Chapter 2
Chapter 2
These are the previous studies of foreign and local researchers. The topics include
Professional Competence
The task of a teacher is directly related to the nature of the classroom. According
to Darling (2016) the 21st century classrooms demand from the teachers “to prepare
virtually all students for higher order thinking and performance skills.”
The teacher has many tasks to perform in classroom e.g. managing and organizing
classroom activities, maintaining record and discipline, contact with parents, creating
conducive environment for learning with patience and touch of humor, arranging
workshops, helping weak students, guiding intelligent students etc. The competent
teacher can handle all above mentioned tasks confidently and effectively.
According to Varvel (2013) the competent teacher is “one who effectively and
appropriate knowledge, skills, attitudes, and abilities that have adjusted and developed
He feels responsible for students learning difficulties and takes active steps for
their resolutions. He provides friendly environment to students to get aware with their
problems and for free expression of their ideas. He provides clear explanations, relevant
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classroom management and involvement of society to get latest ideas and demands for
competence. The teaching is successful only when it takes place in peaceful and relaxed
such an environment. For example low income, misconduct of students, work pressure,
transport problems, home distance from school location, lack of A.V aids, lack of
facilities in school, terrorism and etc. These few factors negatively affect the performance
of teachers and hinder in their way to success. The teacher’s poor performance ultimately
Several studies was conducted by researches one was the study of Simon (2013)
subject areas are being incorporated in the curricula, which call for the necessity of new
developing countries involving relationships with local communities. Thus, in the context
of these development’s, the tasks of teachers tend to be diversified calling for effective
On the other hand Sanchez (2013) led him to describe the public’s fear that the
teacher’s tasks and roles and working conditions taking place, which affect their status
The frequent absences of pupils due to lack of enthusiasm is the result of poor
understanding of the new mathematics objectives. He further stressed that one hindrance
subject.
The study of Khan (2014) shows that teaching today does not simply mean to
transfer some information or facts to the students; rather teaching has become more
and students have been changed. In the new paradigm of teaching-learning process,
teaching means to prepare students for future where they will meet more complicated
situation that will force them to think in some different ways to stay in change. Effective
teaching is the only way that can prepare students to meet the challenges of such
situation. Effective teaching means teaching through which desired objectives may be
achieved and students may learn with full understanding. It is effective teaching that
prepares the students to absorb new knowledge, connect it with previous knowledge and
The perception of Arazo (2014) states the role of the teacher in teaching situations
process and task; and enabling active participation of learners and engagement with
ideas. Teachers, therefore, need to be able to adopt a range of roles and skills to suit
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specific situations, often during the same teaching session. Teachers need to adopt a
The notion of Reyes (2016) views evaluation aiming to promote the growth and
should help teachers discover and understand their strengths and weaknesses so that they
can utilize their skills to a great extent and improve on areas where they are weak.
According to the New Mexico (USA) (2013) Public Education Department there
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) adopted by DepEd underlines the importance
defines a highly qualified teacher, is based on the premise that teacher excellence is vital
to realizing improve student achievement. Along with typical hiring and compensation
certain types of course work, and performance on standardized assessments are indicators
of highly-quality teachers.
professional and personal growth of the department. It was subdivide into two
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competencies, namely core behavioral with six areas of competencies; and core skills
achievement and well-being is not only influenced by the teaching behavior of the
individual teacher, but also by the quality of school management and school culture.
for effective teaching performance particularly in the public schools. In the present study,
used in many context to teach a number of cascading skills. They added that to be
successful in life, all have to learn to manage their behavior. People tailor their behavior
to different situations based on the unspoken rules and social norms that govern those
situations. While the strategies they use to regulate their behavior are often not readily
apparent to others, individual people devise ways to monitor their behavior, reflect upon
their behavior, and adapt the behavior when they recognize that are not as successful
and/or acting as appropriately as they would like. In the school context, self-management
system can be used to increase desired behaviors and/or decrease interfering behaviors by
teaching learning how to monitor their behavior, record their performance, and obtain
ethics which is very vital to enhance teacher performance. McKeen and McArdle (2012)
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revealed that professionalism goes hand in hand with performance and they state that one
of the hallmarks of any profession is the commitment of its member to code of ethics
which sets out professional values and responsibilities. Unfortunately they do not show
how actually the code influences actual teachers’ performance. They observe that the
young teachers may need an outing often with members of the opposite sex and visit
clubs or watch movies. However, for them their observation and findings is very good
and educative.
Result focus. If someone said to be results focus, it means that he/she is practical
and concentrates on achieving a purpose, rather than being distracted by other matters.
Delvin (2013) that result focus is one of the important aspects of teaching in determining
the result they want to achieve. This intent as it embeds the essential ingredients of a
independence and students’ passions and interests. She also suggests a too narrow results
focus will result in dull, uninspired individuals who do not have the skill to problem
Teamwork. Senge, et al., (2014) state, the team can come to a mutual
understanding, shared responsibilities, plan what to work, how to work, and finally, there
is coordinated action which is not joint action it is carried out independently by various
members of the team. When people working together are more effective than a collection
willingness and consistency. There are much research into teachers' teamwork is based on
2014).
defined as a set of attitudes and behaviors affecting the quality of interaction between
teachers and students. In other words, it is the disposition used when providing service to
the students. For Canada National Research Council (2015), this involves putting oneself
into the mindset of the stakeholder and facilitating delivery of solutions that meet their
underlying and unexpressed needs. It implies a genuine desire to assist others while
developing and maintaining strong relationships with them. Focuses one’s efforts on
actual teaching practices. The outcomes of innovative teaching, such as the development
of cognitive abilities or emotional aspects of students, while others stress the innovative
aspects of the teaching processes, such as the use of new methods and techniques or by
managing the classroom environment. Brouwer and Korthagen (2015) indicated that
innovative teaching performance. Lin, et al., (2016) research points out that many
teachers have lack of competencies for innovative teaching in general. Ferrari, et al.,
(2016), that the concept of innovative teachings is not equivalent to new teaching, but on
the new teaching method or strategy, but not all new methods and strategies are necessary
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innovative. Therefore, it is a necessity for all teacher to have innovative teaching in order
Core skills. It is the ability to read, write and count or the ability to apply these
have three skills that are key to teaching-learning of the secondary teachers preferable in
teaching English subject. DepEd have identified these skills as those most likely to be
needed by English teacher. Not every teaching job need teacher who is proficient in all
three core skills but every teaching job will require some level of ability in some or all of
these skills.
teaching quality and teacher education that the need to improve teacher competencies,
heterogeneous classes, use ICT, teach transversal competences, create safe attractive
autonomous learning.
The art of communication involves listening and speaking as well as reading and
writing. Teachers need to be highly skilled in all these areas to excel in their profession.
themselves at a high level. They make excellent teachers because they are able to
transmit knowledge, skills and values at the same time they communicate their caring for
10512.html). The core skill in communication has two components, these are:
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Oral communication. Richards and Renandya (2012) state that effective oral
interactions that involves not only verbal communication but also paralinguistic elements
of speech such as pitch, stress, and intonation. Moreover, nonlinguistic elements such as
gestures, body language, and expressions are needed in conveying messages directly
communicate with people from all over the world. Wingard (2016), noted three
language is the use of it alongside listening, speaking and reading in the process of
learning , is the development of writing skills to fulfil such purposes as: note-taking,
summarizing, narrating, reporting for various real-life situations and Writing with
cohesion , is the employment of various linguistic means by which the parts of a written
text are related to one another, with continuity and organization (Wingard, 2016).
Technology focuses on the ability to use IT to process information in ways which will be
useful in work. Van Merrienboer et al., (2015) that an innovative teacher is aware of how
thinking, and deepen student understanding. It fits very well with modern instructional
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theories that focus on the implementation of real-life tasks as the driving force for
learning. Lynes (2015) introduced the initiative which is connecting classrooms around
the world. He spoke of the responsibility of everyone (in the room) as educators to impart
core skills to future generation (to deal with the changing world) through digital literacy,
critical thinking and through developing global citizens. Srinivas (2014) presented a topic
on learning English through internet suggested that computer literacy should be a must
for learners and teachers as well, as today’s education does not stress upon memory based
education.
Passi and Sharma (2013) conducted a study with an objectives of the study were
to study the relationship between variables and teaching competency. They identified
fourteen teaching competencies required for a Hindi teacher at higher secondary level.
The listed competencies included loud reading, asking questions, creating interest,
etc. They also found that there was a significant positive co-relation between teaching
at the secondary school level revealed a positive correlation of all the competencies;
secondary schools in Johor Bahru. The study was aimed in determining their
management and adoption of novel techniques for teaching and evaluation. The study
revealed that all the teachers were competent and there existed a significant relationship
teaching performing arts in public secondary schools in Northern Cotabato shows that
most MAPEH teachers are non-MAPEH graduates mostly teaching for more than 5
years, had encounter problems like lack of facilities, equipment and instructional
materials, however they attended seminars and trainings related to performing arts.
knowledge.
Eslami & Fatahi (2014) states that language proficiency constitutes the foundation
of the professional competence of teachers. Language competence has been rated as the
School Performance
techniques and positive attitudes, behavior and philosophy that school and/or learners
achieve or acquire. This ability is evaluated by the marks and grades that the pupils attain
in a test or examination which is done at the end of a topic, school term, and year or
education cycle. The scores and grades that each pupil obtains measure the degree of
achievement. The quality of the grade and the number of candidates who pass in various
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There are two types of grading systems to determine school performance of pupils in the
Philippines: the average system and the cumulative grading system. The average system is done
by looking at the average of the learner from the past learning period and the present. In the
cumulative system, the present learning is observed to have improved or not based from
In all public elementary schools in Aklan, each academic year is divided into four
grading periods and the method for computing grades is averaging (DepEd, 2017).
On the other hand, Bell (2013) states that pupil school performance most
commonly is measured through pupils written and oral tests, presentations, field work,
performance does not only involve the grades in exams, but other factors like their
behavior, skills, communication, situation handling, creativity, art etc. also determine in
school performance. Some pupils cannot perform well on paper due to certain reason, e.g.
illness, death of some relative, depression, etc., but it does not mean that they did not
Teachers maintain their high performance with the help of continuous research and
professional attitude. The 21st century has faced various challenges (e.g. technological
developments, nuclear weapons, natural disasters etc.); to compete in this era critical
themselves affects the quantity of efforts they are agreeing to apply in learning, their
educational ambitiousness, and their academic achievement. Researchers find out that
high attitude about self-cause a great motivation for learning. Students' feelings of
responsibility for their learning, interest, rate of attendance in schools, physical and
mental health, positive attributions towards learning, e.g. success is due to hard work, and
negative attributions e.g. failure is due to luck or external factors put a great effect on
Gravely (2014) describes that students spend most of their time in school, so it is
obvious that the environment and people of school has a crucial effect on their
performance and achievement. According to Scand (2013) one way to improve students’
achievement is to make possible the provision of effective teachers. With the political
and media. In this regard students’ academic results are considered a primary source for
teachers’ evaluation.
Hallinan (2013) describes in her article that researches proved that content
knowledge, teaching experience, training and certification make a teacher more effective
and active in the classroom. According to Harris et al (2016) teacher quality is the
dominant factor among other factors in relation with students’ high achievement.
Kyoshaba (2016) states that the results of latest researches have shown that the
competence of teachers has a major influence on the performance and high academic
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achievement of students than any other factors. The achievement gap can cover easily by
There some evidence suggests that the efficiency of teachers largely depends
upon the amount and type of training they have received. Students achieve at higher
levels when they are taught by better and qualified teachers and those with certification in
their teaching
Panlipunan and its relation to teaching strategies and instructional materials both in
public and private high schools in the District of Ibajay revealed that in her district,
academic achievement do not vary significantly in the sense that teachers from both the
public and private schools are observed to be using the same instructional materials in
teaching Araling Panlipunan. The reason why there is no significant relationship between
the teaching strategies used by teachers and academic achievement of students may be
due to the fact that there are many teachers in both public and private schools who have
not attended trainings and seminars so that they use varied strategies in teaching Araling
Panlipunan.
The National Council for Social Studies defines Social Studies or Araling
Panlipunan as “the integrated study of the Social Sciences and humanities to promote
civic competence.” It involves the study of social interaction and human behavior. Some
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fields include: sociology, history, political science, economics, religion, geography, and
anthropology.
History,” the debates about the purposes, goals and uses of school history exacerbates by
the problem of choosing what constitutes historically significant events worth tracing.”
Furthermore, he stated that “the issue of historical significance has been further
the culture, geography and tradition of a race or country, it is also important to know the
wars, contribution of civilizations and the history of the universe on how it began and the
The knowledge children acquire as a part of social studies called Araling Panlipunan
in the Philippines tends to be the highest priority for teachers, parents, and the children.
The common perception is that this is what social studies is all about, knowing things like
the location of the Rocky Mountains, the conditions aboard a slave ship, and the purpose
of a mailbox. This is too limited a view because Araling Panlipunan must be a vehicle for
artists. Finally, all three definitions state that the ultimate goal of social studies is active
citizenship in our society, as our students use the knowledge they have acquired and the
processes they have mastered to make communities, the nation, and the world better
places. This is the position of the NCSS, that the “core mission of Araling Panlipunan
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education is to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and values that will enable
pearsonhighered/samplechapter/013256551X.pdf, 6/30/2017).
On some research and documentation of Winkle (2013) suggests that what citizenship
education needs to do is teach the students to become historical, political actor, to further
the goals democracy in the country because Araling Panlipunan has been ranked among
other subjects as boring, irrelevant and not appealing to most students, teaching Araling
Panlipunan can be an interesting and rewarding activity if only when teachers know what
content and methodologies they can employ .It can also make learning relevant to the
Unfortunately it has been observed that many teachers in are still far from making the
subject as relevant and meaningful to the learners who often view it that way (European
However, many problems can occur while teaching history. One of the biggest
problems Araling Panlipunan teachers have encountered is the lack of time. Textbooks
Haas and Laughlin (2015), more teachers are teaching current events because it is a great
tool for gathering of current information and a way to explain abstract concepts, but they
do not use current events. The Araling Panlipunan benchmarks encourage “teachers to
use current events as a means to support the learning of core knowledge in these
disciplines and makes it very difficult to find time or resources for the development of
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other units and projects”. Mary Haas and Margaret Laughlin (2015) feel by studying
current events, a student uses research and critical thinking skills. When teacher use
current events in their classroom, it develops a student’s empathy, global awareness, and
allows students to hear other point of views and allow questioning in an academic
environment.
In the Philippine textbooks, Dela Cruz (2011) concluded that 84% of 2nd chapter
questions in Araling Panlipunan textbooks are subsumable under low level questioning, a
traditionally oriented techniques, while in the Brandwein, Fenton and Games &
Michellies series, foreign books and authors- his findings are 80%, 91.3 percent and 67%
associated variables and its implications to quality education, He found out that the
different personal profile of the teacher respondents were not significantly related to the
different variables used in the teaching of Araling Panlipunan such as methods, strategies
and approaches used, instructional materials, aids and devices and the types of
National Achievement Test of Maliwalo High School showed that their level of
panlipunan. The overall mean percentage scores have consistently decreased over a
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period of three school years, none of the competencies/skills tested in NAT in Araling
Panlipunan yielded average mean percentage scores considered within the range of
mastered, closely approximating mastery, very low mastery, or absolute no mastery. The
competencies/skills have average mean percentage scores falling under the range of
average mastery.
Professional Characteristics
background which are of interest in their own right and as a context for later analysis in
A study conducted by Lucas (2013) observed from the results of his study that
teaching performance is related to the following variables: (a) highest degree earned, (b)
field of specialization, (c) length of teaching and (d) in-service training program.
licensure/certification, and their teaching experience may serve as a key gauge for how
much teachers are knowledgeable about content, curriculum, pedagogy, students, and
contexts. It is common belief that academic degree background has much to do with
teachers’ knowledge of content, pedagogy, and curriculum. About 20% of social studies
teachers had neither a major nor a minor in any of the social sciences, social studies
education or social studies related field. Teachers in social studies field which is one of
broad multi-disciplinarian areas are assigned to teach any of subjects within social studies
department. Although a teacher has a certificate in social studies field, he or she is not
qualified to teach all of the content areas in the field. Actually, over half of teachers who
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teach history did not have a major or minor in history. Teachers who are required to teach
subjects in which they have little education might invest more time on preparation for the
subject, and might allocate less amount of preparation time to their other courses
(Ingersoll, 2013). Pace’s (2012) research also shows an effect of social studies teachers’
academic background on their classroom practices. 7th grade social studies teachers who
participated in the study were originally elementary school teachers and did not have
much experience at the middle school level. Teachers who are educated well in their
content knowledge are more competent to design and convey powerful instructions than
Teachers’ academic degrees (e.g., bachelors or master, etc.) are inclusive. Some
studies showed positive effects of advanced degrees (Betts, et al., 2013), while other
showed negative effects (Ehrenberg and Brewer, 2014). Some argue that the requirement
of a second degree raises the cost in terms of teacher education and the time it involves
and may prevent quality candidates from choosing teaching profession (Murnane, 2016).
Position. Aguirre (2012) states that the present position considered an important
related to the teaching creativity and management of teachers. She explained that
whatever the position of teachers (e.g., Teacher 1, Teacher 2, Teacher 3) need to possess
more knowledge and skills to be more creative and competent in their teaching
profession. The same findings with Mamades (2017) that teachers very high level of
shows very high level such as language and teaching, while highly competent in
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that despite the influence of the high stakes testing on social studies teaching, “teachers
are not passive victims of school policy; they continue to make important decisions as
they interpret policy and create educational experiences for their students”. Teaching
experience appears to have much to do with teacher knowledge and professional ability
(2016) notes that as teachers are more experienced, they tend to be better informed about
social studies instruction, teaching strategies under time pressures, jam-packed classroom
full of students, mandated testing movement. Smith presumes that the subjects in her
study use wise, critical practices because they have ample teaching experience.
positive relationship between teacher competence and effectiveness and their years of
experience, but not always a significant or an entirely linear one (Murnane and Phillips,
2013). Evidence currently available suggests that while inexperienced teachers are less
effective than more senior teachers, the benefits of experience appear to level of after a
Trainings and seminars attended. It is very likely that teachers who teach
subjects for which they have little education or training are not knowledgeable about the
subjects they teach and do not have expertise in general and subject so that they can meet
diverse learning needs and abilities of students (Ingersoll, 2013). Teachers without a
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strong background in the field are unlikely to be competent in teaching students how to