and
everyday items, enabling new forms of communication between people and things, and
between things themselves, IOT would add a new dimension to the world of information
and communication.

IOT would radically transform our corporations, communities, and personal spheres. In
the 20th Tyrrhenian Workshop on Digital Communications, the basic idea of IOT has been
summarized as the pervasive presence around us of a variety of “things” or “objects”,
such like Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) tags, sensors, actuators, mobile phones,
which, through unique addressing schemes, are able to interact with each other and
cooperate with their neighbouring “smart” components to reach common goals.

The Internet of Things (IOT) has captured the market recently.

Is the Raspberry Pi the right choice to use for developing IOT projects? If yes, where will
it fit in the system? To answer this question, let’s consider a basic block diagram of IOT


There comes a part of hardware that comes into picture when things are to be connected
with local network. Raspberry Pi is complete OS based hardware and thus can host
gateways for many of our applications. With hardware feature like GPIO which can
directly be controlled through easy programming it can act as an end-device.

What does this intermediate level between local network and Things mean. These days,
with the humungous day-to-day development with IOT, new communication protocols
have been developed.

The reason behind developing new protocols is to reduce overhead of messages and
increase reliability. Along with these factors they also needed to manage compatibility
with both end-device and network. Here the bridges came into picture that converted one
request format to other request format, e.g. HTTP request to CoAP request. Few of the
new communication protocols are CoAP and MQTT. Let’s for an instance consider CoAP
i.e. constraint application protocol.

This is a very light weight protocol meaning it’s header is only 4 bytes whereas that of
HTTP is 32. So this is most suitable for M2M devices used in IOT. This will reduce data
requirement. It will also save a lot of bandwidth. But it has some usage limitations. To
convert from CoAP to HTTP and vice versa we need a bridge. This bridge can be designed
over Raspberry Pi thus improving communication between devices and Internet

The above image describes the gateway or bridging architecture of IOT.

 Conclusion - Sculpting Your Career In IOT

Internet of Things (IoT) is a new computing concept where each and every physical
object, alive and dead, has unique identifier and connected with each other without any
human intervention, turning physical world in a huge information system.

The term Internet of Things was first coined by Kevin Aston in 1999 in a presentation to
Proctor and Gamble,

“If we had computers that knew everything there was to know about things - using data
they gathered without any help from us - we would be able to track and count everything,
and greatly reduce waste, loss and cost. We would know when things needed replacing,
repairing or recalling, and whether they were fresh or past their best.

We need to empower computers with their own means of gathering information, so they
can see, hear and smell the world for themselves, in all its random glory.”

In computing world nearly 50Petabytes of data so far generated is through human

intervention. With latest development in technology, convergences of wireless technology
and ubiquitous and cheaply available sensors have made things smart in terms of data
generation, processing and data exchange.

It’s not far away that every object will be connected to internet. Gartner estimates that by
2020 internet connected devices number would be 26 billion, excluding desktops, tablets
and smartphones. And revenue generated by them would be exceeding $300 billion.

For e.g. today in car driver gets all kinds of indicators like fuel level, tire pressure, oil
level etc…directly on dashboard panel. It means car itself tells driver when it requires
servicing and accordingly driver can take action. In fact in future it might send automated
email to authorized service station detailing all reports so that without any manual call car
can be serviced. One step ahead driver less car is another example where once destination
is fed, it calculates route for you considering meeting schedule from your calendar, traffic
condition, tollroute etc… Smart refrigerators let you write grocery list on screen and syncs
it with your phone. These are the few examples to show how IOT is revolutionizing the
world in coming years.

How do YOU become an expert on IoT - Internet of Things?

As you’ve learnt in this book, “Build a thing. Connect it to the internet. Do something
interesting with it. Repeat.”

You may be able to accelerate the process by reading about things that have been
connected to the internet, but there’s no substitute for doing it yourself, especially now
that all of the equipment to get started (sensors, controllers, radios) is at least an order of
magnitude cheaper than it once was.

The Internet Of Things Wants You!

Thanks to high-speed service providers, ubiquitous WiFi and rainbows of sensors, our
world is awash in Internet-connected technologies. This always-on Internet is sometimes a
convenience and often a hassle, but it’s always a gateway to myriad opportunities. Those
opportunities increase exponentially as the Internet of Things continues to evolve.

The possibilities of the IoT are nearly limitless. IoT has created new sectors in the world
economy and lot of new jobs. Exciting opportunities await graduates in the world of mass
interconnectivity.

Companies making connected things will have to think not just about how the device
works but the entire system on which it will run, so there will also be great scope for
network experts.

Bandwidth will need to be increased and data transfer latency to the cloud would have to
be reduced. There will be a greater call for security analysts as the robustness of devices
connected to the internet will inevitably be questioned.

“The Internet of Things will need a broad range of engineering and software skills and
when you widen things out, you’re looking for people to write apps in the cloud and others
to come up with new services, databases and user-interfaces,”

10 New Jobs Created By The Internet Of Things:

Agricultural Technologist: Modern crop management involves handling specialized

data to maximize output.

3-D Printing Engineer: As 3-D printing becomes more and more ubiquitous,
engineers who can work with the technology will be in greater and greater demand.

Grid Modernization Engineers: Technicians monitoring electricity consumption on
a power grid in France.

Wearable Tech Designer: Smartwatches are just the tip of the iceberg when it
comes to wearable tech.

Medical Robot Designer: Specially developed robots, being checked by a
technician for helping surgeons perform brain procedures.


Data Security Expert: More connectivity throughout our lives means more
opportunities for hackers.

Cloud Computing Specialist: Working with cloud storage and implementing

seamless integration with on-site resources is all part of a cloud computing
specialist’s work.

Intermodal Transport Designers: Freight containers have been used for decades to
transport goods, but now they’re connected to sophisticated tracking systems.

Counter Hackers: Job opportunities for counter hackers aren’t likely to dry up
anytime soon.

The Time Is Now:

Right Now, There is HUGE skill shortage in IOT and this is YOUR CHANCE to start
learning more about IOT and get ahead in your Career & Life.


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