EPA 625/1-75-003a

PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL

FOR
SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVAL

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

Technology Transfer

January 1975
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This manual was prepared for the Technology Transfer Office of the U.S. Envirom:nental
Protection Agency by Hazen and Sawyer, Engineers. The previous edition of this manual .
(October, 1971) was prepared for Technology Transfer by Burns and Roe, Inc. Major
U.S.~EiP.A.·c~ntributors and 'reviewers ·were · J.F. Kreiss) and J.M.· Smith, of ··the
U.S.EPA National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, and D.J. Lussier of
Technology Transfer, Washington, D.C.

NOTICE

The mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is for illustration
purposes and does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.

ii
 ABSTRACT

This manual surveys current practice in the removal of suspended solids in both traditional
and advanced treatment of municipal wastewater. Specific processes are described, design·
considerations are discussed and results are illustrated by data from actual installations.

Included are processes such as sedimentation, straining and granular media filtration.
which affect physical separation of solids as well as cpagulation and flocculation processes
which alter solids characteristics to facilitate such separation. Detailed information is also·
provided concerning handling and application of coagulant chemicals.

Aspects of operation and maintenance pertinent to design are discussed and estimated
costs of construction and operation are provided for particular processes.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS II
ABSTRACT Ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF FIGURES VII·
LIST OF TABLES ··'·l.
XII
FOREWARD xv

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose 1-1
1.2 Wastewater Solids 1-1
1.3 References 1-3
2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 Applications of Suspended 2-1
Solids Separation Processes
2.2 Process Selection 2-1
3 FLOW VARIATIONS AND EQUALIZATION
3.1 Flow Variation 3-1
3.2 Performance vs. Flow Variation 3-1
3.3 Fiow Equaiization 3-2
3.4 References 3-2
4 PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT
4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Destabilization Mechanisms 4-1
4.3 Selection of Chemical Coagulants 4-2
4.4 Coagulation Control 4-6
4.5 References 4-16
5 ·STORAGE AND FEEDING OF CHEMICALS
5.1 General 5-1
5.2 Aluminum Compounds 5-1
5.3 Iron Compounds 5-16
5.4 Lime 5-24
5.5 Other Inorganic Chemicals 5-34
5.6 Polymers · 5-50
5.7 Chemical Feeders 5-59
5.8 References 5-66
6 CHEMICAL MIXING, FLOCCULATION AND
SOLIDS-CONTACT PROCESSES
6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Chemical Mixing 6-3
6.3 Flocculation 6-5
6.4 Solids-Contact Processes 6-8
6.5 References 6-12

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

CHAPTER PAGE
7 GRAVITY SEPARATION
7.1 Introduction 7- l
7.2 Configuration of Sedimentation units 7-l
7.3 Basic Factors Affecting Settling Tank Design 7-2
7.4 Clarifier Design Considerations 7-9
7.5 Primary Sedimentation 7-14
7.6 Secondary Sedimentation 7-15
7.7 Chemical Sedimentation 7-22
7.8 Flotation 7-23
7.9 Shallow Settling Devices 7-27
7.10 Wedge-Wire Settlers 7-32
7. l l References . 7-35
8 PHYSICAL STRAINING PROCESSES
8.1 General 8-1
8.2 Wedge-Wire Screens 8-1
8.3 M icroscreening 8-9
8.4 Other Screening Devices 8-31
8.5 Diatomaceous Earth Filters 8-33
8.6 Ultrafiltration 8-36
8.7 References 8-43
9 GRANULAR MEDIA FILTRATION
9. l Introduction 9-1
9.2 Process Alternatives 9-3
9.3 Process Variables 9-9
9.4 Selection of Filtration Rate 9-20
and Terminal Headloss
9.5 Filtration Media 9-26
9.6 Filter Control Systems 9-31
9.7 Filter Cleaning Systems 9-35
9.8 Filter Structures and General 9-45
Arrangement
9.9 Pilot Studies 9-46
9.10 Special Designs 9-48
9.11 Slow Sand Filters 9-52
9.12 References 9-54
10 COST ESTIMATES·
10. l Introduction 10-1
10.2 Curve Content 10-1
10.3 Operation and Maintenance Costs l 0-1
10.4 Freight 10-2
10.5 How to Use Cost Curves 10-2
10.6 Curve Descriptions 10-2
10.7 References 10-16

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page

4-1 Jar Test Units With Mechanical (Top) 4-8

and Magnetic (Bottom) Stirrers

4-2 Six-Position Sampler 4-9

4-3 Settling Curves Frequently Obtained 4-10

4-4 Jar Test Results '4-12

4-5 Zeta Potential Apparatus 4-13

4-6 Coagulation of Raw Sewage Wi'th Alum 4-15

5-1 Typical Dry Feed System 5-7

5-2 Crystallization of Alum Solutions 5-11

5-3 Viscosity of Alum Solutions 5-12

5-4 Alternative Liquid Feed Systems 5-14

For Overhead Storage

5-5 Alternative Liquid Feed Systems 5-'14

For Ground Storage

5-6 Freezing Point Curves For Commercial 5-17

Ferric Chloride Solutions

5-7 Viscosity vs. Composition of Ferric 5-18

Chlori<;.ie Solutions at Various Temperatures

5-8 Typical Lime Feed System· 5-31

5-9 Lime Requirement For\pH ~ 11.0 as a 5-35

Function of the Wastewater Alkalinity

5-10 Viscosity of Soda Solutions 5-37

5-11 Viscosity of Caustic Soda Solutions 5-40

5-12 Typical Caustic Soda Feed System 5-45

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

Figure No. Page

5-13 Typical Schematic of a Dry Polymer Feed System 5-57

5-14 Typical Automatic Polymer Feed . 5-58

System for Large Plants

5-15 Positive Displacement Pumps 5-61

5-16 Screw Feeder 5-63

5-17 Positive Displacement Solid Feeder-Rotary 5-63

6-1 Impeller Mixer 6-4

6-2 Mechanical Flocculation Basin 6-7

Horizontal Shaft-Reel Type

6-3 Mechanical Flocculator Vertical 6-7

Shaft- Paddle Type

6-4 Solids Contact Clarifier Without 6-9

Sludge Blanket Filtration

6-5 Solids Contact Clarifier With Sludge 6-10

Blanket Filtration

7-1 Rectangular Settling Tanks 7-3

7-2 Typical Clarifier Configurations 7-4

7-3 Results of Salt-Injection Tests With 7-6

Different Types of Sedimentation Tanks

7-4 Schematic Representation of Settling Zones 7-10

7-5 Sedimentation In a Secondary Settling Tank 7-10

7-6 Dependence of M LSS Concentration on Secondary 7-17

Settling Tank Underflow Concentration

7-7 Typical Flotation Unit 7-25

7-8 Module of Steeply Inclined Tubes 7-28

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

Figure No. Page

7-9 Tube Settlers in Existing Clarifier 7-29

7-10 Plan View of Modified Clarifier 7-29

7-11 Tube Settler-Flow Pattern 7-30

7-12 Simple Wedge Wire Clarifier 7-33

7-13 Installation of Wedge Wire Panels in <I: Clarifier 7-33

8-1 Hydrasieve Unit 8-3

8-2 Schematic 8-3

8-3 Screen Detail 8-4

8-4 Curved Screen Bars 8-4

8-5 Rotating Wedge Wire Screen at North 8-8

Chicago S.T.P.

8-6 Typical M icroscreen Unit 8-10

8-7 Micro-Matic ®Strainer 8-11

8-8 Microscreen Capacity Chart 8-16

8-9 1
Microscreen Removal at Various Flow Rates 8-23

8-10 Microscreening o.f Trickling Filter Plant Effluent· 8-24

8-11 Microscreen Unit With Pleated Outer Surface 8-27

8-12 The Sweco Concentrator 8-32

8-13 Vertical Leaf Vacuum Filter 8-34

8-14 Vertical Leaf Pressure Filter 8-35

8-15 Schematic Flow Diagram of the Pikes Peak 8-37

Treatment & Reuse System

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

Figure No. Page

8-16 "Storage Battery" Membrane Modules 8-41

9-1 Typical Rapid Sand Filter 9-4

9-2 Filter Configurations 9-5

9-3 Cross Section of Upflow Filter 9-6

9-4 Typical Pressure Filter 9-8

9-5 Run Length vs. Filter Rate for Various 9-21

Terminal Headlosses

9-6 Net Production Rate vs. Filter Rate 9-24

for Various Run Lengths

9-7 Grain Size Curve 9-27

9-8 Flow Control Systems 9-33

9-9 Automatic Gravity Filter, Single Compartment 9-36

9-10 Minimum Fluidization Velocity, Vmf, to Achieve 9-37

10 Percent Bed Expansion at 25 °c

9-11 . Effect of Temperature on Vmf for Sand and Coal 9-38

and on Absolute Viscosity of Water

9-12 Underdrains 9-40

9-13 Simater Filter 9-49

9-14 Hydromation In-Depth Filter 9-50

9-15 Hardinge Trav~lling Backwash Filter 9-51

IO-I Flocculators-Flash Mixers 10-3

10-2 Chemical Feed Systems 10-5

10-3 Sedimentation 10-7

x
 LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

Figure No. Page

10-4 Solids Contact 10-8

10-5 Flotation 10-10

10-6 Wire Septums and Settling Tubes 10-11

10-7 Wedge Wire Screens: Rotating and Stationary 10-13

10-8 Microscreens 10-14

10-9 Media Filters 10-15

xi.
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page

2-1 Selected SS Separation Process Applications 2-2

4-1 SS Removal Performance For Chemical Coagulation 4-4

Applica'tioris To Phosphate Removal

5-1 Partial List of Alum Manufacturing Plants 5-2

5-2 Reactions of Aluminum Sulfate 5-15

5-3 Reactions of Ferric Sulfate 5-23

5-4 Reactions of Ferrous Sulfate 5-24

5-5 Partial List of Lime Manufacturing Plants 5-25

5-6 Reactions of Lime 5-34

5-7 Partial List of Caustic Soda Manufacturing Plants 5-39

5-8 C02Yields of Common Fuels 5-46

5-9 Partial List of Carbon Dioxide Manufacturing Plants 5-47

5-12 Partial List of Polymer Sources and Trade Names 5-51

5-11 Types of Chemical Feeders 5-65

7-1 Performance of Special Settling Tank Inlets 7-13

7-2 Typical Design Parameters For Primary Clarifiers 7-14

7-3 Typical Design Parameters For Secondary Clarifiers 7-16

7-4 Dissolved-Air Flotation Applications 7-26

7-5 Tube Settler Installations 7-31

xiii
 LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Table No. -Page

s--1 Physical Straining Processes 8-2

8-2 Specifications of Hydrasieves 8-5

8-3 Wedge-Wire Screens: Municipal Treatment Installations 8-7

8-4 Data Sheet-Wedge Wire Screens 8-9

8-5 · M icroscreen Design Parameters 8-13

8-6 Microscreen Installations 8-17

8-7 Municipal Microscreen Installations 8-18

8-8 Typical Microscreen Power and Space Requirements 8-28

8-9 Diatomaceous Earth Filtration of Secondary Effluent 8-36

8-10 Results of Ultrafiltration Installations 8-38

8-11 Summary of Pikes Peak Data 8~39

8-12 Typical Membrane Specifications 8-42

9-1 Results of Studies of Filtration of Effluents From 9-12

Secondary Biological Tr!e:atment

9-2 Results of Studies of Filtration of Chemically 9-15

Treated Secondary Effluent

9-3 Results of Studies of Filtration Following Chemical 9-16

Treatment of Primary or Raw Wastewater

9-4 Expected Effluent Suspended Solids From Multimedia 9-17

Filtration of Secondary Effluent

9-5 Typical Media Designs For Filters 9-30

9-6 Filter Gravel Design 9-43

xiv
 FOREWARD

The formation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency marked a new era
of environmental awareness in America. This Agency's goals are national in scope and
encompass broad responsibility in the areas of air and water pollution, solid wastes,
pesticides, and radiation. A vital part of EPA's national water pollution control effort is
the constant development and dissemination of new technology for wastewater treatment.

It is now clear that only the most effective design and operation of wastewater treatment
facilities, using the latest avaiable techniques, will be adequate to meet the future water
quality objectives and to ensure continued protection of the nation's waters. It is
essential that this new technology be incorporated into the contemporary design of waste
treatment faCilities to achieve maximum benefit of our pollution control expenditures.

The purpose of this manual is to provide the engineering community and related industry
a new source of information to be used in the planning, design and operation of present
and future wastewater treatment facilities. It is recognized that there are a number of ·
design manuals, manuals of standard practice, and design guidelines currently available in
the field that adequately describe and interpret current engineering practices as related to
traditional plant design. It is the intent of this manual to supplement this existing body
of knowledge by describing new treatment methods, and by discussing the application of
new techniques for more effectively removing a broad spectrum of contaminants from
wastewater.

Much of the information presented is based on the evaluation and operation of pilot,
demonstration and full-scale plants. The design criteria thus generated represent typical
· values. These values should be used as a guide and should be tempered with sound
engineering judgment based on a complete analysis of the specific application.

This manual is one of several available through the Technology Transfer Office of EPA to
describe recent technological advances and new information. This particular manual was
initially issued in October of 197 l and this edition represents the first revision to the
basic text. Future editions will be issued as warranted by advancing state-of-the-art to
include new data as it becomes available, and to revise design criteria as additional
full-scale operational information is generated.

xv
 CHAPTER l

INTRODUCTION
l. l Purpose

.This manual is intended to provide:

l. A basis for selection of processes to meet specific suspended solids (SS) removal
irequirements

2. A basis for design of particular processes

3. A basis for selection of particular equipment configurations for a given process.

Since the emphasis is on information applicable to design or modifications of solids remov-

al facilities, ·only those processes are included for which reliable data from actual appli-
cations are available. ·

l.2 Wastewater Solids

The total solids in wastewater exist in a distribution. of sizes from individual ions up to vis-
ibie particles. Specific anaiyticai procedures ( i) have been estabii.shed to distinguish the sus-
pended fraction of the total solids and to further distinguish the settleable fraction within
the SS. A typical concentration of SS for raw domestic wastewaters is 200 mg/ l, but this
can vary substantially from system to system (see below). The lower limiting size for the SS
fraction (about l .5 microns) is arbitrarily defined by the test procedures and it should be
1 1
noted that variations in .testi procedures themselves can· also' lead to"widely varying results; es-
pecially at the low solids levels characteristic of treated effluents.

Other workers (2) (3) (4) have applied procedures which distinguish four solids fractions,
and determine proportions of other wastewater characteristics such as COD, Nitrogen, Vol-
atile (organic) matter in each fraction. For a New Jersey municipal raw wastewater, solids
distribution in terms of these fractions was found to be as follows (2):

Raw Wastewater Secondary Effluent

Size Total Volatile· Total · Volatile
Fraction Ran~e Solids Matter Solids Matter
Microns mg/l , mg/l mg/l mg/l

Soluble <0.001 351 116 312 62

Colloidal 0.001-1 31 23 8 6

Supra- 1-100 57 43 28 24
Colloidal

Settleable >100 74 59 0 0

1-1
 The settleable and supracolloidal fractions together are essentially equivalent to the sus-
pended fraction referred to above. Dividing lines between fractions again are somewhat ar-
bitrary depending on tests applied, and overall concentrations in different fractions can vary
substantially between systems depending on factors such as water use, travel time in sewers,
ground-water infiltration, and prevalence of home garbage grinding. Contributions of dis-
.solved, colloidal and suspended solids from individual homes, multi-family dwellings or oth-
er point sources often have concentrations two or more times the average for a whole sys-
tem (5).

In addition to particle size, specific gravity and strength or shear resistance of wastewater
solids may affect solids separation performance. The three basic types of solids separation
processes-gravity separation, physical straining, and granular media filtration are dis-
cussed in Chapters 7, 8 and 9, respectively. Wastewater solids characteristics can be altered
to enhance performance of the above separation processes. Chapters 4 and 6 discuss chem-
ical treatment (precipitation and/ or coagulation) and physical treatment (flocculation)
aimed at alteration of solids characteristics. In addition, during the separation processes
themselves, agglomeration and compaction of solids generally continues, increasing separa-
tion efficiency and reducing the volume of separated solids.

Biological wastewater treatment processes also affect solids characteristics and hence solids
separation. Activated sludge solids have been found (6) to have a distinct bimodal dis-
tribution with one mode in the supracolloidal to settleable range and another near the bor-
der between the colloidal and supracolloidal fractions. The concentrations and size limits in
each range are affected by conditions in the biological reactor (Chapter 6). Dean (7) has
noted that bacteria, cellular debris, etc. fall into the finer (colloidal-supracolloidal) range.
Agglomeration of these finer solids generally increases the efficiency of subsequent separa-
tion processes.

1-2
1.3 References

l. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 13th Edition,
-American Public Health Association, New York (1971).
~

2. Rickert, David A. and Hunter, Joseph V., General Nature of Soluble and Particulate
Organics in Sewage and Secondary Effluent, Water Research, 5, 421 (1971).

3. Hunter, J. V., and Heukelekian, H. The Composition of Domestic Sewage Fractions, ·

JWPCF, 37, 1142 (Aug. 1965).

4. Helfgott, T ., Hunter, J. V. and Rickert, D., Analytic and Process Classification of Ef-
fluents, Jour. SED, ASCE, 96, 779 (June 1970).

5. Rawn, A. M., Some Effects of Home Garbage Grinding Upon Domestic Sewage, The
American City, 66, 110 (Mar. 1951) -

6. Tchobanoglous, G., and Eliassen, R., The Filtration of Treated Sewage Effluent, Pro-
-ceedings o-f the- 24th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University Engineering
Bulletin, Extension Series No. 135, 1323 (May, 1969).

7. Dean, Robert B., Colloids Complicate Treatment Process, Env. Sci. and Tech., 3, 820
(Sept. 1969).

1-3
Meaningful cost comparisons usually involve practically the entire process configuration of
the treatment facility, including processes for disposal of solid residues, and reflect how the
individual unit processes affect one another.

Cost data on individual processes for suspended solids removal are given in Chapter 10.
Outlined below are some additional factors not reflected in the unit process cost figures, but
which may warrant considerati-0n in overall comparisons.

1. Sludge Handling. Where chemical treatment is used to remove BOD or phos-

phates or improve SS removals, significant quantities of chemical sludge. are pro-
duced. The cost of disposal of this sludge must be considered in process selection
unless configurations being compared involve similar chemical treatment. The ac-
tual cost involved will depend greatly on the particular method of sludge disposal to
be used. For general guidance, in a 10 mgd plant using thickening, digestion, vacu-
um filtration and landfill for sludge disposal, chemical addition of 200 mg/l alum
would increase the sludge disposal costs by almost 20 percent (from 9.7cents/1000
gal to 11.5 cents/ 1000 gal of plant flow on a 1972 cost basis) (Chapter 10, Refer-
ence 14).

Where this difference appears significant in the comparison of alternatives for SS

removal, specific sludge disposal figures should be included in process comparisons.
Information on expected sludge quantities from particular chemical treatment pro-
cesses is provided in Chapter 4.

2. Buildings. The need for housing specific unit process varies with climate and other
local conditions. Where the housing requf rements of alternative processes obviously
differ widely under particular local conditions, building cost should be considen~d
in the selection.

3. Land Requirements .. Generally, land requirements are a small enough factor in

overall cost that the differences for various process alternatives are not significant.
Where adequate land is unavailable or very costly, however, area requirements of
alternative processes should be compared in detail. Minimum land requirements
may be estimated. at between 1.20 (large plants) and 2.0 (small plants) times the
area of the process units themselves.

4. Head requirements . .Some of the processes employed for SS separation (sedimen-

tation, microscreens, etc.) require relatively small head (only 2 to 3 ft. to overcome
losses at inlet and effluent controls and in connecting piping). Others, such as gran-
ular-media filters, and wedge-wire screens, require greater differential head (10 ft
or more). Differences in head requirements are most significant where they necessi-
tate capital outlay for an extra pumping step. The costs for pumping, however, even
with lifts above 10 ft. are usually not large in relation to the overall costs for treat-
ment facilities.

2-3
 CHAPTER 2

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

2. 1 Applications of Suspended Solids Separation Processes

Processes for SS separation may fill three distinct functions in wastewater treatment.

1. Pretreatment to protect subsequent processes and reduce their loadings to re-

quir"ed levels

2. Treatment to reduce effluent concentrations to required standards

3. Separation of solids to produce concentrated recycle streams required to maintain

· other processes.

In the first two functions effluent quality is the prime consideration, but where the third
function must be fulfilled along with one of the others, design attention must be given to
conditions for both the separated solids (sludge) and the process effluent.

Table 2-1 compares several SS separation process applications selected to illustrate how
their performance and their loading requirements are functions of their applications.

Wedge-wire screens can operate at very. high hydraulic and solids loadings, but do not great-
1
ly reduce .SS. Hence, wedge wire screens are limited to pretreatment applications where
subsequent processes will assure production of a satisfactory final effluent. They can be
. considered as an adjunct to primary sedimentation or, where conditions prescribe, as an
· alternative.

Sedimentation units must operate at relatively low hydraulic loadings (large space require-
ments), but can accept high solids loadings. With proper chemical or biological pre-
treatment and design, they can produce good quality effluents.

Microscreens and granular-media filters, operating at significantly higher hydraulic loads

than sedimentation units, can produce an effluent with lower SS than is possible with sedi-
mentation alone. In general they are not designed to accept high solids loadings, and are
normally used following other processes which put out relatively low effluent SS concentra-
. tions.

2.2 Process Selection

Selection of one of the alternative processes can be based on cost only where all factors not
reflected in cost are equivalent. Direct cost comparison of individual solids removal pro-
cesses usually proves impossible because of differences in factors such as: 1) effluent quali-
ty, 2) pretreatment requirements, 3) effects on sludge processing, 4) housing, space and
head requirements.

2-l
 TABLE 2-1
I SELECTED SS"SEPARATION PROCE~_S·APPLICATIONS

Typical Loading Ranges

Type of Separation Expected Effluent
Process Application H~draulic Intl. Solids ss<a> (b) Remarks
gpm/sq ft mg/I lb/day /sq ft mg/I

Straining
Wedge Wire Screens Preliminary Treatment 10-30 200 25· 75 150-190
of Raw Wastewater

Microscreens Polishing of Bio- 3-10 30 1-2 5-15

logical System Effluent

Gravity Separation
Plain Sedimentation Primary Treatment 0.4-1.6 200 0.5-2 120-80
Chemical Coagula· Chemical Treatment 0.3-1.0 2oo<c> 1-6 20-60 Chemical treatment for
tion and of Raw Sewage 90% + phosphorus removal.
N
I
N Settling (Phosphate Removal
Levels)
Plain Sedimentation Separation of Solids 0.25- 2000- 4-40 10-50 Upper effluent quality
(secondary) after Activated 0.75 5000 Limit may increase with poor
Sludge Treatment biological treatment.
Allowable solids loadings de-
pends on solids characteristics.

Granular Media Polishing of Bio- 4-8 30 1-2 5-15

Filtration logical Effluent or
Filtration of Chemi-
cally-Coagulated and
Settled Raw 3-S 40 1-2 10-20
Wastewater or
Secondary Effluent 3-5 5-10 1-2 1-3 Secondary treatment may be
biological or by activated
carbon.

(a) Based on raw wastewater SS of 200 mg/l.

~) Performance is highly dependent on character of solids appli~d hence on conditions in prior treatment.
~ Influent solids do not include chemical solids.
 CHAPTER 3

FLOW VARIATIONS AND EQUALIZATION

· 3 .1 Flow Variation

Both the rate and characteristics of. the inflow to most treatment plants vary significantly
with time. Diurnal cycles are found in all domestic discharges. Weekly and seasonal cycles
are common in municipal systems as are variations between wet and dry weather.

Even where only domestic flows are involved, the magnitude of variations can differ widely
between different systems depending on system configuration, water use habits of the
population and opportunities for groundwater infiltration or direct inflow of surface or
subsurface drainage. Industrial and institutional flows where significant, can further alter
domestic patterns.

Because of these wide differences, design of treatment facilities should be based, whenever·
· possible, on measurements of actual flow variations in existing systems. In projects being
submitted for federal construction grants, analysis of existing flows is required in any case
to identify "excessive" infiltration/ inflow. Flows are considered excessive if they can be
eliminated more cheaply than they can be treated. Projected flow variations from existing
systems should reflect elimination of excessive flows.

Flows tend to be less variable in larger systems, due chiefly to differing times of travel from
different sections and to damping effects of flow storage in large sewers. Widely varying
relations have been reported between peak-to-average or minimum-to-average flow ratios
and system size (i.e. average flow or tributary population) (I) (2) (3) (4). Care should be
taken in using any of these relations for estimating flow variations in new systems or system
additions. In terms of the factors which affect flow variations, applications should be
limited to systems similar to those for which the relation was originally developed.
Relations for which the basis is unclear should be disregarded.

3.2 Performance vs. Flow Variation

Variations in influent flow rate and characteristics affect performance of all suspended
solids removal processes to some degree. Relations between performance and hydraulic or
solids loadings are discussed for individual processes in succeeding chapters. Magnitude and
character of significant recycled flows resulting from specific processes ar_e_ also indicated.

Relations between performance and loadings are frequently developed in pilot units run
under steady flow conditions, or from data from actual plants compiled without close
attention to short-term peaks. In using such relations for design decisions, care must be
taken to _allow for the effects of short term flow variations on performance. Short term
would include any time span less than that for which performance requirements are stated.·
Typically requirements are on a monthly average basis, often with a less stringent
requirement for the worst week or worst day within the month.

3-1
Designs based on maximum 24-hour flow, with allowance for diurnal peaks, Provide
. some
I
margin so that weekly or monthly requirements can be met even when other factors
affecting process performance are not optimum.

3.3 Flow Equalization

Equalization storage can be used to reduce diurnal variations in flow and in concentration
of SS or other wastewater characteristics. Storage may also be used to handle peaks caused .
by direct inflow to the sewers during wet weather. Assuming that equivalent performance
can be obtained either by increasing the size of treatment facilities or by providing
equalizing basins, selection between these approaches can be based on their relative costs
and environmental impacts. In plants using processes involving large, short-term recycle
flows-such as for backwashing granular media filters-equalization is almost always
justified.

The EPA Process Design Manual for Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants
provides a basis for design of equalization facilities to achieve any given degree of equaliza-
tion of either peak flows or peak flows and solid loadings ( 5). Material from the Design
Manual relevant to flow equalization only is also available in a separate publication ( 6).

3 .4 References

1. Smith, R., and Eiler, R. G., Simulation of the Time-Dependent Performance of the Ac-
tivated Sludge Process Using the Digital Computer, U.S. EPA, National Environmental
Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio (October, 1970).

2. Duttweiler, D. W. & Purcell, L. T., Character and Quantity of Wastewater from Small
Populations, Jour. WPCF, Vol. 34, pg. 63 (1962).

3. Boyle Engineering and Lowry and Associates, Master Plan Trunk Sewer Facilities for
County Sanitation District No. 3 of Orange County, California, (June, 1968).

4. Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm Sewers, ASCE Manual of Engineering
Practice No. 37, WPCF Manual of Practice No. 9 (1970).

5. Process Design Manual for Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Technology Transfer, Washington, D.C. 20460
(revised 1974).

6. Flow Equalization, Technology Transfer Seminar Publication, U.S. Environmental Pro-

tection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460 (May 1974).

3-2
 CHAPTER 4

PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL TREATMENT

4. l Introduction

· Chemical coagulation and flocculation are accomplished by a combination of physical and

chemical processes which thoroughly mix the chemicals with the wastewater and promote
· the aggregation of wastewater solids into particles large enough to be separated by sedimen-
tation, flotation, media filtration or straining. The strength of the aggregated particles de-
-termine.s iile"lr limiting-~ize and their resistance to shear in subsequent processes.

For particles in the colloidal and fine supracolloidal size ranges (<I to 2 !11icrons) natural
stabilizing forces (electrostatic repulsion, physical separation by absorbed water layers) pre-
dominate over the natural aggregating forces (van der Waals) and the natural mechanism
(Brownian movement) which tends to cause particle contact. Coagulation of these fine par-
.ticfe~ in~olves ·both destabilization and physical processes which disperse coagulants and in-
. crease the opportunities for particle contact. Destabilization, the action of chemical coag-
ulants, is discussed in this chapter. Physical processes, including chemical mixing, floccula-
tion, and solids contact processes, are discussed in Chapter 6.

Chemical coagulants used in wastewater treatment are general_ly th_e s~m~ a,s_those used in
potable water treatment and include: alum, ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, ferrous chloride,
ferrous sulfate and lime. The effectiveness of a particular coagulant varies in different appli-
cations, and in a given application each coagulant has both an optimum concentration and
an optimum pH range.

In addition to coagulants themselves, certain chemicals may be applied for pH or alkalinity

adjustment (lime, soda ash) or as flocculating agents (organic polymers). For full effective-
ness chemical coagulation requires initial rapid mixing (Chapter 6) to thoroughly disperse
the applied chemicals so that they can react with suspended and colloidal solids uniformly.

4.2 Destabilization Mechanisms

The destabilizing action of chemical coagulants in wastewater may involve any of the fol-
lowing mechanisms:

1. Electrostatic charge reduction by adsorption of counter ions

2. Inter-particle bridging by adsorption of specific chemical groups in polymer chains

3. Physical enmes~ment of fine solids in gelatinous hydrolysis products of the coag-

ulants.

The significance of these mechanisms in design is considered briefly below. Extensive dis-
cussion of the mechanisms can be found in the literature (I) (2) (3) (4).

4-1
 4.2. l Electrostatic Charge Reduction

Finely dispersed wastewater solids generally have a negative charge. Adsorption of cations
from metal salt coagulants (in the case of iron and aluminum from their hydrolysis prod-
ucts), or from cationic polymers can reduce or reverse this charge.

Where electrostatic charge reduction is a significant destabilization mechanism, care must

be taken not to overdose with coagulant. This can cause complete charge reversal with res-
. tabilization of the oppositely charged coagulant-colloid complex.

4.2.2 Interparticle Bridging

When polymeric coagulants contain specific chemical groups which can interact with sites ·
,on the surfaces of colloid particles, the polymer may adsorb to and serve as a bridge be-
tween the particles. Coagulation using polyelectrolytes of the same charge as the colloids or
non-ionic polymers depends on this mechanism. Restabilization may occur if excessive do-
sages of polymer are used. In this case all sites on the colloids may adsorb polymer mole-
cules without any bridging. Excessive mixing can also cause restabilization by fracture or
displacement of polymer chains.

4.2.3 Enmeshment in Preciptated Hydrolysis Products

Hydroxides of iron, aluminum or, at high pH, magnesium form gelatinous hydrolysis prod-
ucts which are extremely effective in enmeshing fine particles of other material. These
hydroxides are formed by reaction of metal salt coagulants with hydroxyl ions from the nat-
ural alkalinity in the water or from added alkaline chemicals such as lime or soda ash. Suf-
ficient natural magnesium is frequently present in wastewaters so that effective coagulation
is obtained merely by raising the pH with lime. Organic polymers do not form hydrolysis
products of significance in this mechanism. At a pH value lower than that required to pre-
cipitate magnesium, the precipitates produced by lime treatment are frequently ineffective
. in enmeshing. the colloidal matter in wastewater. The remedy for this condition generally in-
volved addition of low dosage of iron salts or polymers as coagulant aids both to destabilize
and to increase the probability of enmeshment of colloids.

Coagulants may also react with other constituents of the wastewater, particularly anions
such as phosphate and sulfate, forming hydroloysis products containing various mixtures of
ions. The chemistry of the reactions- is extremely complex and highly dependent on pH and
alkalinity. The presence of high concentrations of these anions may require increased doses
of coagulants or pH adjustment to achieve effective removals of SS.

4.3 Selection of Chemical Coagulants

Design of chemical treatment facilities for SS removal must take into account: l) the types
and quantities of chemicals to be applied as coagulants, coagulant aids and for pH control
and 2) the associated requirements for chemical handling and feeding (Chapter 5) and for
mixing and flocculation after chemical addition (Chapter 6). Reactions of specific coag-

4-2
ulant chemicals are detailed in Chapter 5.

Selection of coagulants should be based on jar testing of the actual wastewater (Section 4.5)
to determine dosages and effectiveness, and on consideration of the cost and availability of
different coagulants. Where expected changes in waste characteristics or market conditions
may favor different coagulants at different times, chemical feed and handling should be set
up to permit a switchover. In developing a testing prog·ram general information on ex-
perience at other locations and on costs should be considered to aid in selection of processes
and coagulants to be tested.

Experience to date wit~ improved SS removal from chemical coagulation has been almost
solely in systems designed to remove phosphorus. Guidelines for design and coagulant selec-
tion for such systems are available in another manual (5). Descriptive data and SS removal
performance for several existing phosphorus removal installations are summarized in Table
4-1.

Few cases have been reported involving chemical coagulation aimed at SS removal alone
without
. -
phosphorous
·- -- ·-
removal
- -
requirements.
.. - -·.
Anionic
-
polymers have been used to increase
SS removal in primary treatment at Rocky River, Ohio (6). Doses of 0.3 mg/ 1 reduced SS
from 107 mg/ 1 to 65 mg/ l. Mogelnicki (7) reported use of anionic polymer at a dosage of 1
mg/ 1 to improve primary clarifier SS removal from 43 percent to 76 percent.

In discussing the favorable results sometimes obtained in polymer ·a-pplications O'Melia (4)
warns that it can be a time-consuming task to find the specific conditions (pH, ionic
strength, polymer type, molecular weight, degree of hydrolysis, etc.) which will provide
economy and effectiveness.

Pilot work at Denver, Colorado (8) on coagulation of effluent from an activated sludge nit-
rification system showed substantial reductions in SS, turbidity, BOD and other pollution
parameters, using lime and alum doses well below those needed for effective phosphate re-
moval. Lime dosages of 100 mg/ l were sufficient to reduce SS to below 15 mg/ l after settl-
ing and 5 mg/ l after filtration. Phosphate reduction was less than 80 percent. Alum do-
sages of about 50 mg/ l were sufficient to reduce suspended solids and phosphorus concen-
trations to similar levels. In direct filtration of alum-coagulated nitrified effluent, SS were
reduced to less than 2 mg/ l with an alum dosage of 60 mg/ l. Phosphate reductions at this
alum concentration were only about 65 percent (6-7 mg/ l residual). This latter practice is
accompanied by shorter filter runs due to significant increases in solids loading.

Calgon Corporation investigated the use of ferric chloride with polymer addition for a small
municipal wastewater treatment plant at Leetsdale, Pennsylvania (9). Ferric chloride do-
sages were less than those necessary for 80 percent phosphate removal. Dosages and SS re-
ductions are shown
·-
below:
-

4-3
 TABLE 4.-1

SS REMOVAL PERFORMANCE FOR

CHEMICAL COAGULATION APPLICATIONS TO PHOSPHATE REMOVAL
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
PLANT AVERAGE BASIC Settled DATA OVERFLOW
LOCATION PROCESS SIZE CHEMICAL FEED EH EgUIPMENT Inf. Eff. PERIOD RATE CO~NTS
mgd mg/l mg/l mg/l Months gpd/sq ft

Lebanon, Ohio IPC 0.1 Lime--250 9.5 1-stage SC 109 30 45 1440 Acid pH adjustment.
Reference 19
EPA, Blue Plains IPC 0.1 Lime 460(a) ll .5(a) 2-stage 158 14.4 6 500-1800 Two stages; with inter-
Plant, Wash- +FeC1 3 5(b) 10.oCbJ scCa) (b) mediate recarbonation.
ington, D.C. FM,FL,S Reference 20
Ely, Minn. Tertiary LS Lime 250-3SO(a) ll.8(a) 2-stage 75 10 5 570(a) System designed for nearly
+Polymer .2Ca) 9. s (b) SC 660(b) complete (eff.s o.os mg/l)
+FeCl3 6(b) phosphorus removal.
Reference 21
S • Lalte Tahoe, Tertiary 7.5 Lime 400 11.3 FM,FL, s 38 10 21 400-600 Recarbonation
~
I
California 275 10.5 SR 38 25 Reference 22
~
Lebanon, Ohio Tertiary 0.1 Lime 220-270 9.5 SC 43.5 16.5 10 1440 Acid pH adjustment made.
Reference 23
. Nassau County, Tertiary 0.6 Alum 20 SC 22.5 2.5 72 860 Bulking 2-3 times a year.
New York Reference 24

Salt Lake City, IPC 0.04- Iron 34-41 SC 90 21.9 2.5 360-1080 Reference 11
Utah 0.1 Polymer 0-1.5
0.05- Alum 14 SC 95 26.9 500-870
0.09 Polymer 0-0.25
0.03- Lime 270-586 9.8- SC 101 11.6 5 290-1800 H2So4 ; pH adjustment.
0.18 11.0
Leetsdale, Pa. 0.6 FeCl3 100 6.5- s 280 38 Primary Treatment, C~ns-
+Polymer O.S 6.7 tant Feed - Reference 9

FM - Flash Mix Unit Notes: Lime as Ca(OH)2

~= Alum as Al+++
FL - Flocculator
SC - Solids Contact (Sludge Blanket) Iron Salts as Fe+++
SR - Solids Recirculation (a) First Stage
s - Settling (b) Second Stage
IPC - Independent Physical Chemical Overflow rates are minimum and maximum where range appears.
 Dosage SS

---
FeCl.3
mg/ l -
Polymer
rrig/ l
Influent
mg/ l
_Effluent
.mg/l
Reduction
Percent

74 0.5 160 23 86
50 0.6 71 27 62
37 0.08 85 33 61

Aluminum or iron salts tend to react with soluble phosphate preferentially so that substan-
tial phosphorus removal must be involved before organic colloids can be destabilized (IO).
Required dosages will be affected by phosphorus content. Similarly lime treatment to a pH
at which coagulation -is effective precipitates- substantial phosphorus. Because chemical do~
sage and pH range for optimum SS removal may differ somewhat from those for optimum
phosphorus removal, coagulant requirements may be determined by the effluent criteria for
·either pollutant, depending on wastewater characteristics and the choice of chemical.

4.3. l Sludge Production

Chemical coagulation increases sludge production in sedimentation units due both to great-
er removal of influent suspended solids and to insoluble reaction products of the coag-
ulation itself. For phosphorus removal, data on sludge production and sludge characteristics
and sample procedures for estimating sludge quantities are presented elsewhere (5).

The weight of sludge solids can be estimated by calculation of the sum of the expected SS
removal and of the precipitation products expected from the coagulant dosages applied.
Usually jar tests can be employed to obtain the necessary information for this calculation.

4.3.2 pH Control and Alkalinity

The critical factor in the control of lime reactions is pH. The pH for optimum effectiveness
of lime coagulation, determined from jar testing and process operating experience, can be
used as a set point for a pH control of lime dosing.

Alum and iron salt coagulation are much less sensitive to pH. Testing can determine opti-
mum dosages for coagulation and whether natural alkalinity is adequate for the reactions
(see Ch. 5). If supplemental alkalinity is needed either regularly or on an intermittent basis
(e.g. during high wet weather flows) provisions should be included for feeding necessary
amounts of lime or soda ash.

4-5
 4.3.3 Points of Chemical Addition

In independent physical-chemical treatment or in phosphate removal in the primary clari-

fier ahead of biological treatment, chemicals are added to raw sewage. In tertiary treatment
for phosphate removal and SS reduction, they are added to secondary effluent. In both
cases, proper mixing and flocculation units are needed. For phosphate removal or improve-
ment of SS capture in biological secondary treatment, chemicals are often added directly. to
aeration units or prior to secondary settling units, without separate mixing and flocculation.
In some phosphate removal applicatio:is coagulants have been added at multiple points, e.g.
prior to primary settling and as part of a secondary or tertiary treatment step.

4.3.4 Supplementary Coagulants

Addition of the hydrolyzing metal coagulants to wastewater often results in a small

slow-settling floe or precipitate of phosphorus. Additional treatment is required to produce
a water with low residual suspended solids. Polymeric coagulants have proved to be quite
beneficial in aggregating the precipitation products to a settleable size and increasing the
shear strength of the floe against hydraulic breakup (11 ). Data on particular applications
appear in Table 4-l.

4.4 Coagulation Control

Because coagulation represents a group of complex reactions, laboratory experimentation

is essential to establish and maintain the optimum coagulant dosage and to determine the
effects of important variables on the quality of coagulation of the wastewater under in- .
vestigation. With alum and iron coagulants two procedures are generally followed for this
purpose: the jar test and measurement of zeta potential. Proper control of lime coagulation
may be maintained by measuring the pH or automatically titrating alkalinity after lime ad-
dition.

4.4. l Jar Test

The single, most widely used test to determine coagulant dosage and other parameters is the
jar test. The equipment for this test and the directions for its proper performance have been
published (12) (13) (14) (15). The jar test attempts to simulate the full scale coagula-
tion-flocculation process and has remained the most common control test in the laboratory
since its introduction in 1918. Since the intent is to simulate an individual plant's condi-
tions, it is not surprising that procedures may vary but generally have certain common ele-
ments. The jar test apparatus consists of a series of sample containers, usually six, the con-
tents of which can be stirred by individual mechanically-operated stirrers. Wastewater to be
treated is placed in the containers and treatment chemicals are added while the contents are
being stirred. The range of conditions, for example, coagulant dosages and pH, are selected
to bracket the anticipated optima. After a short, 1 to 5 minute period of rapid stirring to en-
sure complete dispersion of coagulant, the stirring rate is decreased and flocculation is
allowed to continue for a variable period, 10 to 20 minutes or more, depending on the simu-
lation. The stirring is then stopped and the floes are allowed to settle for a selected time.
The supernatant is then analyzed for the desired parameters. With wastewater the usual

4-6
 analyses are for turbidity or suspended solids, pH, residual phosphorus and residual coag-
ulant.
If desired, a number of supernatant samples may be taken at intervals during the settling
period to permit construction of a set of settling curves which provide more information on
the settling characteristics of floe than a single sample taken after a fixed settling period. A
dynamic settling test may also be used in which the paddles are operated at 2 to 5 rpm dur-
. ing the settling period. This type of operation more closely represents settling conditions in
a large horizontal basin with continuous flow.

It should be noted that simple jar tests cannot simulate the conditions in solids contact reac-
tors (Chapter 6) and may indicate somewhat higher coagulant dosages than are actually
necessary when using these units for coagulation.·

Several six-position stirrers are available commercially for running jar tests; one from
Phipps and Bird, (Phipps and Bird, Inc., Richmond, Va.), another from Coffman ln-
_dustries, (Coffman Industries, Inc., Kansas City, Ka.), are shown in Fig. 4-1. Standard
laboratory mixers have also been u~ed; however, it is difficult t_? o~!ain reproducible mixing
conditions using different pieces of equipment. Various types of containers, usually beakers
or jars, are used to hold the samples. Improved mixing may be obtained by adding stationa-
ry plates in the containers as described by Camp and Conklin (15). The Coffman stirrer has
an attachment which makes it possible to add coagulant to all containers simultaneously.
Good results, however, can be obtained by rapidly adding coagulant from a large graduated
pipette to each jar in sequence .

. A simple apparatus, shown in Fig. 4-2, can be constructed from tubing, rubber stoppers
and small aquarium valves to permit rapid sampling of supernatant. The unit is placed next
to the sample jars at the beginning of the settling period with the curved stainless steel tubes_
dipping into the jars. At desired intervals the vent valve is covered with a finger, permitting
vacuum to draw samples into the small sample bottles. The needle valves are adjusted so
that supernatant is drawn into all the bottles at the same rate. When sufficient sample is ob-
tained, the vent is uncovered and the bottles are replaced with empties. The maximum
sampling rate is about once per minute.

Fig. 4-3 shows characteristic types of settling curves which may be obtained. Curve A in-
dicates a coagulation whi~h- produced a uniformly fine. flo~ SC) small that at the end or" l to 2
minutes settling, the supernatant had a turbidity ~qu.al to that of- the starting water due, in
part, to the fine floe which resisted settling. Settling was slow and the final turbidity was not
satisfactory. Curve B represents the most common type of settling rate obtained. During the
first 5 minutes, the settling rate was practically a straight line on a semilog plot. Settling
was rapid and clarification was satisfactory. The coagulation represented by cu_rve C shows
that a mixture of large rapid settling floe and small, slow-settling particles was obtained.
Settling was rapid for the first two minutes, but with little further clarification after that.
High residual turbidity may also have resulted from incomplete coagulation. Curve D rep-
resents the ultimate in coagulation. Practically all of the floe particles were so large and
dense that 97 percent settled within three minutes. Sedimentation was essentially complete
within that time since only ·o.5 .percent additional floe settled in the next 27 minutes. Final

4-7
 FIGURE 4-1
JAR TEST UNITS WITH MECHANICAL (TOP)
AND MAGNETIC (BOTTOM) STIRRERS
 TWO-HOLE
STOPPER

TO VACUUM SOURCE

SAMPLE
SAMPLE
BOTTLE
TUBE

VENT VAL VE

PLUG
MAIN CONTROL VALVE
~REGULATING VALVES
PLUG

U.S EPA Headquarters Library

Mail code 3404T
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460
202-566-0556

FIGURE 4-2
SIX-POSITION SAMPLER

4-9
100 ,. ~ II.~A . . II
•11
50
m ~

-
~
-= B
.
II~-
I~~I
.__
~-

c
~

....
.. - ......
I'\

... ...

•
~

j
10

5
D

2 1 2 3 4 5
- I
"

·SETILING TIME-MIN

· FIGURE 4-3

SETTLING CURVE.S. FREQUENTLY-OBTAINED

4-10
·clarity of the supernatant was entirely satisfactory.
·Measurement of turbidity provides the most rapid indication of the degree of solids removal
obtained. The recommended procedure for turbidity measurement by light scattering is giv-
en in the 13th edition of Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater;
however, other methods varying from simple visual evaluation to measurement of light
transmitted on -a iaboratory spectrophotometer can be used for purposes of comparison.
Measurement of residual suspended solids is the only procedure which gives the actual
weight concentration of solids remaining, but the procedure is too slow for purposes of pro- .
cess control. Where the character of the solids does not vary widely, their concentration
·generally correlates well with measured turbidity.

A typical jar test might be r1:1n as follows:

Wastewater samples are placed in containers and rapid mix is started at 100 rpm. Selected.
dosages of coagulant covering the expected range of the optimum concentration are rapidly
added to the containers and mixed for approximately 1 minute. If a polymer is to be used as
a coagulant aid, it is usually added to each jar at or just before the end of the rapid mix. The
paddles are then slowed to 30 rpm and mixing conti~ues for 20 mi~utes: The paddles are
then stopped and the sampling apparatus previously-described is placed in. position. At
settling times of 1,3,5, 10 and possibly 20 minutes samples of supernatant are drawn for tur-
bidity measur.ement. After the final turbidity sample is drawn, a larger volume of super-
natant may be decanted for more complete analysis. Results are plotted as in Fig. 4-4 for
judgment as to the desired coagulant dosage.

If additional alkalinity is required to hold the coagulation in the optimum pH range, this
should be added to the samples ahead of the coagulant unless automatic titrators are set up
for pH control.

Once an approximate optimum coagulant concentration has been determined, it may be de-
sirable to repeat the jar test using that optimum with varying quantities of added alkalinity
to give different pH values. Experience in coagulating a given wastewater provides the best
guide as to methods for controlling the process.

4.4.2 Zeta Potential

Measurement of particle charge is another procedure which may be useful for control of the
coagulation process (16) ( 17) ( 18). The total particle charge is distributed over two con-
centric layers of water surrounding the particle: an inner layer of water and ions which is
tightly bound to the particle and moves with it through the solution, and an outer layer
which is a part of the bulk water phase and moves independently of the particle. Charges of
these layers are not directly measureable, but the zeta potential, which is the residual charge
at the interface between the layer of bound water and the mobile water phase, can be deter-
mined indirectly with commercially-available instruments.

In the zeta potential measurement procedure, a sample of treated water containing floe is
. placed in a special plastic cell under a microscope as shown in Fig. 4-5. Under the in-

4-11
 100
0 0-24 mg/I
I I
Ferric Sulfate
so

*c.;,
I
8-26 mg/I
I
--zz< 20
I
'A--28 mg/I

~
~
~
I I
0-30mg/I
>< 10

--
E-
0
32 mg/I
~'°
:::::> 5
E-

34 mg/l
I
1 3 5 7 9
2
SETTLING TIME-MIN.

FlGURE4-4
JAR TEST RES UL TS .

4-12
 FIGURE 4-5
ZETA POTENTIAL APPARATUS

4- 13
fluence of a voltage applied to electrodes at the ends of the cell, the charged particles will
migrate to the electrode having a polarity opposite that of the particle. The velocity of mi-
gration will be proportional to the particle charge and to the applied voltage. The particle
velocity can be calculated by observing the time it takes a particle to travel a given distance
across an ocular micrometer. The zeta potential can then be obtained from a chart which
combines the particle velocity with instrumental parameters. Detailed operating instruc-
tions are supplied with the instruments. Because of uncertainties in the constants relating
charge and particle mobility, many test results are reported directly in terms of particle mo-
bility.

To control the coagulation by zeta potential, samples of water while being mixed are dosed
with different concentrations of coagulant. Zeta potentials are then measured and recorded
for floe in each sample. The dosage which produces the desired zeta potential value is ap-
plied to the treatment plant. Zeta pot~ntials of floe produced in the plant may also be mea-
. sured as a means of control. The zeta potential value for optimum coagulation must be de-
termined for a given wastewater by actual correlation with jar tests or with plant perform-
ance as in Fig. 4-6. The control point is generally in the range of 0 to IO millivolts. If
good correlations. can.-be obt~in~d between -some-zeta potential val~es a-~d opti~u~ -plant
performance, then it is possible to make rapid measurements of particle charge to com-
pensate for major variations in wastewater composition due to storm flows or other causes.
Short term variations such as those due to sudden industrial waste dumps are still beyond
control with any present techniques because of the time lag between recognition of a prob-
lem with coagulation and adoption of a satisfactory change of coagulation conditions.

4-14
 --
I
+10 [!] I [!JC:
,_
,,.
,,. G
~
""
~~

[!]"""
0 I.....
~

, L.-

ill"'
~

...
~ '"G
"
0 , i;o

~
...
...
G""'

-20

20

15

'1
1
I{.' .......
-~
-0::
l ..... ...- -
11
' ... ~,,,..

, 0'
'
~
,, ,,,
' .. ~ ~
'~
~

' """ , ...-

Ito.
~, .
';-'I
.
'"' -
I
I
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
ALUM DOSAGE;(mg/1)

FIGURE 4-6
COAGULATION OF RAW SEWAGE WITH ALUM

4-l5
 4.5 References

l. Stumm W., and Morgan, J. J., Chemical Aspects of Coagulation, Jour, AWWA, 54,
971 (1962).

2. Black. A. P.. Basic Mechanism of Coagulation. Jour. AWWA, 52. 492 (1960).

3. O'Melia, C. R., A Review of the Coagulation Process. Public Works, JOO. 87 (May
,1969).

4. O'Melia, C. R., Coagulation and Flocculation, Chapter in Physicochemical Pro-

cesses for Water Quality Control (Walter J. Weber, Jr.) John Wiley and Sons (1972).

5. Process Design Manual for Phosphorus Removal, U.S. EPA, Technology Transfer,
Washington, D.C. (revised 1974).

6. Rizzo, J. L. and Schade, R.E., Secondary Treatment with Granular Activated Car-
bon. Water and Sewage Works, 116. 307, (August 1969).

7. Mogelnicki, S.; Experiences in Polymer Applications to Several Solids-Liquids Sepa-

ration Process, Proceedings, Tenth Sanitary Engineering Conference-Waste Disposal
from Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes, Univ. of Illinois ·(February 6-7,
1968).

· 8. Linstedt, K.1D. and Bennett..,E. R. Evaluation of Treatment for Urban Wastewater

Reuse, U.S. EPA Office of Research and Monitoring, Publication U.S. EPA
R2-73-122 (July, 1973).

9. Bernardin, F. E., Jr., Kusnirak, R., Chemical Treatment For Municipal Wastewater,
· WPCF Deeds and Data (March, 1974).

10. Tenney, M. W. and Stumm, W. Chemical Flocculation of Micro-organisms in Biolog-

ical Water Treatment, lour. WPCF 37, 1370 (1965).

11. Burns, D. E. and Shell, O.L. A New Approach to Phosphorus Removal by Chemical
Treatment, Paper presented at 45th Annual WPCF Conference, Atlanta.Georgia(Oc-
tober 9, 1972).

12. Cohen, J.M., Improved Jar Test Procedure, lour. AWWA, 49. 1425 (1957).

13. Black, A. P., Buswell, A. M., Eidsness, F. A., and Black, A. L., Review of the Jar
Test. Jour, AWWA, 39, 1414 (1957).

14. Black, A. P., and Harris, R. J., New Dimensions for the Old Jar Test.. Water &
Wastes Engrg., 6, 49 (Dec. 1969).

4-16
15. Camp, T. R., and Conklin, G. F., Towards a Rational Jar Test for Coagulation, Jour.
AWWA, 84, 325 (1970).

16. Black, A. P. & Chen, C., Electrophoretic Studies of Coagulation and Flocculation
of River Sediment Suspension with Aluminum Sulfate, Jour. AWWA, 57, 354 (1965).

17. Riddick, T. M., Role· of Zeta Potential in Coagulation Involving Hydrous Oxides,
· TAPPI, 47, l 7A (1964).

18. Riddick, T. M., Control of Colloid. Stability Through Zeta Potential, Vol. l,
. Zeta-Meter, Inc., 1720 First Avenue, New York, New York 10028.

19. Villiers, R. V., Berg, E. L. Brunner, C. A. and Masse, A. N., Municipal Wastewater
Treatment, Paper presented at 45th Annual WPCF Conference, Atlanta. Georgia
(October 9, 1972).

20. Bishop, D. F., O'Farrell, T. P., and Stamberg, J.B.; Physical-Chemical Treatment of
Municipal Wastewater, Jour. WPCF 44, 361 (March 1972).

21. Brice, R. M., Shagawa Lake Project, Ely, Minnesota, Personal Communication
(August 1973).

22. Evans, Wilson, Culp, Suhr and Moyer; A Summary of Plant Scale Advanced Waste
Treatment Research at South Lake Tahoe; work for partial fulfillment of an
U.S. EPA demonstration grant WPRD-52-0 l-67.

23. Berg. E. L., Brunner, C. A. and William, R. T.; Single-Stage Lime Clarification, Wa-
ter and Waste Engineering Vol. 7, No. 3, pg. 42 (March 1970).

24. Oliva, J. A., Department of Public Health, County of Nassau, Personal Commu-
nication (March 1973).

4-17
 CHAPTER 5

STORAGE AND FEEDING OF CHEMICALS

5.1 General

This chapter surveys the chemicals most commonly used for suspended solids removal, with
respect to their properties, availability, storage, transport, reactions and feeding. All
chemical costs quoted in this chapter were obtained from the latest issues of
"Chemical Marketing Reporter" (Schnell Publishing Co., Inc., New York, N. Y.)
available during preparation of this manual. Wide ranges iq bagging costs primarily
reflect bag sizes that may be ordered. All chemical costs presented are for guidance
only and are subject to significant variations due to time and current market con -
ditions. Actually costs for the chemicals being considered should be carefully
checked prior to selection.
5.2 Aluminum Compounds
The principal aluminum compounds. that are commercially available. and suitable. for
. suspended solids removal are dry and liRuid alum. Sodium aluminate has been used in
activated sludge plants, but for phosphor.us removal, and its applicability for suspended
solids removal is limited.
5.2.1 Dry Alum
5.2. l. l Properties and Availability
The_. commercial dry alum most_ often us_ed. in wastewater treatment is knqwn as ~'filter.
alum." and has the approximate chemical formula Ah(S04)J• 14H20 and a molecular
weight of about 600. Alum, is white to cream in color and a 1 percent solution has a pH of
about 3.5. The commercially available grades of alum and their corresponding bulk den-
sities and angles of repose are:

GRADE ANGLE OF REPOSE BULK DENSITY

lb./cubic feet
Lump ------------· 62 to 68
Ground 43 60 to 71
Rice 38 57 to 71
Powdered 65 38 to 45

Each of these grades has a minimum alumium content of 27 percent, expressed as Ah03,
and maximum Fe203 and soluble contents of 0.75 and 0.5 percent, respectively. Visosity
.and solution crystallation temperatures are included in the subsequent section on liquid
alum.·

Since dry alum is only partially hydrated, it is slightly hygroscopic. However, it is relatively.
stable when stored under the extremes of temperature and humidity encountered in the
United States.

5-1
The solubility of commercial dry alum at various temperatures is as follows:

Temperature· Solubility
deg F_ 16; gal
32 6.03
50 6.56
68 7.28
86 8.45
104 10.16

Dry alum is not corrosive unless it absorbs moisture from the air, such as during prolonged
exposure to humid atmospheres. Therefore, precautions should be taken to ensure that the
storage space is free of moisture.

Alum is shipped in 100 lb bags, drums, or in bulk (minimum of 40,000 lb) by truck or rail.
Bag shipments may be ordered on wood pallets if desired. Locations of the major
production plants are listed in Table 5-1. At present, the price range for dry alum in bulk
quantities is $58 to $63/ton. F.O.B. the point of manufacture. Freight costs to the point of
usage must be added to this. Bagging adds approximately $4 to 5/ton to the cost.

PARTIAL LIST OF ALUM MANUFACTURING PLANTS

Location Manufacturer Form of Alum Available

ALABAMA
Coosa Pines American Cyanamid Liquid
Demopolis American Cyanamid Liquid
Mobile American Cyanamid Liquid and Dry
Naheola Stauffer Liquid

ARKANSAS
Pine Bluff Allied Liquid

CALIFORNIA
Bay Point (San Francisco) Allied Liquid and Dry
El Segundo (Los Angeles) Allied Liquid
Richmond (San Francisco) Stauffer Liquid
Vernon (Los Angeles) Stauffer Liquid

COLORADO
Denver Allied Liquid and Dry

5-2
 TABLES-I (continued)
Form of Alum
Location Manufacturer Available

FLORIDA
Fernandina Beach Tennessee Corp.· Liquid
Jacksonville Allied Liquid
Port St. Joe Allied Liquid

GEORGIA
Atlanta (2 plants) Burris, Allied Liquid and Dry
Augusta Tennessee Corp. Liquid and Dry
Cedar Springs Tennessee Corp. Liquid
Macon Allied Liquid
Savannah Allied Liquid

ILLINOIS
E. St. Louis Allied Liquid and Dry
Joliet American Cyanamid Liquid and Dry

LOUISIANA
Bastrop Stauffer Liquid
Baton Rouge Stauffer Liquid
Monroe Allied Liquid
New Orleans Allied Liquid and Dry
Springhill Stauffer Liquid

MAINE
Searsport Northern Liquid and Dry ·

MARYLAND
Baltimore Olin Dry

MASSACHUSETTS
Holland Liquid
Adams
Hamblet & Hayes Liquid and Dry
Salem

MICHIGAN
Allied Liquid
Detroit
American Cyanamid Liquid
Escanaba
Allied, American Cyanamid Liquid
Kalamazoo (2 plants)·

MINNESOTA
American Cyanamid Liquid
Cloquet
North Star Liquid and Dry
Pine Bend

5-3
 TABLE 5-1 (continued)

Form of Alum
Location Manufacturer Available

MISSISSIPPI
Monticello America_n Cyanamid Liquid
Vicksburg Allied Liquid

NEW JERSEY
Newark Essex Liquid and Dry
Warners American Cyanamid Liquid and Dry

NORTH CAROLINA
Acme Wright . Liquid
Plymouth American Cyanamid Liquid

OHIO
Chillicothe Allied Liquid
Cleveland Allied Liquid and Dry
Hamilton American Cyanamid Liquid and Dry
Middletown Allied Liquid

OREGON
North Portland Stauffer Liquid and Dry

PENNSYLVANIA
Johnso~b~rg Allied Liquid
Marcus Hook Allied Liquid and Dry
Newell Allied Liquid

SOUTH CAROLINA
Catawba Burris Liquid
Georgetown American Cyanamid Liquid and Dry

TENNESSEE
Chattanooga American Cyanamid Liquid and Dry
Counce Stauffer Liquid
Springfield Burris Liquid

TEXAS
Houston (2 plants) Stauffer, Ethyl Liquid and Dry

5-4
 TABLE 5-l (continued)

VIRGINIA
Covi,ngton Allied Liquid
Hopewell Allied Liquid
Norfolk Howerton Gowen Liquid

WASHINGTON
Kennewick Allied Liquid
Tacoma (2 plants) Stauffer, Allied Liquid
Vancouver Allied Liquid and Dry ·

WISCONSIN
Menasha Allied Liquid
Wisconsin Rapids Allied Liquid

Manufacturers and Addresses

Allied Chemical Corporation Howerton Gowen Company, Inc.

Industrial Chemicals Division Norfolk, Virginia
P.O. Box l 139R
Morristown, New Jersey 07960 Northern Chemical Industries, Inc ..
Searsport, Maine 04974
American Cyanamid Company
Ind. Chem. Div. North Star Chemicals Inc.
P.O. Box 66189 P.O. Box 28-T
Chicago, Illinois 60666 South St. Paul, Minnesota

Burris Chemical Company Olin Corporation,

Charleston, South Carolina Chemicals Division
745 Fifth Avenue
Essex Chemical Corporation New, York, New York 10022
1402 Broad Street
Clifton, New Jersey 07015 Stauffer Chemical Company
299 Park Avenue
Ethyl Corporation New York, New York 10017
Houston, Texas
·Tennessee Corporation
Hamblet & Hayes Company Cities Service Company
Colonial Road Industrial Chemicals Division
Salem, Massachusetts 01970 P.O. Box 50360
Atlanta, Georgia

Holland Chemical Company Wright Chemical Co.

Adams, Massachusetts 01220 Acme, North Carolina

5-5
 5.2. l.. 2 General Design Considerations

· Ground and rice alum are the grades most commonly used by utilities because of their
superior flow characteristics. These grades have less tendency to lump or arch in storage
and therefore provide more consistent feeding qualities. Hopper agitation is seldom
required with these grades, and in fact may be detrimental to feeding because of the
·possibility of packing the bin.

Alum dust is present in the ground grade and will cause minor irritation of the eyes and
nose on breathing. A respirator may be worn for protection against alum dust. Gloves may
be worn to protect the hands. Because of minor irritation in handling and the possibility of
alum dust causing rusting of adjacent machinery, dust removal equipment is desirable.·
Alum dust should be thoroughly flushed from the eyes immediately and washed from the
skin with water.

5.2. l .3 Storage

. A typical storage and feeding system for dry alum is shown in Figure 5- l. Bulk alum can be
stored in mild steel or concrete bins with dust collector vents located in, above, or adjacent
to the equipment room. Recommended storage capacity is about 30 days. Dry alum in bulk
can be transferred with screw conveyors, pneumatic conveyors, or bucket elevators made of
. mild steel. Pneumatic conveyor elbows should have a reinforced backing as the alum can
·contain abrasive impurities.

Bags and drums of alum should be stored in a dry location to avoid caking. Bag or drum
loaded hoppers should have a nominal storage capacity for eight hours at the nominal
maximum feed rate so that personnel are not required to charge the hopper more than once
per shift. Converging hopper sections should have a minimum slope of 60 degree to prevent
arching.

Bulk storage hoppers should terminate at a bin gate so that the feeding equipment may be
isolated for servicing. The bin gate should be followed by a flexible connection, and
transition hopper chute or hopper which acts as a conditioning chamber over the feeder.

5.2. l.4 Feeding Equipment

The feed system includes all of the components required for the proper preparation of the
chemical solution. Capacities and assemblies should be selected to fulfill individual system
requirements. Three basic types of chemical feed equipment are used: volumetric, belt
gravimetric, and loss-in-weight gravimetric. Volumetric feeders are usually used where
initial low cost and usually lower capacities are the b_asis of selection. Volumetric feeder
mechanisms are usually exposed to the corrosive dissolving chamber vapors which can
cause corrosion of discharge areas. Manufacturers usually control this problem by use of an
electric heater to keep the feeder housing dry or by using pl_astic components in the exposed
areas.

5-6
 _ ___.DUST COLLECTOR
FILL PIPE '(PNEUMATIC)

DUST COLLECTOR
BULK STORAGE
BJN DAY HOPPER
FOR DRY CHEMICAL BAG FILL
FROM BAGS OR DRUMS

---..r-BI N.GATE
.:t:==:::::t:;-FLEXIBLE
CONN EC Tl ON
ALTERNATE SUPPLIES DEPENDING
ON STORAGE

DUST AND VAPOR REMOVER

SCALE OR SAMPLE CHUTE
WATER
SUPPLY FEEDER

SOLENOID VALVE
--::11'1-C~
CONTROL
VALVE ROTAMETER

DISSOLVER i - - - - - - GRAVITY TO
APPLICATION
WATER SUPPLY LEVEL
PROBES
HOLDING
TANK
- - - - PUMP
TO APPLICATION

FIGURE 5-1

TYPICAL DRY FEED SYSTEM

5-7
 Volumetric dry feeders presently in general use are of the screw type. Two designs of screw.
feed mechanism are available. Both allow even withdrawal across the bottom of the feeder
hopper to prevent hoppe~ de.ad zones. One screw design is the variable pitch type with the
pitch'expanding . un'evenly to the discharge point. The second screw de,,ign is the constant pitch.
type expanding -evenly to the discharge point. This type of screw design is the constant
· pitch-reciprocating type. This type has each half of the screw turned in opposite directions
so that the turning and reciprocating motion alternately fills one half of the screw while the
other half of the screw is discharging. The variable pitch screw has one point of discharge,
· while the constant pitch-reciprocating screw has two points of discharge, one at each end of
the screw. The accuracy of volumetric feeders is influenced by the character of the material
being fed and ranges between ±;F_percenf for free-flowing materials and ± 7 percent for
cohesive materials. This accuracy is volumetric and should not be related to accuracy by
weight (gravimetric).

Where the greatest accuracy and the most economical use of chemical is desired, the
.loss-in-weight type feeder should be selected. This feeder is limited to the low and
intermediate \feed rates up to a maximum rate of approximately 4,000 lb/ hr. The
. loss-in-weight type feeder consists of a material hopper and feeding mechanism mounted on
enclosed scales. The feed rate controller retracts the scale poise weight to deliver the dry
chemical at the desired rate. The feeding mechanism must feed at this rate to maintain the
balance of the scale. Any unbalance of the scale beam causes a corrective change in the
output of the feeding mechanism. Continuous comparison of actual hopper weight with set
hopper weight prevents cumulative errors. A~curacy of the loss-in-weight feeder is ± 1 per-
cent by weight of the set rate.

Belt type gravimetric feeders span the capacity ranges of volumetric and loss-in-weight
'feeders and can usually be sized for all applications encountered in wastewater treatment
applications. Initial expense is greater than for the volumetric feeder and slightly less than
for the loss-in-weight feeder. Belt type gravimetric feeders consist of a basic belt feeder
. incorporating a weighing and control system. Feed rates can be varied by changing either
' the weight per foot of belt, or the belt speed, or both. Controllers in general use are
. mechanical, pneumatic, electric, and mechanical-vibrating. Accuracy specified for belt type
gravimetric feeders should be within ± I percent of set rate. Materials of construction of
. feed equipment normally include mild steel hoppers, stainless steel mechanism components,
and rubber surfaced feed belts.

Because alum solution is corrosive, dissolving or solution chambers should be constructed

. of type 316 stainless steel, fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP), or plastics. Dissolvers should
be sized for preparation of the desired solution strength. The solution strength usually
recommended is 0.5 lb of alum to I gal. of water, or a 6 percent solution. The dissolving
chamber is designed for a minimum detention time of 5 minutes at the maximum feed rate.
Because excess.ive dilution may be detrimental to coagulation, eductors, pr float valves that
would ordinarily be used ahead of. centrifugal pumps, are not recommended. Dissolvers
should be equipped with water meters and mechanical mixers so that the water to alum ra-
tio may be properly established and controlled.

S-8
 5.2. l .5 Piping and Accessories

FRP, plastics (polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, polypropylene, and other similar

materials), .·and rubber ar"e general use and ar~ recommended for alum solutions. Care
must be taken to provide adequate support for these piping systems, with close attention
given to spans between supports so that objectionable deflection will not be experienced .
. The alum solution should be injected into. a zone of rapid mixing or .turbulent flow.

Solution flow by gravity to the point of discharge is desirable. When gravity flow is not
possible, transfer components should be selected that require little or no dilution. When
metering pumps or proportioning weir tanks are used, return of excess flow to a holding
tank should be considered. Metering pumps are discussed further in the section on liquid
alum.

Valves used in solution lines should be plastic, type 316 stainless steel or rubber-linediron or
steel.

·5.2. l.6 Pacing and Control

Standard instrument control and pacing signals are generally acceptable for common feeder
system operation. Volumetric and gravimetric feeders are usually adaptable to operation
from any standard instrument signals.

When solution must be pumped, consideration should be given to. use of holding tanks
between the dry feed system and feed pumps, and the solution water supply should be
controlled to p;event excessive dilution. The dry feeders may be started and stopped by tank
.level probes. Variable control metering pumps can then transfer the alum stock solution to
the point of application without further dilution.

Means should be provided for calibration of the chemical feeders. Volumetric feeders may
be mounted on platform scales. Belt feeders should include a sample shute and box to catch
samples for checking actual delivery with set delivery .

. Gravimetric feeders are usually furnished with totalizers only. Remote instrumentation is
frequently used with gravim.etric equipment, but seldom used with volumetric equipment.

· 5.2.2. Liquid Alum

5.2.2. l Properties and Availability

Liquid alum is shipped in rubber-lined or stainless steel, insulated tank cars or trucks. Alum
shipped during the winter is heated prior to shipment so that crystallization will not occur
during transit. Liquid Alum is shipped at a solution strength of about 8.3 percent as Al203
or about 49 percent as A,l2(SQ4)3· • _14H20. The latter solution weighs about 11 lb/ gal at
60 °f and contains about 5.4 lb dry alum ( 17 percent Al203) per gal of liquid. This solution
will begin to .crystallize .at 30 Of and freezes. at about 18 Of.

5-9
Crystallization temperatures of various solution strengths are shown in Figure 5-2.

The viscosity of various alum solutions is given in Figure 5-3.

Tank truck lots of 3,000 to 5,000 gal are available. Tank car lots are available in quantities
. of 7,000 to 18,000 gal. Production locations of liquid alum are listed in Table 5-1. The cur-
rent price range of liquid alum on an equivalent dry alum ( l 7 percent Al203) basis is about
$45 to $50/ ton, F.O:B. the point of manufacture. Liquid alum will generally be more eco-
nomical than dry alum if the point of use is within a 50 to 100 mile radius of the manufac-
turing plant.

5.2.2.2 General Design Considerations

Bulk unloading facilities usually must be provided at the treatment plant. Rail cars are
constructed for .top unloading and therefore require an air supply system and flexible
connectors to pneumatically displace the alum from the car. U.S. Department of
Transportation regulations concerning chemical tank car unloading should be observed.
Tank truck unloading is usually accomplished by gravity or by a truck mounted pump .

. Established practice in the treatment field has been to dilute liquid alum prior to applicati~n.
However, recent studies have shown that feeding undiluted liquid alum results in better
coagulation and settling. This is reportedly due to prevention of hydrolysis of the alum.

No particular industrial hazards are encountered in handling liquid alum. However, a face
shield and gloves should be worn around leaking equipment. The eyes or skin should be
flushed and washed upon contact with liquid alum. Liquid alum becomes very slick upon
evaporation and therefore spillage should be avoided.

5.2.2.3 Storage

Liquid alum is stored without dilution at the shipping concentration. Storage tanks may be
open if indoors but must be closed and Vented if outdoors. Outdoor tanks should also be
heated, if necessary, to keep the temperature above 450f to .prevent crystallization. Storage
tanks should be constructed of type 3 I 6 stainless steel; FRP; steel lined with rubber,
polyvinyl chloride, or lead. Liquid alum can be stor~d indefinitely without deterioration.

Storage tanks should be sized according to maximum feed rate, shipping time required, and
quantity of shipment. Tanks should generally be sized for I 1 12 times the quantity of
shipments. A IO-day to 2-week supply should be provided to allow for unforeseen shipping
delays.

5-10
 uo
....
w
i 100
~
: 90
en
l&I
~ 80
Cl)
l&I
Cl 70
u)
l&I
a:
....c:> so
a:
~ 50
2
l&I
I- 40
z
0
5 30
- .... ...
~

!::! ~

..J
..J
~ 20
en
...... ....
~ 10
r... ..
u ..........

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
DEGREE BAUME AT &cf FARENHEIT

FiGURE 5-2
CRYSTALIZATION TEMPERATURES OF ALUM SOLUTIONS
(Courtesy of American Cyana.mid Co.)

5-11
 60

"°
{/'9%
20
41(/.
{(6' l/Jti,
(/IJJ
.S" I
10 'qt(]
8.0

U) 6.0
LLI
U)

0 ll. 0
A.
....
z:
LLI
c..>

....>--
2.0

Cl)
0
c..>
Cl) 1.0
> 0.8
0.6

0. ij

0.2

0.1-....... ----....a.--"'-. . .__. . . .__.__. . . .__.___.___.__. . . .____. . .,____. . ___ ._....a,_ _

30 "° 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 lllO 150

0
160 170 180 190 200 210 220
TEMPERATURE' f

FIGURE 5-3

VISCOSITY OF ALUM SOLUTIONS

(Courtesy of Allied Chemical Co.)

5-12
 5.2.2.4 Feeding Equipment

Various types of gravity or pressure feedirig and metering units are available. Figures 5-4
and 5-5 illustrate commonly used feed systems. The rotodip-type feeder or rotameter is
Often used for gravity feed and the metering pump for pressure feed systems.

The pressure or head available at the point of application frequently determines the feeding
system to be used. The rotodip feeder can be suppl.ied from overhead storage by gravity
with the use of an internal level control valve, as shown by Figure 5-4. It may also be
supplied by a centrifugal pump. The latter arrangement requires an excess flow return line
to the storage tank, as shown by Figure 5-5. Centrifugal pumps should be direct-connected
but not close-coupled because of possible leakage into the motor, and should be constructed·
of type 316 stainless steel, FRP, and plastics.

Metering pumps, currently available, allow a wide range of capacity compared with the
· rotodip and rotameter systems. Hydraulic diaphragm type pumps are preferable to other
type pumps and should be protected with an internal or external relief valve. A back
pressure valve is usually required in the pump discharge to provide efficient check valve
action. Materials of construction for feeding equipment should be as recommended by the
manufacturer for the service, but depending on the type of system, will generally include
type 316 stainless steel, FRP, piastics, and rubber.

5.2.2.5 Piping and Accessories

Piping systems for alum should be FRP, plastics (subject to temperature limits), type 316
stainless steel, or lead. Piping and valves used for alum solutions are also discussed in the
· preceding section on dry alum.

5.2.2.6 Pacing and Control

The feeding systems described above are volumetric, and the feeders generally available can
be adapted to receive standard instrument pacing signals. The signals can be used to vary
motor speed, variable-speed transmission setting, stroke speed and stroke length where
applicable. A totalizer is usually furnished with a rotodip-type feeder, and remote
instruments are available. Instrumentation is rarely used with rotameters and metering
pumps.

5.2.3 Reactions of Aluminum Sulfate

Reactions between alum and the normal constituents of wastewaters are influenced by
many factors, hence it is impossible to predict accurately the amount of alum that will react
with a given amount of alkalinity, lime or soda ash which may have been added to the
wastewater. Theoretical reactions can be written which will serve as a general guide, but, in
general, the optimum dosage in ·each case must be determined by laboratory jar tests.

5-13
 L&.I
OVER HEAD >
...J
STORAGE LL.
L&.I c
>
TANK -
L&.I
. ..J
L&.I c
>
...J L&.I
a::
a:: > =>
(/)
(/)
L&.I
CONTROL a::
Cl..
VALVE :..::
(.,)
c
Ill

METER! NG PUMP
ROTODIP-TYPE FEEDER

GRAVITY FE.ED GRAV ITV FEED GRAV I TY FEED

FIGURE 5-4
ALTERNATIVE LIQUID FEED SYSTEMS
FOR OVERHEAD STORAGE

PRESSURE FEED
CONTROL VALVE

ROTODIP-TYPE FEEDER ROTAMETER

L&.I
>
...J
L&.I
c >
> ...J
c
>
...J L&.I
c
~ PRliSSURE
Cl..
CJ :::E ...J
=> :::> L&.I
LL. Cl.. a:: ~ FEED
RECIRCULATION a:: 0 a::
..... w
:z: w
Cl..

GRAVITY FEED L&.I LL. :..::

· GROUND (.,) (.,)
c
Ill
STORAGE
TRANSFER PUMP. TANK

FIGURE 5-5

ALTERNATIVE LIQUID FEED SYSTEMS

FOR GROUND STORAGE

5-14
The simplest case is the reaction of Al 3·+ with OH-ions made available by the ionization of
water or by the alkalinity of the water.

Solution of alum in water produces:

3+' 2-
: Al2(S04)3=2Al1. +3 (S04)

Hydroxyl ions become available from ionization of water:

-
H20~H+- +OH-::-·

The aluminum ions (AI13 \) then react:

2 AI 3+ +6 OH-~ 2 Al (OH)3

Consumption of hydroxyl ions will result in a decrease in the alkalinity. Where the
alkalinity of the wastewater is inadequate for the alum dosage, the pH must be increased by
the addition of hydrated lime, soda ash or caustic soda. The reactions of alum with the
common alkaline reagents are shown in Table 5-2. While these reactions are an
oversimplification of what actually takes place, they do serve to indicate orders of
magnitude and some by-products of alum treatment.
TABLE 5-2

REACTIONS OF ALUMINUM SULFATE

A'2 (S04)3 + 3 Ca (HC03)2~2 Al (OH)3J + 3 CaS04 + 6 C02t

A'2 (S04)3 + 3 Na2C03 + 3 H20~2 AL (OH) 3~ + 3 C02t

A'2 (S04)3 + 3 Ca (OH}2-2 Al (OH)3J + 3 CaS04

In terms of quantities, the reactions in Table 5-2 can be expressed as follows:

l mgi I of ~alum reacts with:

0.50 i:ng/ 1 alkalinity, expressed as CaC03

0.39 mg/ l 95 percent hydrated lime as Ca (OH)2

0.54 mg/ l soda ash as Na2C03

These approximate amou.nts of alkali when added. to wastewater ~ill maintain the alkalinity
.of the water unchanged when 1 mg/ 1 of alum is added. For example, if no alkalinity is
added, 1 mg/ l of alum will reduce the alkalinity of 0.50 mg/ l as CaC03 but alkalinity can
be maintained unchanged if 0.39 mg/ I of hydrated lime is added. This lowering of natural
alkalinity is desirable in many cases to attain the pH range for optimum coagulation.

For each mg/ l of alum dosage, the sulfate (S04) content of the water will be increased
approximately 0.49 mg/ l and the C02 content of the water will be increased approximately
0.44 mg/ l.

5-15
5.3 Iron Compounds

Iron compounds have pH coagulation ranges and floe characteristics similar to aluminum
sulfate. The cost of iron compounds may often be less than the cost of alum. However, the
iron compounds are generally corrosive and often present difficulties in dissolving, and their
use may result in high soluble iron concentrations in process effluents.

5.3.1 Liquid Ferric Chloride

5.3.1.1 Properties and Availability

Liquid ferric chloride is a corrosive, dark brown oily-appearing solution having a weight as
shipped and stored of l l.2 to 12.4 lb/gal (35 to 45 percent FeCb) (1). The ferric chloride
content of these solutions, as FeCh" is 3.95 to 5.58 lb/ gal. Shipping concentrations vary
from summer to winter due to the relatively high crystallization temperature of the more
concentrated solutions as shown by Figure 5-6. The pH of a 1 percent solution is 2.0.

The molecular weight of ferric chloride is 162.22. Viscosities of ferric chloride ~olutions at
various temperatures are presented in Figure 5-7.

Liquid ferric chloride is shipped in 3,000 to 4,000 gal bulk truckload lots, in 4,000 to 10,000
·gal bulk carload lots, and in 5 and 13 gal carboys. Liquid ferric chloride is produced at the
following locations (2):

Dow Chemical Co.

Midland, Michigan

Pennwalt Corp.
Philadelphia, Pa. (Plant at Wyandotte, Mich.)

The current .price of liquid ferric chloride in bulk quantities is about $0.04 to $0.05/ lb (as
FeCh), F.O.B. the point of manufacture.

Tank trucks and cars are normally unloaded pneumatically, and operating procedures must
be closely followed to avoid spills and accidents. The safety vent cap and assembly (painted
red) should be removed prior to opening the unloading connection to depressurize the tank
car or truck, prior to unloading.

5.3. l .2 General Design Considerations

Ferric chloride solutions are corrosive to many common materials and cause stains which
are difficult to remove. Areas which are subject to staining should be protected with
resistant paint or rubber mats.

. 5-16
 10.-.----------..-----.......--------.-------......-----------------..---------
60
A Agitated Solutions may Degin to develop crystals
below this line ·
50
B Unagitated Solutions Degin to develop crystals when
the Dulk solution ternperatyre drops to aDOut this line.
Ice crystals form Delow 33~ FeC1 & FeC1 3·6Ht>
Crystals form aDove 33'fo FeCl 3 . 3 ·

~ 20
I.I.I
00: 10
~
c
00:
~ 0
~
I- -10

-20

-30

-50

lll 18 22 26 50

FIGURE 5-6
FREEZING POINT CURVES FOR
COMMERCIAL FERRIC CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
(Courtesy of Dow Chemical Co.)

5-17
 100
80 (ADsolute Viscosity)=(Kinematic Viscosity)(Density)
Centipoises = Centistokes x Gm
60 cc
50
llO

en 30
......
:a.:
0
I-
en 20
~
:z:
......
(,.) 15
.
>-
I-
c;:; 10
0
(,.)
8
-
en
>

-
(,.)·

I-
6
5
""'i!iz:
~
-·
:..::
~

FIGURE 5-7
VISCOSITY
. VS COMPOSITION
. OF FERRIC.
CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS AT VARIOUS
TEMPERA TURES
(Courtesy of Dow Chemical Co.)

5-18
Normal precautions should be employed when cleaning ferric chloride handling equipment.
Workmen should wear rubber gloves, rubber apron, and goggles or a face shield. If ferric
chloride comes in contact with the eyes or skin, flush with copious quantities of running
water and call a physician. If ferric chloride is ingested, induce vomiting and call a
physician.

5.3. l.3 Storage

Ferric chloride solution can be stored as shipped. Storage tanks should have a free vent or
vacuum relief valve. Tanks may be constructed of FRP, rubber lined steel, of plastic lined
steel. Resin-impregnated carbon or graphite are also suitable material.s for storage
containers.

It may be necessary in most instances to house liquid ferric chloride tanks in heated areas
or provide tank heaters or insulation to prevent crystallization. Ferric chloride can be stored
for long periods of time without deterioration. The total storage capacity should b~ I 1 h
times the largest anticipated shipment, and should provide at least a IO-day to 2-week
supply of the chemical at the design average dosage.

5.3. l.4 Feeding Equipment

Feeding equipment and systems described for liquid alum generally apply to ferric chloride
except for materials of construction and the use of glass tube rotameters.

It may not be desirable to dilute the ferric chloride solution from its shipping concentration
to a weaker feed solution because of possible hydrolysis. Ferric chloride solutions may be
transferred from underground storage to day tanks with impervious graphite or rubber
lined self-priming centrifugal pumps having teflon rotary and stationary seals. Because of the
tendency for liquid ferric chloride to stain or deposit, glass-tube rotameters should not be
used for metering this solution. Rotodip feeders and diaphragm metering pumps are often
used for ferric chloride, and should be constructed of materials such as rubber-lined steel
and plastics.

5.3.1.5 Piping and Accessories

Materials for piping and transporting ferric chloride should be rubber or Saran-lined steel,
·hard rubber, FRP, or plastics. Valving should consist of rubber or resin-lined' diaphragm
valves, Saran-lined valves with teflon diaphragms, rubber-sleeved pinch-type valves, or
plastic ball valves. Gasket material for large openings such as manholes in storage tanks
should be soft rubber; all other gaskets should be graphite-impregnated blue asbestos,
teflon, or vinyl.

5.3.1.6 Pacing and Control

System pacing and control requirements are similar to those discussed previously for liquid
alum.

5-19
 5.3.2 Ferrous Chloride (Waste Pickle Liquor)

5.3.2. l Properties and Availability

Ferrous chloride, FeCl2, as a liquid is available in the form of waste pickle liquor from steel
processing. The liquor weighs between 9.9 and 10.4 lb/ gal and contains 20 to 25 percent
FeC12 or about 10 percent available Fe2+. A 22 percent solution of FeCl2 will crystallize at
a temperature of -4 °F. The molecular weight of FeC12 is 126.76. Free acid in waste ·pickle
liquor can vary from l to 10 percent and usually averages about 1.5 to 2.0 percent. Ferrous
chloride is slightly less corrosive than ferric chloride.

Waste pickle liquor is available in 4,000 gal truckload lots and a variety of carload lots. In
most instances the availability of waste pickle liquor will depend on the proximity to steel
· processing plants. Dow Chemical Company produces a waste pickle liquor, having an FeC12
content of about 22 percent at a price of $0.04/lb of FeCb in bulk car or truckload quan-
tities. F.0.B. Midland, Michigan.

5.3.2.2 General Design Considerations

Since ferrous chloride or waste pickle liquor may not be available on a continuous basis,
storage and feeding equipment should be suitable for handling ferric chloride. Therefore, the
ferric chloride section should be referred to for-storage and handling details.

5.3.3 Ferric Sulfate

5.3.3.1 Propert\es and Availability

Ferric sulfate is marketed as dry, partially-hydrated granules with the formula Fe2(SQ4)3 •
X H20, where Xis approximately 7. Typical properties of one commercial product (2) are
presented below:

Molecular Weight 526

Bulk Density 56-60 lb/ cu ft
Water Soluble Iron Expressed as Fe 21.5 percent
Water Soluble Fe+3 19.5 percent
Water Soluble Fe+2 2.0 percent
Insolubles Total 4.0 percent
Free Acid 2.5 percent
Moisture @ l050C. 2.0 percent

Ferric sulfate is shipped in car and truck load lots of 50 lb and JOO lb moistureproof paper
bags and 200 lb and 400 lb fiber drums. Bulk carload shipments in box and closed hopper
cars are available. The major producer is Cities Service Company, with a plant located at
Copper Hill, Tennessee.

5-20
The current price of ferric sulfate (21.8 percent Fe) is about$39/ton, F.O.B. Copper Hill,
Tennessee. The bagged form costs from $6 to $11/ ton more than the bulk.

General precautions should be observed when handling ferric sulfate, such as wearing
goggles and dust masks, and areas of the body that come in contact with the dust or vapor
should be washed promptly.

5.3.3.2 General Design Considerations

Aeration of ferric sulfate should be held to a minimum because of the hygroscopic nature of
the material, particularly in damp atmospheres. Mixing of ferric sulfate and quicklime in
conveying and dust vent systems should be avoided as caking and excessive heating can·
result. The presence of ferric sulfate and lime in combination has been known to destroy
cloth bags in pneumatic unloading devices (3). Because ferric sulfate in the presence of
·moisture will stain, precautions similar to those discussed for ferric chloride should be
observed.

5.3.3.3 Storage

Ferric sulfate is usually stored in the dry state either in the shipping bags or in bulk in
concrete or steel bins. Bulk storage bins should be as tight as possible to avoid moisture
absorption, but dust collector vents are permissible and desirable. Hoppers on bulk storage
bins should have a minimum slope of 360 however, a greater angle is prefered.

Bins may be located inside or outside and the material transferred by bucket elevator, screw
or air conveyors. Ferric sulfate stored in bins usually absorbs some moisture and forms a
thin protective crust which retards further absorption until the crust is broken.

5.3.3.4 Feeding Equipment

Feed solutions are usually made up at a water to chemical ratio of 2: l to 8: l (on a weight
basis) with the usual ratio being 4: l with a 20-minute detention time. Care must be taken
·not to dilute ferric sulfate solutions to less than l percent to prevent hydrolysis and depos-
ition of ferric hydroxide. Ferric sulfate is actively corrosive in solution, and dissolving and·
transporting equipment should be fabricated of type 316 stainless steel, rubber, plastics, ce-
ramics or lead.

Dry feeding requirements are similar to those for dry alum except that belt type feeders are
rarely used because of their open type of construction. Closed construction, as found in the
volumetric and loss-in-weight-type feeders, generally exposes a minimum of operating
components to the vapor, and thereby minimizes maintenance. A water jet vapor remover
should. be provided at the dissolver to protect both the machinery and operator.

5-2 l
 5.3.3.5 Piping and Accessories

Piping systems for ferric sulfate should be FRP, plastics, type 316 stainless steel, rubber or
glass.

5.3.3.6 Pacing and Control

System pacing and control are the s~me as discussed for dry alum.

5.3.4 Ferrous Sulfate

5.3.4.1 Properties and Availability

Ferrous sulfate or copperas is a byproduct of pickling steel and is produced as granules,

crystals, powder; and lumps. The most common commercial form of ferrous sulfate is
FeS04 • 7H20, with a molecular weight of 278, and containing 55 to 58 percent FeS04 and·
20 to 21 percent Fe. The product has a bulk density of 62 to 66 lb I cu ft. When dissolved,
ferrous sulfate is acidic. The composition of ferrous sulfate may be quite variable and
should be established by consulting the nearest manufacturers.

Bulk, drum (400 lb) and bag (50 and 100 lb) shipments are available from producers at the
following locations:

American Cyanamid Co. Savannah, Georgia

Byproducts Processing Co., Inc. Baltimore, Maryland
Glidden Co. Baltimore, Maryland
Cosmin Corp. Baltimore, Maryland
NL Industries St. Louis, Missouri
NL Industries Sayreville, New Jersey

The current price of ferrous sulfate in bulk carload and truckload quantities is about $18/
ton (21 percent Fe). The bagged cost is $24/ton.

Ferrous sulfate is also available in a wet state in bulk form from some plants. This form is
likely to be difficult to handle and the m;mufacturer should be consulted for specific
information and instructions.

·Dry ferrous sulfate cakes at storage temperatures above 680F, is efflorescent in dry air, and
oxidizes and hydrates further in moist air.

General precautions similar to those for ferric sulfate, with respect to dust and handling
acidic solutions, should be observed when working with ferrous sulfate. Mixing quicklime
and ferrous sulfate produces high temperatures and the possibility of fire.

5-22
 5.3.4.2 General Design Considerations

The granular form of ferrous sulfate has the best feeding characteristics and gravimetric or
volumetric feeding equipment may be used.

The optimum chemical to water ratio for continuous dissolving is 0.5 lb/ gal. of 6 percent
with a detention time of 5 minutes in the dissolver. Me.chanicaJ agitation should be provided
in the dissolver to ·assure complete solution. Lead, rubber, iron, plastics, and type 304 stain-
less steel can be used as construction materials for handling solutions of ferrous sulfate.

Storage, feeding and transporting systems probably should be suitable for handling ferric
sulfate as an alternative to ferrous sulfate.

5.3.5 Reactions· onron Compounds

Ferric sulfate and ferric chloride react with the alkalinity of wastewater or with the added
alkaline materials such as lime or soda ash. The reactions may be written to show
precipitatiOn of ferric hydroxide, although in practice, as with alum, the reactions are more
complicated. than this. The reacti<;ms are shown in Table 5-3, using ferric sulfate.
\

TABLE 5-3
REACTIONS OF FE!{R!C SULFATE
Fe~(S04)3 + 3 Ca(HC03)2-2 Fe(OH)3. + 3 CaS04 + 6 C02t

Fe2(S04)3 + 3 Na2C03 + 3 H20-2 Fe(OH)3l + 3 Na2S04 + 3 C02t

· Fe2(S04)3 + 3 ·ca(OH)2__..: 2 Fe(OH)3l + 3 CaS04
Ferric chloride can be substituted in these reactions.
In terms of usefu.l quantities, the reactions of -T~ble 5-3 can be expressed as follows:

I. 1 mg/ 1 of Fe2(S04)3 ·• · 7H20 reacts with:

0.57 mg/ l alkalinity, expressed as CaC03

0.44 mg/ l 95 percent hydrated lime as Ca(OH)2

0.62 mg/ l soda ash as N a2C03

2. I mg/ I of anhydrous FeCL3 reacts with:

0.92 mg/ I alkalinity expressed as CaC03

0.72 mg/ l 95 percent hydrated lime as Ca(OH)2

1.00 mg/ 1 soda ash as Na2C03

5-23
Ferrous sulfate and ferrous chloride react with the alkalinity of wastewater or with the
added alkaline materials such as lime to precipitate ferrous hydroxide. The ferrous
hydroxide is oxidized to ferric hydroxide by dissolved oxygen in wastewater. Typical
reactions are shown in Table 5-4, using ferrous sulfate.

TABLE 5-4

REACTIONS OF FERROUS SULFATE

FeS04 + Ca(HCQ3)2...,..Fe(OH)2J +Ca S04 + 2C02f

FeS04 + Ca(OH)2- Fe(OH)2. + Ca S04

4 Fe(OH)2 + 02 + 2H2.....,.. 4 Fe (OH)3 J

Ferrous hydroxide is rather soluble and oxidation to the more insoluble ferric hydroxide is
necessary if high iron residuals in effluents are to be avoided. Flocculation with ferrous iron
is improved by addition of lime or caustic soda at a rate of 1 to 2 mg/mg Fe to serve as a
floe conditioning agent. Polymers are also generally required to produce a clear effluent.

5.4 Lime

The term "lime" applies to a variety of chemicals which are alkaline in nature and contain
principally calcium, oxygen and, in some cases, magnesium. In this grouping are included
quicklime, dolomitic lime, hydrated lime, dolomitic hydrated lime, limestone, and·
dolomite. This section is restricted to discussion of quicklime and hydrated lime, but the
dolomitic counterparts of these chemicals, i.e., the high-magnesium forms, are quite
applicable for wastewat~r treatment and are generally similar in physical requirements.

5.4. I Quicklime

5.4.1.1 Properties and Availability

Quicklime, CaO, has a density range of approximately 55 to 75 lb/ cu ft, and a molecular
weight of 56.08. A slurry for feeding, called milk of lime, can be prepared with up to 45 per-
_cent solids. Lime is only slightly soluble, and both lime du~t and slurries are caustic in na-
ture. A saturated solution of lime has a pH of about 12.4. ·

Lime can be purchased in bulk in both car and truck load lots. It is also shipped in 80 and
100 lb multiwall "moistureproof" paper bags. Lime is produced at the locations indicated
by Table 5-5.

5-24
 TABLE 5-5
•
PARTIAL LIST OF LIME MANUFACTURING PLANTS (4)
Form of
Location Manufacturer Lime Available

ALABAMA
Allgood Cheney Lime & Cement Co. High Calcium
Keystone Southern Cement Co. High Calcium
Div. Martin Marietta Corp.
Landmark Cheney Lime & Cement Co. High Calcium
Montevallo U.S. Gypsum Co. High Calcium
Roberta Southern Cement Co. High Calcium
Div. Martin Marietta Corp.
Saginaw Longview Lime Co., Div. High Calcium
Woodward Co., Div. Mead Corp.
Siluria Alabaster Lime Co. High Calcium

ARIZONA
Douglas Paul Lime Plant, Inc. High Calcium
Globe Hoopes & Co. High Calcium
Nelson U.S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. High Calcium

ARKANSAS
Batesville Batesville White Lime Co., High Calcium
Div. Rangaire Corp.

CALIFORNIA
City of Industry U.S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. High Calcium
Diamond Springs Diamond Springs Lime Co. High Calcium
Lucerne Valley Pfizer, Inc., Minerals, Pigments High Calcium
and Metals Div.
Richmond U.S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. High Calcium
Salinas ·Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp. Dolomitic
(currently captive lime)
Sonora U.S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. Dolomitic
Westend Stauffer Chemical Co. High Calcium

COLORADO
Ft. Morgan Great Western Sugar Co. High Calcium

CONNECTICUT
Canaan Pfizer, Inc., Minerals, Pigments Dolomitic
and Metals Div.

5-25
 TABLE 5-5 (continued)
Form of
J."'Q<;:aticw Manufacturer Lime Available
Fi.ORI DA
Brooksville Chemical Lime Co. High Calcium
Sumterville Dixie Lime and Stone Co. High Calcium

ILLINOIS
Marblehead Marblehead Lime Co. High Calcium
McCook Standard Lime & Refractories Dolomitic
Div., Martin Marietta Corp.
Quincy Marblehead Lime Co. High Calcium
So. Chicago Marblehead Lime Co. High Calcium
Thornton Marblehead Lime Co. Dolomitic

INDIANA
Buffington Marblehead Lime Co. High Calcium

IOWA
Davenport Linwood Stone Products Co., Inc. High Calcium

KENTUCKY
Carntown Black River Mining Co. High Calcium

LOUISIANA
Morgan City Pelican State Lime Corp. High Calcium
New Orleans U.S. Gypsum Co. High Calcium

. MARYLAND
Le Gore LeGore Lime Co. High Calcium
Woodsboro S. W. Barrick & Sons, Inc. High Calcium

MASSACHUSETTS
Adams Pfizer, Inc., Minerals, Pigments High Calcium
anq Metals Div.
Lee Lee Lime Corp. Dolomitic

MICHIGAN
Detroit Detroit Lime Co. High Calcium
Ludington . Dow Chemical Co. (currently captive lime) High Calcium
Menominee Limestone Products Co., Div. High Calcium
C. Reiss Coal Co.
River Rouge Marblehead Lime Co. High Calcium

MINNESOTA
Duluth Cutler Magner Co. High Calcium

5-26
 TABLE 5-5 (continued)
Form of
Location Manufacturer Lime Available

MISSOURI
Bonne Terre Valley Dolomite Co. Dolomitic
Hannibal Marblehead Lime Co. High Calcium
Ste. Genevieve Mississippi Lime Co. High Calcium
Springfield Ash Grove Cement Co. High Calcium

NEV AD<\.
Apex U.S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. High Calcium
Henderson U.S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. Dolomitic &
High Calcium
McGill Morrison-Weatherly Corp. High Calcium
Sloan U.S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. Dolomitic &
High Calcium

NEW JERSEY
Newton Limestone Products Corp. of America High Calcium

OHIO
Ashtabula Union Carbide Olefins Co. High Calcium
Carey National Lime & Stone Co. Dolomitic
Cleveland Cuyahoga Lime Co. High Calcium
Delaware Marble Cliff Quarries Co. High Calcium
Ge on a U.S. Gypsum Co. Dolomitic
Gibsonburg (2 plants) Pfizer, Inc., Minerals, Pigments Dolomitic
and Metal Div., National Gypsum Co.
Huron Huron Lime Co. High Calcium

Marble Cliff· Marble Cliff Quarries Co. High Calcium

M illersvi lie J. E. Baker Co. Dolomitic
Woodville Ohio Lime Co., Standard Lime & Dolomitic
Refractories Div., Martin Marietta Corp.
OKLAHOMA
Marble City
Sallisaw St. Clair Lime Co. High Calcium
St. Clair Lime Co. High Calcium
OREGON
Baker
Portland Chemical Lime Co. of Oregon High Calcium
Ash Grove Cement Co. High Calcium

5-27
 TABLE 5-5 (continued)

Form of
Location Manufacturer Lime Available

PENNSYLVANIA
Annville Bethlehem Mines Corp. High Calcium
Bellefonte (2 plants) National Gypsum Co., Warner Co. High Calcium
Branch ton Mercer Lime & Stone Co. High Calcium
Devault Warner
. Co.. Dolomitic
Everett New Enterprise Stone & Lime Co.· High Calcium
Pleasant Gap Standard Lime & Refractories Div., High Calcium
Martin Marietta Corp.
Plymouth Meeti_ng G. & W. H. Corson, Inc. Dolomitic

SOUTH DAKOTA
Rapid City Pete Lien & Sons, Inc High Calcium

TENNESSEE
Knoxville (2 plants) Foote Mineral Co., Williams Lime High Calcium
Manufacturing Co.
TEXAS
Blum Round Rock Lime Companies High Calcium
Cleburne Texas Lime Co., Div. Rangaire Corp. High Calcium
Clifton Cl if stone Lime Co. High Calcium
Houston U.S. Gypsum Co. High Calcium
McNeil Austin White Lime Co. High Calcium
New Braunfels U.S. Gypsum Co. High Calcium
Round Rock Round Rock Lime Companies High Calcium
San Antonio McDonough Bros., Inc. High Calcium

UTAH
Grantsville U. S. Lime Div., The Flintkote Co. Dolomitic&
High Calcium
Lehi Rollins Mining Supplies Co. High Calcium

VERMONT
Winooski Vermont Assoc. Lime Industries, Inc. High Calcium

VIRGINIA
Clearbrook W.S. Frey Co., Inc. High Calcium
Kimballton (2 plants) Foote Mineral Co., National Gypsum J:-Iigh Calcium
_Company

5-28
 TABLE 5-5 (continued)
Form of
Location Manufacturer Lime Available

Stephens City M.J. Grove Lime Co., Div. The High Calcium
Flintkote Co.
Strasburg Chemstone Corp. · High Calcium

WASHINGTON
Tacoma Domtar Chemicals Inc. High Calcium

WEST VIRGINIA
Millville Standard Lime & Refractories Div., Dolomitic
Martin Marietta Corp.
Riverton Germany Vall~y Limestone Div., High Calcium
Greer Steel Co.

WISCONSIN
Eden Western Lime·& Cement Co. Dolomitic
Green Bay Western Lime & Cement Co. High Calcium
Knowles Western Lime & Cement Co. Dolomitic
Manitowoc Rockwell Lime Co. Dolomitic
Superior Cutler-Laliberte-McDougall Corp. High Calcium

Current prices for bulk pebble quicklime range from $18/ ton to $2 l I ton with the higher
prices generally in the far west, and higher than average in the north. Bagging adds
approximately $4/ ton to the cost.

The CaO content of commercially available quicklime can vary quite widely over an ap-
proximate range of 70 to 96 percent. Content below 88 percent is generally considered be-
low standard in the municipal use field (5). Purchase contracts are often based on 90 per-
cent CaO content with provisions for payment of a bonus for each l percent over and a pen-
alty for each l percent under the standard. A CaO content less than 75 percent probably
should be rejected because of excessive grit and difficulties in slaking.

Workmen should wear protective clothing and goggles to protect the skin and eyes, as lime
dust and hot slurry can cause severe burns. Areas contacted by lime should be washed
immediately. Lime should not be mixed with chemicals which have water of hydration. The
lime will be slaked by the water of hydration causing excessive temperature rise and
possibly explosive conditions. Conveyors and bins used for more than one chemical should
be thoroughly cleaned before switching chemicals.

5.4. l .2 General Design Considerations

Pebble quicklime, all passing a 3/4 in.iscreen and not more than 5 percent passingta, No. 100
1

screen, is normally specified because of easier handiing and less dust. 1-fopper agitation is
5-29
generally not required with the pebble form. Published slaker capacity ratings requ-ir~ "soft
or normally burned" limes which provide fast slaking and temperature rise, but poorer
grades of limes may also be satisfactorily slaked by selection of the appropriate slaker
retention time and capacity.

5.4. l .3 Storage

Storage of bagged lime should be in a dry place, and preferably elevated on pallets to avoid
absorption of moisture. System capacities often make the use of bagged quicklime
impractical. Maximum storage period is about 60 days.

Bulk lime is stored in air-tight concrete or steel bins having a 55 to 60 deg slope on the bin
outlet. Bulk lime can be conveyed by conventional bucket elevators and screw, belt, apron,
drag-chain, and bulk conveyors of mild steel construction. Pneumatic conveyors subject the
lime to air-slaking and particle sizes may be reduced by attrition. Dust collectors should be
provided on manually and pneumatically-filled bins.

5.4.1.4 Feeding Equipment

A typical lime storage and feed system is illustrated in Figure 5-8. Quicklime feeders are
usually limited to the belt or loss-in-weight gravimetric types because of the wide variation
of the bulk density. F~ed ~quip~ent shoul'ct' have an adjustable feed range of at least 20: l to
match the operating range of the associated slaker. The feeders should have an over-under
feed rate alarm to immediately warn of operation beyond set limits of control. The feeder
. . . ... . . '

~rive should be instrumented to be interrupted in the event of excessive temperature in the

slaker compartment.

Lime slakers for wastewater treatment should be of the continuous type, and the major
components should include one or more slaking compartments, a dilution compartment, a
grit separation compartment and a continuous grit remover. Commercial designs vary in
regard to the combination of water to lime, slaking temperature, and slaking time, in
obtaining the "milk of lime" suspensions.

The "paste-type" slaker admits water as required to maintain a desired mixing viscosity.
This viscosity therefore sets the operating retention time of the slaker. The paste slaker
usually operates with a low water to lime ratio (approximately 2: l by weight), elevated
temperature, and five-minute slaking time at maximum capacity.

The "detention" type slaker admits water to maintain a desired ratio with the lime, and
therefore the lime feed rate sets the retention tim.e of the slaker. The detention slaker
operates with a wide_ range of water to lime ratios (2.5: l and 6: l), moderate temperature,
and a 10 minute slaking time at maximum capacity. A water to lime ratio of from 3.5: 1 to
4: 1 is most often used. The operating temperature in lime slakers is a function of the water
to lime ratio, lime quality, heat transfer, and water temperature. Lime slaking evolves heat
in hydrating the CaO to Ca(OH)2 and therefore, vapor removers are required for feeder
protection.

5-30
 DUST COlLECTOR

FILL PIPE (PNEUMATIC)

NOTE: · VAPOR REt«>VER BULK STORAGE

NOT SHOWN FOR CLAR.I TY BIN

- - - - B l N GATE
FLEX IBLE
_...l......._ _
CONNECTION
FLOW RECORDER
WITH PACING pH RECORDER

~~~~-~T~~L~
1
SOLENOID
ROTAMETERS --
VALVE
SLAKING WATER
1 I
I I
-----------------~----, I i
ROT9DIP-TYPE
FEEDER
,------+------<!.,-----J
11 I
-------+-----11
r:=r---,~-- ' II
I II
: II
I II RELi EF PRESSURE
II
GRAV I TY FEED
I
LEVEL
PRO BES
'II VALVE FEED

RECIRCULATION

BACK
HOLDING METERING
PRESSURE
TANK PUK>
VALVE

_FIGURI;: 5-8
TYPICAL LIME FEED SYSTEM

5-3 l
 5.4. l.5 Piping and A_ccessories

Lime slurry should be transported by gravity in open channels wherever possible. Piping
channels, and accessories may be rubber, iron, steel, concrete, and plastics. Glass tubing,_
such as that in rotameters, will cloud rapidly and therefore should not be used. Any abrupt
directional changes in piping should include plugged tees or crosses to allow rodding-out of
deposits. Long sweep elbows should be provided to allow the piping to be cleaned by the use
of a cleaning "pig". Daily cleaning is desirable.

Milk of lime transfer pumps should be of the open impeller centrifugal type. Pumps having
an iron body and impeller with bronze trim are suitable for this purpose. Rubber-lined
pumps with rubber-covered impellers are also frequently used. Make-up tanks are usually
provided ahead of centrifugal pumps to ensure a flooded suction at all times. "Plating-out"
of lime is minimized by the use of soft water in the make-up tank and slurry recirculation.
Turbine pumps and eductors should be avoided in transferring milk of lime because of .
scaling problems.

5.4.1.6 Pacing and Control

Lime slaker water proportioning is integrally-controlled or paced from the feeder.

Therefore, the feeder-slaker syst.em will follow pacing controls applied to the feeder only.
As discussed previously, gravimetric feeders are adaptable to receive most standard
. instrumentation pacing signals. Systems can be instrumented to allow remote pacing with
telemetering of temperature and feed rate to a central panel for control purposes.

The lime feeding system may be controlled by an instrumentation system integrating both
plant flow and pH of the wastewater after lime addition. However, it should be recognized
that pH probes require daily maintenance in this application to monitor the pH accurately.
Deposits tend to build up on the probe and necessitate frequent maintenance. The low pH
lime treatment systems (pH 9.5 to 10.0) can be more readily adapted to this method of
. control than high-lime treatment systems (pH 11.0 or greater) because less maintenance of
the pH equipment is required. In a closed-loop pH-flow control system, milk of lime is
prepared on a batch basis and transferred to a holding tank with variable output feeders
set by the flow and pH meters to proportion the feed rate. Figure 5-8 illustrates such a
control system.

5.4.2 Hydrated Lime

5 .4.2. l Properties and Availability

Hydr~ted lime, Ca(OH)2, is usually a white powder (200 to 400 mesh); has a bulk density of
20 to 50 lb/ cu ft; contains 82 to 98 percent Ca(OH)2; is slightly hydroscopic; tends to flood
the feeder, and will arch in storage bins if packed. The molecular weight is 74.08. The dust
. and slurry of hydrated lime are caustic in nature. The cost of bulk hydrated lime varies
from $18 to $22/ton. Bagged lime is available but increases the cost from $4 to $16/ton.
The availability of hydrated lime may be determined by contacting manufacturers listed in

5-32
 Table 5-5. The pH of a saturated, hydrated lime solution is the same as that given for quick-
lime.

5.4.2.2 General Design Considerations

Hydrated lime is slaked lime and needs only enough water added to form milk of lime.
Wetting or dissolving chambers are usually designed to provide 5 minutes detention with a
ratio of 0.5 lb/ gal of water or 6 percent slurry at the maximum feed rate. Hydrated lime
is usually used where maximum feed rates do not exceed 250 lb/ hr., i.e., smaller plants.
Hydrated lime and milk of lime will irritate the eyes, nose, and respiratory system and will
dry the skin. Affected areas should be washed with water.

5.4.i.3 Storage

Information given for quicklime also applies to hydrated lime except that bin agitation
must be provided. Bulk bin outlets should be provided with non-flooding rotary feeders.
Hopper slopes vary from 60 to 66 deg.

5.4.2.4 Feed Equipment

Volumetric or gravimetric feeders may be used, but volumetric feeders are usually selected
oniy for instailations where comparatively low feed rates are required. Dilution does not
appear to be important, therefore, control of the amount of water used in the feeding
operation is not considered necessary. Inexpensive hydraulic jet agitation may be furnished
in the wetting chamber of the feeder as an alternative to mechanical agitation. The jets
should be sized for the available water supply pressure to obtain proper mixing.

5.4.2.5 Piping and Accessories

Piping and accessories as described for quicklime are also appropriate for hydrated lime.

5.4.2.6 Pacing and Controls

Controls as listed for dry alum apply to hydrated lime. Hydraulic jets should operate
continuously and only shut off when the feeder is taken out of service. Control of the feed
rate with pH as well as pacing with the plant flow may be used with hydrated lime as well as
quicklime.

5.4.3 Reactions of Lime

Lime is somewhat different from the hydrolyzing coagulants. When added to wastewater it
increases pH and reacts with the carbonate alkalinity to precipitate calcium carbonate .. If
· sufficient lime is added to reach a high pH, approximately 10.5, magnesium hydroxide is also
precipitated. This latter precipitation enhances clarification due to the flocculant nature of
the Mg(OH)2. Excess calcium ions at high pH levels may be precipitated by the addition of
soda ash. The above reactions are shown in Table 5-6.

5-33
 TABLE 5-6

REACTIONS OF LIME

Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HC03)2-.. 2 CaC03. + 2H20

2 Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HC03)2- 2 C~C0_3~ + Mg(OH)2 J+ 2H20 ·

Ca(OH)2 + Na2C03- CaC03. + 2 NaOH

Reduction of the resulting high pH levels may be accomplished in one or two stages. The
first stage of the two-stage method results in the precipitation of calcium carbonate through
the addition of carbon dioxide according to the following reaction:

Single-stage pH reduction is generally accomplished by the addition of carbon dioxide, .

although acids have been employed. This reaction, which also represents the second stage of
the two-stage method, is as follows:

Ca(OH)2 + 2 C02-Ca(HCQ3)2

As noted for the other chemicals, the aoove reactions are merely approximations to the
more complex interactions which actually occur in wastewaters.

The lime demand of a given wastewater is a function of the buffer capacity or alkalinity of
the wastewater. Figure 5-9 shows this relationship for a number of different wastewaters
(6).

5.5 Other Inorganic Chemicals

In addition to aluminum and iron salts and lime a number of other inorganic chemicals
have been used in wastewater treatment. Only three are discussed in this section, i.e., soda .
ash, caustic soda, and carbon dioxide, but others have been and will be employed. Mineral·
and other acids are prime examples. For information on any of these chemicals, the local
supplier or manufacturer should be contacted.

5.5.1 Soda Ash

5.5.l.l Properties and Availability.

a
Soda ash, N a2C03, is available in two forms. Light soda ash has. bulk density range of 35
to 50 lb/ cu ft and a working density of 41 lb/ cu ft. Dense soda· ~s~ ~a·s.:a·density range of
a
60 to 76 lb/cu ft and a working density of 63 lb/ cu ft. The pH. o( l percent solution of
soda ash is 11.2. It is used for pH control and in lime treatment.

5-34
 500 ' .
-~
0CQ ~-

u ' """'

~
s
I 400.
I ' .
,. -
-:a
<=? . .
.. ' .,

I~
~
0 ~ ·I•
ti.
0 300
~
~
sCi I •
'
~
~
~
rn
J
,
.I

0 200 ' .,
0 I

-
~
::e
~ J
'

100
-.

100 200 300 400 500

WASTEWATER ALKALINITY mg/I - CaC0 3 .

FIGURE 5-9
LIME REQUIREMENT FOR pH~:i 1.0 AS A FUNCTION OF THE.
- WASTEWATER ALKALINITY .

U.S EPA Headquarters Library

lviail coae 3404 T
12 00 Perinsy!varna Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460
202-666-0556

5-35
 The molecular weight of soda ash is 106. Commercial purity ranges from 98 to greater than
. 99 percent Na2C03. The viscosities of sodium carbonate solutions are given in Figure 5-10.
Soda ash by itself is not particularly corrosive, but in the presence of lime and water, caus-
tic soda is formed which is quite corrosive.

Soda ash is available in bulk by truck, box car and hopper car, and in 100 lb bags from the·
following partial list of manufacturers.

Location Manufacturer

CALIFORNIA
Bartlett PPG Industries, Inc.
Trona American Potash and Chemical
Corp.
Westend Stauffer Chemical Co.

GEORGIA
Brunswick Allied Chemical Co.

LOUISIANA
Baton Rouge Allied Chemical Co.
Lake Charles Olin Chemicals

MICHIGAN
Wyandotte Wyandotte Chemicals Corp.

NEW YORK
Solvay Allied Chemical Co.

OHIO
Barberton PPG Industries, Inc.
Painesville Diamond Shamrock Chemical Co.

TEXAS
, Corpus Christi PPG Industries, Inc.

WEST VIRGINIA
Moundsville Allied Chemical Co.

WYOMING
Green River (3 plants) Allied Chemical Co, FMC Corp., and
. Stauffer Chemical Corp.

5-36
 (COURTESY P ~G INDUSTRIES INC·, C.!"IE.MICAL DIV.)

6.0

5.0

en
LI.I
en
0
CL •.o
I-
:z:
LI.I
<,>

>-
I- 3.0
en
..,
0
en
>
2.0

1.0

o--~~~--~~~---.._~~~
0 5 10
...
15
~~~__.~~~~

20
...
25
~~~_.

FIGURE 5-10

VISCOSITY OF SODA ASH SOLUTIONS

5-37
The current price for soda ash ranges from $40 to $50! ton, F.O.B. the point of
manufacture, however, prices vary substantially between manufacturers and should be
obtained from the closest manufacturers or local distributors. Bagging may add
substantially to the cost of the chemical.

5.5. l .2 General Design Considerations

Dense soda ash is generally used in municipal applications because of superior handling
characteristics. It has little dust, good flow characteristics, and will not arch in the bin or
flood the feeder. It is relatively hard to dissolve and ample dissolver capacity must be
provided. Normal practice calls for 0.5 lb of dense soda ash per gal. of water or a 6 percent
solution retained for 20 min in the dissolver.

The dust and solution are irritating to the eyes, nose, lungs and skin and therefore general
precautions should be observed and the affected areas should be washed promptly with
water.

5.5.l.3 Storage

Soda ash is usually stored in steel bins and where pneumatic filling equipment is used, bins
should be provided with dust collectors. Bulk and bagged soda ash tend to absorb
atmospheric C02 and water, forming the less active sodium bicarbonate (NaHC03).
Material recommended for unloading facilities is steel.

5.5. l.4 Feeding Equipment

Feed equipment as described for dry alum is suitable for soda ash. Dissolving of soda ash
may be hastened by the use of warm dissolving water. Mechanical or hydraulic jet mixing
should be provided in the dissolver.

5.5.1.5 Piping and Accessories

Materials of construction for piping and accessories should be iron, steel, rubber, and
plastics.

5.5.1.6 Pacing and co·ntrol

Controls as discussed for dry alum apply also to soda ash equipment.

5.5.2 Liquid Caustic Soda

Anhydrous caustic soda (NaOH) is available but its use is generally not considered
practical in water and wastewater treatment applications. Consequently, only liquid caustic
soda is discussed below.

5-38
 5.5.2.l Properties and Availability.

Liqui~ caustic soda is shipped at two concentrations, 50 percent and 73 percent NaOH. The
densities of the solutions as shipped are 12. 76 lb/ gal for the 50 percent solution and 14.18
lb/ gal for the 73 percent solution. These solutions contain 6.38 lb/ gal NaOH and 10.34 lb/
gal. NaOH, respectively. The crystallization temperature is 530F for the 50 percent solution
and 1650F for the 73 percent solution. The molecular weight of NaOH is 40. Viscosities of
various caustic soda solutions are presented in Fig~re 5-11. The pH of a 1 percent solution
of caustic soda is 12.9.

Truck load lots of 1,000 to 4,000 gal are available in the 50 percent concentration only.
Both shipping concentrations can be obtained in 8,000, 10,000 and 16,000 gal car load lots.
Tank cars can be unloaded through the dome eduction pipe using air pressure or through·
the bottom valve by gravity or. by using air pressure or a pump. Trucks are usually unloaded
by gravity or with air pressure or a truck mounted pump.

Major producers of caustic soda and their respective plant.locations are listed in Table 5-7.
The current price for liquid caustic soda ranges from $76/ ton@ 50 percent and $81 /ton@
73 percent, (NaOH), F.O.B. the point of manufacture.·

TABLE 5-7

PARTIAL LIST OF CAUSTIC SODA MANUFACTURING PLANTS

Location Manufacturer

ALABAMA
Lemoyne (Mobile) Stauffer
Mcintosh .Olin
Muscle Shoals Diamond Shamrock·

CALIFORNIA
Pittsburg Dow

DELAWARE
Delaware City Diamond Shamrock

GEORGIA
Augusta Olin
Brunswick Allied

KANSAS
Wichita Vulcan

KENTUCKY
Calvert City (2 plants) Pennwalt, Goodrich

5-39
 (C_OURTE§_Y __ OF HQ_Q_Kf;_R _CHEMICAL Co·)
200.---.~.....~--~.......~..---....,.........~--~~~......--~--~....---.

100
80
60

~ 20
Cl)

0
G..

1-
10
z: 8
w
<..>
6
>-
1-
Cl)
0
<..>
Cl)
2
>

1
o.a
0.6

o.2._--i.__.....~_..~..-~..._~..._........,...........~_._~,,__--i~....i.~...----
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 1)0 1110 1:50 160 170 180 190 200

TEMPERATURE, °F

FIGURES-LL
VISCOSITY OF CAUSTIC SODA SOLUTIONS

5-40
·Location Manufacturer

LOUISIANA
Baton Rouge Allied
Geismar Wyandotte
Lake Charles (2 plants) PPG, Olin
Plaquemine Dow
St. Gabriel Stauffer
Taft Hooker

MICHIGAN
Midland Dow
Montague Hooker
Wyandotte (2 plants) Pennwalt, Wyandotte

NEVADA
Henderson Stauffer

NEW jERSEY
Linden GAF

NEW YORK
Niagara Falls (3 plants) Hooker, Olin, Stauffer
Solvay Allied

NORTH CAROLINA
Acme , Allied

OHIO
Barberton PPG
Cleveland Harshaw
Painesville Diamond Shamrock

OREGON
Portland Pennwalt

TENNESSEE
Charleston Olin

TEXAS
Corpus Christi PPG,
Deer Park (Houston) Diamond Shamrock
Freeport Dow
Port Neches Jefferson

5-41
 Location Manufacturer

VIRGINIA
Saltville Olin

WASHINGTON
Tacoma (2 plants) Hooker, Pennwalt

WEST VIRGINIA
Moundsville Allied
Natrium PPG
South Charleston FMC

Manufacturers and addresses

Allied Chemical
Solvay Process Division B.F. Goodrich Chemical Co.
40 Rector Street 313 5 Euclid A venue
New York, New York 10006 Cleveland, Ohio 44115

Diamond Shamrock Chemical Co. Harshaw Chemical Co.

300 Union Commerce Building 1945 East 97th Street
Cleveland, Ohio 44115 Cleveland, Ohio 444106

Dow Chemical Co. Hooker Chemical Corp.

Abbott Road P.O. Box 344
Midland, Michigan 48640 Niagara Falls, New York 14302

GAF Corp. Chemical Division Jefferson Chemical Co., Inc.

l 40 West 51 st Street 3336 Richmond Avenue
New York, New York 10019 Houston, Texas 77006

. FMC Corporation Olin Corporation

Inorganic Chemicals Div. Chemicals Division
633 Third A venue 745 Fifth A venue
New York, New York 10017 New York, New York 10022

5-42
. Pennwalt Corporation Vulcan Materials Co.
Pennwalt Building Chemicals Division
Three Penn Center P.O. Box 545-T
Philadelphia, Pa. 19102 Wichita, Kansas 67201

PPG Industries, Inc. Wyandotte Chemicals Corp.

Chemical ;Division Michigan Alkali Division
1 Gateway Center Wyandotte, Michigan 48192
Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222

Stauffer Chemical Co.

Industrial Chemical Div.
299 Park A venue
New York, New York 10017

· 5.5.2.2 General Design Considerations

Liquid caustic soda is received in bulk shipments, transferred to storage and diluted as
. necessary for feeding to the points of application. Caustic soda is poisonous and is
dangerous to handle. U.S. Department of Transportation Regulations for "White Label"
materials must be observed. However, if handled properly caustic soda poses no particular
industrial hazard. To avoid accidental spills, all pumps, valves, and lines should be checked
regularly for leaks. Workmen should be thoroughly instructed in the precautions related to
the handling of caustic soda. The eyes should be protected by goggles at all times when
exposure to mist or splashing is possible. Other parts of the body should be protected as
necessary to prevent alkali burns. Areas exposed to caustic soda should be washed with
copious -amounts of water for 15 min to 2 hr. A physician should be called when
exposure is severe. Caustic soda taken interna-lly should be diluted with water or milk and
then neutralized with dilute vinegar or fruit juice. Vomiting may occur spontaneously but
should not be induced except on the advice of a physician .

. 5.5.2.3 Storage

Liquid caustic soda may be stored at the 50 percent concentration. However, at this solu-
tion strength, it crystallizes at 53°F. Therefore, storage tanks must be located indoors or
provided with heating and suitable insulation if outdoors. Because of its relatively high crys-
tallization temperature, liquid caustic soda is often dilluted to a concentration of about 20
percent NaOH for storage. A 20 percent solution of NaOH has a crystallization tempera-
ture of about -20°F. Recommendations for dilution of both 73 percent and 50 percent solu-
tions should be obtained from the manufacturer, because special considerations are neces-
sary.

Storage tanks for liquid caustic soda should be provided with an air vent for gravity flow.
The storage capacity should be equal to 1 1h times the largest expected delivery, with an
allowance for dilution water, if used, or 2-weeks supply at the anticipated feed rate,
whichever is greater. Tanks for storing 50 % solution at a temperature between 750f and

5-43
1400F may be constructed of mild steel. Storage tempera~ures above 14QOF require more
elaborate materials selection and are not recommended. Caustic soda will tend to pick up
iron when stored in steel vessels for extended periods. Subject to temperature and solution
strength limitations, rubber, 316 stainless steel, nickel, nickel alloys, or plastics m·ay be used
when iron contamination must be avoided.

5.5.2.4 Feeding Equipment

Further dilution of liquid caustic soda below the ·storage strength may be desirable for
feeding by volumetric feeders. Feeding systems as described for liquid alum generally apply
to caustic soda with appropriate selection of materials of construction. A typical system
.·schematic is shown in Figure 5-12. Feeders will usually include materials such as ductile
iron, stainless steels, rubber, and plastics.

5.5.2.5 Piping and Accessories

Transfer lines from the shipping unit to the storage tank should be spiral-wire-bound
neoprene or rubber hose, solid steel pipe with swivel joints, or steel hose. Because caustic
soda attacks glass, use of glass materials should be avoided. Other miscellaneous materials
for use with liquid caustic soda feeding and handling equipment are listed below (7):

Recommended Materials
for Use With 50 % NaOH
Components Up to 1400f

Rigid Pipe Standard Weight Black Iron

Flexible Connections Rigid Pipe with Ells or Swing Joints,
Stainless Steel or Rubber Hose
Diluting Tees Type 304 Stainless Steel ·
Fittings Steel
Permanent Joints Welded or Screwed Fittings
Unions Screwed Steel
Valves-Non-leaking (Plug)
Body Steel
Plug Type 304 Stainless Steel
Pumps (Centrifugal)
Body Steel
Impeller Ni-Resist
Packing Blue Asbestos
Storage Tanks Steel

5-44
 TRUCK Fl LL LINE.

VENT, OVERFLOW
AND DRAIN
SODIUM HYDROXIDE
STORAGE TANK

TRANSFER
PUMP

VENT, OVERFLOW
ANO DRAIN

MIXER

SAMPLE TAP

SODIUM HYDROXIDE
FEEDER

POINT OF
APPLICATION

. FIG.URE 5-12 .
TYPICAL CAUSTIC SODA FEED SYSTEM

5-45
 5.5.2.6 Pacing and Control

Controls as listed for liquid alum also apply to liquid caustic soda equipment.

5.5.3 Carbon Dioxide

5.5.3. l cProperties and Availability

Carbon dioxide; ,C02, is available for use in wastewater treatment plants in gas and liquid
form. The molecular weight of C02 is 44. Dry C02 is not chemically active at normal
temperatures and is a non-toxic safe chemical; however, the gas displaces oxygen and
adequate ventilation of closed areas should be provided. Solutions of C02 in water are very
. reactive chemically and form carbonic acid. Saturated ·solutions of C02 have a pH of 4.0 at
68°F.

The gas form may be produced on the treatment plant site by scrubbing and compressing
the combu_stion product ·of f!me recalcining furnaces, sludge furnaces, or generators used
principally for the production of C02 gas only. These gen~rators are usually fired with ·
combustible'gases, t'llel .:>il, or coke and have C02 yields as shown in Table 5-8 (8).
TABLE 5-8

C02 YIELDS OF COMMON FUELS

Fuel Quantity . C02 Yield.
lb
Natural Gas 1,000 cu ft 115
Coke l lb 3
Kerosene ' l gal. 20
Fuel Oil (No. 2) 1 gal. 23
Propane l_,000 cu ft 141
Butane 1,000 cu ft 142

The gas forms, as generated at the plant site, usually have a C02 content of between 6 per-
cent and 18 percent depending on the source and efficiency of the producing system.

The liquid form is available from commercial suppliers in 20 to 50 lb cylinders, 10 to 20 ton

trucks and 30 to SO ton rail cars. The commercial liquid form has a minimum C02 content
of 99.5 percent.

Current prices range from $30/ ton for 3,000 tons per year and over, to $68/ ton for a
quantity of 150 tons/ year. These prices include an allowance for freight within a 100 mile
radius of the point of manufacture. Another $6/ton may be added for each additional 100
miles to the point of destination. Major producers of commercial C02 are listed in Table
5-9.

5-46
 TABLE 5-9

PARTIAL LIST OF CARBON DIOXIDE MANUFACTURING PLANTS

, Location '"'
Manufacturer
. CALIFORNIA
Watson (Los Angeles) Liquid Carbonic
Oakland Liquid Carbonic
Brea Airco
Lathrop Airco ·
Ventura , . Cardox
Taft Standard Oil
GEORGIA
Augusta Liquid Carbonic

ILLINOIS
Morris Card ox
Chicago Airco
INDIANA
Jef fe rsonville Card ox
IOWA
Clinton Airco
Ft. Madison Liquid Carbonic
Ft. Dodge Liquic Carbonic
Muscatine Publicker
KANSAS
Dodge City Liquid Carbonic
Lawrence Airco ( 1972)
Lawrence Cardox
·KENTUCKY
Doerun (Brandenburg) Olin
LOUISIANA
New Orleans . Liquid Carbonic
Luling Airco
MASSACTUSETTS
Tewksbury Liquid Carbonic

MISSISSIPPI
Yazoo City Airco

MISSOURI
Kansas City Airco
Le May (St. Louis) Card ox

5-47
Location Manufacturer·

NEW JERSEY
Paulsboro Olin
Belleville Liquid Carbonic
Deepwater Airco
NEW MEXICO
Bueyeros SEC
Solana SEC
Mosquero SEC
NEW YORK
Olean Airco
OHIO
Toledo Card ox
Oregon (Toledo) Liquid Carbonic
Lima Airco
Huron Card ox
PENNSYLVANIA
Philadelphia Liquid Carbonic
Thermice (Philadelphia) Publicker
TENNESSEE
Woodstock (Memphis) Card ox
TEXAS
Texas City Liquid Carbonic
Dallas Card ox
Dumas Diamond Shamrock
VIRGINIA
Hopewell Airco
Saltville Olin
WASHINGTON
Finley Airco

Manufacturers and Addresses

Cardox Div. of Chemetron Corp. Olin Corporation

Dept. TR Chemicals Division
840 N. Michigan A venue 745 Fifth Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60611 New York, New York 10022

Airco Industrial Gases Div.of Publicker Ind., Inc.

Air Reduction Co. Walnut & Thomas
575 Mountain Avenue Philadelphia, Pa.
Murray Hill, N.J. 07974

5-48
 Liquid Carbonic Corporation Diamond Shamrock Chemical Co.
Dept. TR 300 Union Commerce Building
135 S. LaSalle Clevefand, Ohio "44115
Chicago, Illinois 60603
Standard Oil Company of California
SEC
225 Bush
1033 Humble Place
San Francisco, California 94104
El Paso, Texas 79987

5.5.3.2 G~neral Design Considerations

Recovery of C02 from recalcining furnaces or incinerators is the least expensive source, but.
maintenance of stack gas systems is likely to be extensive because of the corrosive nature of·
the wet gas and the presence of particulate matter. Scrubber systems are required to clean
the stack gas and specially designed gas compressors are necessary to provide the process
injection pressure.

Pressure generators and submerged burners require less maintenance because the system
pressure is established by compressors or blowers handling dry air or gas. On-site
generating units have a limited range of C02 production as compared with the liquid.
storage and feed system, and therefore may require multiple units.

The iiquid C02 storage and feed system generally includes a temperature-pressure
controlled, bulk storage tank, an evaporation unit, and a gas feeder to meter the gas.
Solution feeders, similar in construction to chlorinators, may also be used to feed C02.

5.5.3.3 Storage

·This section applies only to use of commercial liquid C02. Liquid system capac1t1es
encountered in wastewater treatment usually requirt: on-site bulk storage units. Standard
pre-packaged units are available, ranging in size from 3/a to 50 tons capacity, and are
furnished with temperature-pressure controls to maintain approximately 300 psi at OOF
conditions. The typical package unit contains refrigeration, vaporization, safety and control
equipment. The units are well insulated and protected for outdoor location. The gas from
the evaporation unit usually passes through two stages of pressure reduction before entering
the gas feeder to prevent the formation of dry ice.

5.5.3.4 Feeding Equipment

Feeding systems for the stack gas source of C02 consist of simple valving arrangements, for
admitting varying quantiti~s of make-up air to the suction side of the constant volume
compressors, or for venting excess gas on the compressor discharge. A typical system is
described elsewhere (9).

Pressure generators and submerged burners are regulated by valving arrangements on the
fuel and air supply. Generation of C02 by combustion is usually difficult to control,
requires frequent operator attention and demands considerable maintenance over the life of

5-49
the equipment, when compared with liquid C02 systems.

Commercial liquid carbon dioxide is becoming more generally used because of its high
purity, the simplicity and range of feeding equipment, ease of control, and smaller, less
expensive piping systems. After vaporization, the C02 with suitable metering and pressure
reduction may be fed directly to the point of application as a gas. However, vacuum
operated; solution type gas feeders are ofte.n preferred. Such feeders generally include safety
devices and operating controls in a compact panel housing, with materials of construction
suitable for C02 service. Absorption of C02 in the injector water supply approaches 100 %
when a ra~io of 1.0 lb of gas to 60 gal of water is maintained.

5.5.3.5 Piping and Accessories

Mild steel piping and accessories are suitable for use with cool, dry, carbon dioxide. Hot,
moist gases, however, require the use of type 316 stainless steel or plastic materials. Plastics
or FRP pipe are generally used for solution piping and diffusers. Diffusers should be
submerged at least 8 ft, and preferably deeper, to assure complete absorption of the gas .

. 5.5.3.6 Pacing and Control

Standard instrument signals and control components can be used to pace or control carbon
dioxide feed systems.

Using stack gas as the

.
source .of C02,
... -
the feed rate
- .. . - - - · · .. -
can be- controlled
- . - . . . - ..
by
.
proper
. . .
selection
..
and
1' .
operation of compressors, by manual control of vent or bleed valves, or by automatic
control of such valves by a pH meter-controller system.

In commercial C02 feed systems, solution feeders may function as controllers and can be
paced by instrument signals from pH monitors and plant flow meters.

In feeding commercial C02 directly to the point of application as a gas, a differential

pressure transmitter and a control valve may function as the primary elements of a control
system. Standard instrument signals may be used to pace or control the rate of C02 feed.

C02 generators are difficult to pace or control other than by manual or automatic
operation of vent or bleed valves that waste a portion of the produced gas according to the
plant requirements.

5.6. Polymers

Polymeric flocculants are high molecular weight organic chains with ionic or other
functional groups incorporated at intervals along the chains. Because these compounds have
characteristics of both polymers and electrolytes, they are frequently called
polyelectrolytes. They may be of natural or synthetic origin.

All synthetic polyelectrolytes can be classified· on the basis of the type of charge on the

5-50
polymer chain. Thus polymers possessing negative charges are called anionic while those
carrying positive charges are cationic. Certain compounds carry no electrical charge and
are called nonionic polyelectrolytes.

Because of the great variety of monomers available as starting material and the additional
variety that can be obtained by varying the molecular weight, charge density and ionizable
groups, it is not surprising that a great assor.tment of polyelectrolytes are available to the
wastewater plant operator. A partial listing of manufacturers is shown in Table 5-10. This
list is based mainly on three major sources (IO) (l l) (12) and does not purport to be a
complete list.

Extensive use of any specific polymer as a flocculant is of necessity determined by the size,
density and ionic charge of the colloids to be coagulated. As other factors need to be
considered, i.e .. coagulants used, pH of the system, techniques and equipment for
dissolution of the polyelectroyte, etc.; it is mandatory that extensive jar testing be
performed to determine the specific polymer that will perform its function most efficiently.
These results should be verified by plant-scale testing.

).6.1 Dry Polymers

5.6.1.1 Properties and Availability

Types of polymers vary widely in characteristics. Manufacturers should be consulted for

properties,. availability, and cost of the polymer being considered. References are available
that indicate the types and characteristics of polymers available (10) (l l) (12). Bulk
shipments are generally not desirable. Polymers are available in a variety of container or
pa.ckage sizes.
TABLE 5-10

PARTIAL LIST OF
POLYMER SOURCES AND TRADE NAMES

Source Trade Name (s)

Allied Colloids, Inc. Percol

One Robinson Lan-e
Ridgewood, N.J. 07450

Allstate Chemical Co. Allstate

Box 3040
Euclid, Ohio 44117

5-51
 T ~BLE 5-10 (continued) ,

Source Trade Name (s)

Allyn Chemical Co .. Claron

2224 FairhiH Rd.
Cleveland, Ohio 44106

American Cyanamid Co. Superfloc

Berdan Ave. . Magnifloc
Wa.yne, N .J. 07470

Atlas Chemical Ind., Inc. Sorbo

. Wilmington, Dela. 19899 Atlasep

Berdell Industries Berdell

28-01 Thomson Ave.
Long Island City, NY 11101

Betz Laboratories, Inc. Betz

Somerton Red. Polyfloc
Trevose, Pa.19047

Bond Chemicals, Inc. Bond floe

1500 Brookpark Rd.
Cleveland, Ohio 44109

Brennan Chemical Co. Brenco

704 N. First St.
St. Louis, Mo. 63102

The Burtonite Company Burtonite

Nutley, N .J. 07110

Calgon Corporation Cat-Floe

P.O. Box 1346
Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222

Commercial Chemical Speedifloc

11 Paterson Ave.
Midland Park, N.J. 07432

5-52
 ·TABLE 5-10 (continued)

Source Trade Name (s)

Dearborn Chemical Div. Aquafloc

W.R. Grace & Co.
' Merchandise Mart Plaza
·Chicago·, Ill. 60654

Dow Chemical USA Dowell

Barst9w Building PEI
2020 Dow Center Purifloc
Midland, Ml. 48640 Sep a ran
XD

Drew Chemical Corp. Drewfloc

701 Jefferson Rd. Amerfloc
~arisippany, N .J. 07054

Du Bois Chemicals Div. Flocculite

W.R. Grace & Co.
3630 E. Kemper Rd.
Sharonville, Ohio 45241

E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co. Du Pont

. Eastern Laboratory
Gibbstown, N .J. 08027

Environmental Pollution Investigation Dynafloc

& Control, Inc.
9221 Bond St.
Overlanq Park, KS. 66214

Fabcon International Zuclar

1275 Columbus Ave. Fabcon
San Francisco, ·calif. 94133

Henry W. Fink & Co. Kleer-Floc

6900 Silverton A venue
Cincinnati, Ohio 45236

Gamlen Sybron Gamafloc

321 Victory Avenue Gamlose
S. San Francisco, Calif. 94080 Gamlen

5-53
 T ABL I:. 5-10 (continued)

Source Trade Name(s)

Garrett-Callahan Garrett-Callahan
l l l Rollins Rd.
Millbrae, Calif. 94030

General Mills Chemicals Supercol

4620 N. 77th Street Guartec
Minneapolis, Min. 55435

Hercules, Inc. Hercofloc

910 Market St.
Wilmington, Dela. 19899

Frank Herzl Corp. Perfectamyl

299 Madison A venue
New York, N.Y. 10017

ICI America, Inc. Atlasep

Wilmington, Dela. 19899

Illinois Water Treatment Co. Illco

840 Cedar St.
Rockford, Ill. 61102

Kelco Company Kelgin

8225 Aero Dr. Kelcosol
San Diego, Calif. 92123

Key Chemicals Key-Floe

4346 Tacony
Philaddphia, Pa. 19124

Metalene Chemical Co. Metalene

Bedford, Ohio 44014

The Mogul Corporation Mogul

20600 Chagrin Blvd.
Cleveland, Ohio 44122

Nalco Chemical Co. Nalcolyte

6216 W. 66th Street·
Chicago, Ill. 60638

5-54
 TABLE 5.-10 (continued)
Trade Name (s)
Source

Narvon Mining & Chemical Co. Sink-Floe

Keller Ave. & Fruitville Pike Zeta-Floe
Lancaster, Pa. 17604

National Starch & Chemical Corp. Floe-Aid

1700 W. Frront St. · Natron
Plainfield, N .J. 07063

O'Brien Industries, Inc. O'B Floe

95 Dorsa Avenue
Livingston, N.J. 07039

Oxford Chemical Div. Oxford-Hydro-Floe

Consolidated Foods Corp.
P.O. Box 80202
Atlanta, Ga. 30341

Reichh_old Chemicals, inl:. Aqua rid

RCI Building
White Plains, N.Y. 10602

Standard Brands Chem. Ind., Inc. Tychen

P.O. Drawer K
Dover, Dela. 19901

A.E. Staley Mfg. Co. Hamaeo

P.O. Box 151
Decatur, Ill. 62525

Stein, Hall & Co., Inc. Hallmark

605 Third A venue Jaguar
New York, N.Y. 10016 Poly hall

Swift & Company Swift

Oak brook, Ill. 60521

James Varley & Sons, Inc. Varco-Floe

1200 Switzer Ave.
St. Louis, Mo. 63147

W.E. Zimmie, Inc. Zimmite

810 Sharon Dr.
Westlake, Ohio 44145

5-55
 5.6. l .2 General Design Considerations

Dry Polymer and water must be blended and mixed to obtain a recommended solution for
efficient action. Solution concentrations vary from fractions of a percent up. Preparation
of the stock solution involves wetting of the dry material and usually an aging period prior
to application. Solutions can be very viscous, and close attention should be paid to piping
size and length and pump selections. Metered solution is usually diluted just prior to
injection to the process to obtain better dispersion at the point of application.

5.6. l.3 Storage.

· General practice for storage of bagged dry chemicals should be observed. The bags should
. be stored in a dry, cool, low humidity area and used in proper rotation, i.e., first in, first
out.

Solutions are generally stored in type 316 stainless steel, FRP, or plastic lined tanks.

5.6.1.4 Feed Equipment

Two types of systems are frequently combined to feed polymers. The solution preparation
system includes a manual or automatic blending system with the polymer dispensed by
· ~and or by a dry feeder to a wetting jet and then to a mixing-aging tank at a controlled
ratio. The aged polymer is transported to a holding tank where metering pumps or rotodip
feeders dispense the polymer to the process. A schematic of such a system is shown by
Figure 5-13. It is generally advisable to keep the holding or storage time of polymer
solutions to a minimum, 1 to 3 days or less, to prevent deterioration of the product.

5.6. l .5 Piping and Accessories

Selection must be made after determination of the polymer, however, type 316 stainless
steel or plastics are generally used.

5.6.1.6 Pacing and Controls

Controls as listed for liquid alum apply to the control of liquid dispersing feeders.

The solution preparation system may be an automatic batching system, as shown by the
schematic on Figure 5-14, that fills the holding tank with aged polymer as required by level
probes. Such a system is usually provided only at large plants. Prepackaged solution
preparation units are available, but have a limited capacity.

5-56
 DRY
FEEDER

/:~~~DISPERSER
\"
.J:::
WATER SUPPLY-·======:::::::
MIXER

l
DISSOLVING-AGING
TANK

....__ _ _·...b----HOLDING TANK

---SOLUTION FEEDER

PO I NT OF
APPLI CA Tl ON

FIGURE 5-13
TYPICAL SCHEMATIC OF A DRY POLYMER
FEED SYSTEM

5-57
 SOLENOID ;SCALE
VALVE DISPERSER
HOT I - - -

WATER DRY·
PRESSURE MIXER FEEDER
REGULATOR LEVEL
PROBE
LEVEL PROBE

BLENDER

MIXING-AGING MIXING-AGING
TANK TANK
NOTE: CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION
WIRING IS NOT SHOWN
Vl
I
Vl
00

LEVEL PROBE
SOLUTION
FEEDERS

HOLDING TANK
POINT OF APPLICATION

FIGURE 5-14
TYPICAL AUTOMATIC DRY POLYMER FEED
SYSTEM
 U.S EPA Headquarters Llbrar .
Mail code 3404T '
5.6.2 Liquid Polymers 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460
5.6.2. l Properties and Availability 202-566-0556

As with dry polymers, there is a wide variety of products, and manufacturers should be
consulted for specific informatio.n.

5.6.2.2 General Design Considerations

Liquid systems differ from the dry systems only in the equipment used to blend the polymer
with water to prepare the solution. Liquid solution preparation is usually a ha.nd batching
operation with manual filling of a mixing-aging tank with water and polymer.

5.6.2.3. Feed Equipment

Liquid Polymers need no aging and simple dilution is the only requirement for feeding. The
dosage of liquid polymers may be accurately controlled by metering pumps or rotodip
feeders. ·

The balance of the process is generally the same as described for dry polymers.

5.7 Chemical Feeders

Chemical feed systems must be flexibly designed to provide for a high degree of reliability
in light of the many c.ontingencies which may affect their operation. Thorough waste
characterization in terms .of flow extremes and chemical requirements should precede the
design of the chemical feed system. The design of the chemical feed system must take into·
account the form of each chemical desired for feeding, the particular physical and chemical
characteristics of the chemical, maximum waste flows and the reliability of the feeding
devices.

In suspended and colloidal solids removal from wastewaters the chemicals employed are
generally in liquid or solid form. Those in solid form are generally converted to solution or
~lurry form prior to introduction to the wastewater stream; however, some cher:nicals are
. fed in a dry form. In any case, som-e type of solids feeder is usually required. This type of
feeder has numerous different forms due to wide ranges in chemical characteristics, feed
rates and degree of accuracy required. Liquid feeding is somewhat more restrictive,
depending mainly on liquid volume and viscosity.

The capacity of a chemical feed system is an important consideration in both storage and
feeding. Storage capacity design must take into account the advantage of quantity purchase
versus the disadvantage of construction cost and chemical deterioration with time ( 13).
Potential delivery delays and chemical use rates are necessary factors in the total picture.
Storage tanks or bins for solid chemicals must be designed with proper consideration of the
angle of repose of the chemical and its necessary environmental requirements, such as
temperature and humidity. Size and slope of feeding lines are important along with their
materials of construction with respect to the corrosiveness of the chemicals.

5-59
 Chemical feeders must accommodate the minimum and maximum feeding rates required.
Baker ( 13) indicates that manually controlled feeders have a common range of 20: l, but this
range can be increased to about 100: l with dual control systems. Chemical feeder control·
can be manual, ·automatically proportioned to flow, dependent on some form of process
feedback or a combination of any two of the_se. More sophisticated control systems are
feasible if proper sensors are available. If manual control systems are specified with the
possibility of future·automation, the feeders selected should be amenable to this conversion·
·with a minimum of expense. An example would be a feeder with an external motor which
could easily be replaced with a variable speed motor or drive when automation is installed:
·( 13). Standby or backup units should be included for each type of feeder used. Reliability
calculations will be necessary in larger plants with a greater multiplicity of these units.
· Points of chemical addition and piping to them should be capable of handling all possible
. changes in dosing patterns in order to have proper flexibility of operation. Designed
flexibility in hoppers, tanks, chemical feeders and solution lines is the key to maximum
·benefits at least cost ( 14).

Liquid feeders are generally in the form of metering pumps or orifices. Usually these'
metering pumps are of the positive-displacement variety, plunger or diaphragm type. The .
.choice of liquid feeder is highly dependent on the viscosity, corrosivity, solubility, suction
and discharge heads, and internal pressure-relief requirements (IO). Some examples are
shown in Figure 5-15. In some cases control valves and rotameters may be all that is
. required. In other cases, such as lime slurry feeding, centrifugal pumps with open impellers
· are used with appropriate controls (9). More complete descriptions of liquid feeder
requirements can be found in the literature and elsewhere (14).

Solids characteristics vary to a great degree and the choice of feeder must be considered
carefully, particularly in the smaller-sized facility where a single feeder may be used for
more than one chemical. Generally, provisions should be made to keep all chemicals cool
and dry. Dryness is very important, as hygroscopic (water absorbing) chemicals may
become lumpy, viscous or even rock hard; other chemicals with less affinity for water may
become sticky from moisture on the particulate surfaces, causing increased arching in
hoppers. In either case, moisture will affect the density of the chemical and may result in
under-feed. Dust removal equipment should be used at shoveling locations, bucket
elevators, hoppers and feeders for neatness, corrosion prevention and safety reasons.
Collected chemical dust may often be used.

The ~implest method for feeding solid chemicals is by hand. Chemicals may be preweighed
or simply shoveled or poured by the bagful into a dissolving tank. This method is of
economic necessity limited to very small operations, or to chemicals used in very weak
solutions.

Because of the many factors, such as moisture content, different grades and compressibility,
which can affect chemical density (weight to volume ratio), volumetric feeding of solids is
normally restricted to smaller plants, specific types of chemicals which are reliably constant
in composition and low rates of feed. Within these restrictions several volumetric types are

5-60
 . -
.DISCHARGE VALVE.

,SUCTION VALVE

. PLUNGER PUMP ~ (Courtesy of Wallace & Tieman) ·

-·
DIAPHRAGM PUMP (Courtesy of Wallace & Tieman)

FIGURE 5-15
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

5-61
 available. Accuracy of feed is usually limited to ± 2 percent by weight but may be as high
as ± 15 percent.

One type of volumetric dry feeder uses a continuous belt of specific width moving from
· under the hopper to the dissolving tank. A mechanical gate rnechanism regulates the depth
of material on the belt, and the rate of feed is governed by the speed of the belt and I or the
height of. the gate opening. The hopper normally is equipped with a vibratory mechanism to
reduce arching. This type of feeder is not suited for easily fluidized materials.

Another type employs a screw or helix from the bottom of the hopper through a tube
opening slightly larger than the diameter of the screw or helix. Rate of feed is governed by
the speed of screw or helix rotation. Some screw-type designs are self-cleaning, while others
are subject to clogging. Figure 5-16 shows a typical screw-feeder.

Most remaining types of volumetric feeders generally fall into the positive-displacement
category. All designs of this type incorporate some form of moving cavity of a specific or
variable size. In operation, the chemical falls by gravity into the cavity and is more or less
fully enclosed and separated from the hopper's feed. The size of the cavity, and the rate at
which the cavity moves and is discharged, governs the amount of material fed:The positive
control of the chemical may place a low limit on rates of feed. One unique design is the
progressive cavity metering pump, a non-reciprocating type. Positive-displacement feeders
often utilize air injection to improve the flow of the material. Some examples of ·
positive-cl isplacement units are illustrated in Figure 5-17.

The basic drawback of volumetric feeder design, i.e., its inability to compensate for changes
in the density of materials, is overcome by modifying the volumetric design to include a
gravimetric or loss-in-weight controller. This modification allows for weighing of the
material as it is fed. The beam balance type measures the actual mass of material. This is•
considerably more accurate, particularly over a long period of time, than the less common
spring-loaded gravimetric designs. Gravimetric feeders are used where feed accuracy of
about I % is required for economy, as in large scale operations and for materials which are
used in small, precise quantities. It should be noted, however, that even gravimetric feeders
cannot compensate for weight added to the chemical by excess moisture. Many volumetric ·
feeders may be converted to loss-in-weight function by placing the entire feeder on a
platform scale which is tared to neutralize the weight of the feeder.

Good housekeeping and need for accurate feed rates dictate that the gravimetric feeder be
shut down and thoroughly cleaned on a regular basis. Although many of these feeders have
automatic or semi-automatic devices which compensate to some degree for accumulated.
solids on the weighing mechanism, accuracy is affected, particularly on humid days when
hygroscopic materials are fed. In some cases, built-up chemicals can actually jam the
equipment.

No discussion of feeders is complete without at least passing reference to dissolvers, as any

metered material must be mixed with water to provide a chemical solution of desired
strength. Most feeders, regardless of type, discharge their material to a small dissolving

5-62
 ·Fi,..._ . .. . . t
. --~URE5-l6 .
·SCREW FEEDER;

MOTOR AND
GEAR REDUCER

ROTATING &
RECIPROCATING
- - - - -FEED SCREW

SOLUTION
_ _ _ LEVEL

, - - - - - JET MIXER
SOLUTION
CHAMBER---1+-~-1.,_

1 FIGURE 5-17

, POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT SOLID

FEEDER-ROTARY (15)

5-63
 tank which is equipped with a no~zle system and I or mecha.nical agita.tor depending on the
solubility of the chemical being fed. Solid materials, such as polyelectrolytes, may be
carefully spread into a vortex spray or washdown jet of water immediately before entering.
the dissolver. It is essential that the surface of each particle become thoroughly wetted
before entering the feed tank to ensure accurate dispersal and to avoid clumping, settling or
floating.

A dissolver for a dry chemical feeder is unlike a chemical feeding mechanism, which by
simple adjustment and change of speed can vary its output tenfold. The dissolver must be
designed for the job to be done. A dissolver suitable for a rate of 10 lb/ hr may not be
suitable for dissolving at a rate of 100 lb/ hr. As a general rule, dissolvers may be oversized,
but dissolvers for commercial ferric sulfate or lime slakers do not perform well if greatly
oversized.

It is essential that specifications for dry chemical feeders include specifications on dissolver
. capacity. A number of factors need to be considered in designing dissolvers of proper
capacity. These include detention times and water requirements, as well as other factors
specific to individual chemicals.

The capacity of a dissolver is based on detention time, which is directly related to the
wettability or rate of solution of the chemical. Therefore, the dissolver must be large enough
· to provide the necessary detention for both the chemical and the water at the maximum rate
of feed. At lower rates of feed, the strength of solution or suspension leaving the dissolver
. will be less, but the detention time will be approximately the same unless the water supply
to the dissolver is reduced. When the water supply to any dissolver is controlled for the
purpose of forming a constant strength solution, mixing within the dissolver must be
accomplished by mechanical means, because sufficient power will not be available from the .
mixing jets at low rates of flow. Hot water dissolvers are also available in order to
mimimize the required tankage.

The foregoing descriptions give some indication of the wide variety of materials which may
be handled. Because of this variety, a modern facility may contain any number of a variety
of feeders with combined or multiple materials capability. Ancillary equipment to the
feeder also varies according to the material to be handled. Liquid feeders encompass a
limited number of design principles which account for density and viscosity ranges. Solids
feeders, relatively speaking, vary considerably due to the wide range of physical and
·chemical characteristics, feed rates and the degree of precision and repeatability required.

Table 5-11 describes several types of chemical feeders commonly used in wastewater
treatment.

5-64
 TABLE5-ll
TYPES Of CHEMICAL FEEDERS
Limitations
Type of Feeder Use General Capacity
cu ft/hr
Dry feeder:
Volumetric:
Oscillating plate ......... . Any material, granules or 0.01 to 35 ..... . 40 to 1
powder.
Oscillating throat (universal) Any material, any particle 0.02 to 100 . : ... 40 to 1
size.
Rotating disc ........... . Most materials including NaF, Use disc un- 0.01to1.0 ..... . 20 to 1
granules or powder. loader for
arching.
Rotating cylinder (star) .... Any material, granules or 8 to 2,000 10 to 1
powder. or or
7.2 to.300 100 to 1
Screw ................. . Dry, free flowing material, 0.05 to 18 ..... . 20 to I
powder or granular.
Ribbon ................ . Dry, free flowing material, 0.002 to 0.16 .... 10 to I
powder, granular, or lumps.
Belt ........... ·....... . Dry, free flowing material up 0.1 to 3,000 ..... 10 to I
to l 'h-inch size, powder or· or
granular. 100 to I
Gravimetric:
Continuous-belt and scale Dry, free flowing, granular Use hopper 0.02 to 2 ...... . I 00 to I
material, or floodable agitator to
material. maintain
constant
density.
Loss in weight ............ . Most materials, powder, 0.02 to 80 ..... . 100 to I
granular or lumps.
Solution feeder:
Nonpositive displacement:
Decanter (lowering pipe) .. . Most solutions or light slurries ........... 0.01 to 10 ...... I 00 to 1
Orifice ................ . Most solutions ........... . No slurries .. 0.16 to 5 . ...... 10 to I
Rotameter (calibrated valve) Oear solutions ........... . No slurries .. 0.005to0.16 10 to I
or
0~01 to 20
LOss in weight (tank with Most solutions ·........... . No slurries .. 0.002 to 0.20 .... 30 to I
control valve).
Positive displacement:
Rotating dipper ......... . Most solutions or slurries .... . . . . . ... . .. 0.1 to 30 ....... 100 to I
Proportioning pump:
Diaphragm ............. . Most solutions. Special unit .. . ... .. . .. 0.004 to 0.15 .... 100 to I
for 5% slurries.' ........ .
Piston ................ . Most solutions, light slurries .. ... . ... . ... 0.01to170 ..... 20 to I
Gas feeders:
Solution feed ............. . Chlorine ................ . ........... 8000 lb/day max 20 to I
Ammonia ............... . ........... 2000 lb/day max 20 to I
Sulfur dioxide ........... . .......... ·. 7600 lb/day max 20 to I
Carbon dioxide .......... . ........... 6000 lb/day max 20 to I
Direct feed ................ . Chlorine ................ . ........... 300 lb/day max 10 to l
Ammonia ............... . ............ 120 lb/day max 7 to l
Carbon dioxide .......... . . .......... 10,000lb/day max 20 to l

1
Use special heads and valves for slurries.

5-65
 5.8 References

l. BIF, data sheets, Chemicals Used in Water and Wastewater Treatment-Ferric

Chloride, Wat. and Wastes Eng., Vol. 7, No. 3, pg. 65 (1970).

2. Ferric-Floe for wastewater treatment. Cities Service Co., Industrial Chemical

\Division, Atlanta, Ga. (1972).

3. Schworm, W.B., Iron Salts for Water and Waste Treatment. Public Works, Vol. 94,
No. 10, pg. 118 (1963).

4. National Lime Association, Personal Communication (May, 1971).

5. Lime for Water and Wastewater Treatment, BIF Reference No. l.21-24, BIF
Industries, Providence, Rhode Island (June, 1969).

6. Mulbarger, M.C., Grossman, E., Dean; R.B., and Grants O.L., Lime Clarification,
.Recove.ry,
,. .
Re-use
...
and Siudge
. Dewaterlng Characteristics. JWPCF,
.
Vol. 41, pg .. 2070e
'(1~69). .

7. Caustic Soda, PPG Industries, Inc., Chemical Division., Pittsburgh, Pa. (1969).

8. Haney, P.D. and Hamann, C.L., Recarbonation and Liquid Carbon Dioxide,
J A WW A, Vol. 61, No. 10, pg. 512 (1969).

9. Culp, R.L., and Culp, G.L., Advanced Wastewater Treatment, Van

Nostrand-Reinhold Company, New York (1971).

10. Russo, F. and Carr, R.L., Polyelectrolyte Coagulant aids and Flocculants: Dry and
Liquid, Handling and Application:~ Wat. and Sew. W~rks Vol. 117, pg. R-72 (1970).

11. U.S. EPA OAWP, Report on Coagulant Aids for Water Treatment (July 1973).

12. Carr, R.L., Polye/ectrolyte Coagulant Aids-Dry and Liquid Handling and
Application, Wat. and Sew. Works-Reference No., 114: R.N., p 4-64, (1967).

13. Baker, R.J., Chemical Feed Systems Determine Plant Efficiency and Reliability,
Water & Sew. Wks., V~l. 116, pg. R-21 (Nov~mber 1969).

14. R.P. Lowe, Chemical Feed Systems, 10th Annual Water Conference of Eng Soc. of
W. Penna.(Oct. 17-19, 1949).

15. Design manual, civil engineering, Navdocks DM-5; Department of the Navy, Bureau
of Yards and Docks, Washington, D.C. ( 1972).

5-66
 CHAPTER 6

CHEMICAL MIXING, FLOCCULATION AND SOLIDS-

CONT ACT PROCESSES

6. l Introduction

Chemical mixing and flocculation or solids-contact are important mechanical steps in the
overall coagulation process described in Chapter 4. Application of the processes to waste-
water generally follows standard practices and employs basic equipment used for years in
the water-treatment field. Chemical mixing thoroughly disperses coagulants or their hy-
drolysis products so the maximum possible portion of influent colloidal and fine supracol-
loidal solids are absorbed and destabilized. Flocculation or solids contact processes increase
the natural rate of contacts between particles. This makes it possible, within reasonable de-
tention periods, for destabilized colloidal and fine supracolloidal solids to aggregate into
particles large enough for effective separation by gravity processes or media filtration.

All the processes discussed in this chapter depend on fluid shear for coagulant dispersal and
for promoting particle contacts. Shear is most commonly introduced by mechanical mixing
equipment. In certain solids-contact processes shear results from fluid passage upward
· through a blanket of previously settled particles. Some .designs have utilized shear resulting
from energy losses in pumps or at ports and baffles.

Numerous theoretical descriptions of the flocculation process have been developed ( l) (2)
(3) (4) (5) ( 6). Almost all relate to experience in water treatment but can be applied to
wastewater coagulation with proper attention to significant differences in the nature of sol-
ids.

All theoretical approaches recognize the importance of time (tin sec.) and velocity gradient
<Ci, a .measure or shear intensity in fps! ft or sec~ry as controlling parameters in determining
performance of mixing and flocculation processes. It should be noted that chemical mixing .
and flocculation differ only in intensity and duration and that some aggregation takes place
in the chemical mixing stage.

In addition to velocity gradient and time, expressions for the rate of aggregation in floccula-
tion or solids contact processes involve parameters reflecting the total volume and the size
. and number of floe particles. When destabilized, particles in the fine colloidal range rapidly
aggregate under natural conditions to form small floes of fine supracolloidal_size, about I
micron diameter (5), often termed primary sized particles. In developing mathematical rela-
. tions this is generally the assumed initial size of particles to be further aggregated.

The rate of aggregation is commonly taken as a function of the dimensfonless product GCt
where C is the ratio of the volume of floe to total volume of suspension and G and t are as
defined above.

The floe volume concentration resulting from a given coagulant dosage depends, among

6-1
other things, on the amount of water entrained in the floe. Hudson (7) and Camp (1) have
shown that more water is entrained and higher floe volumes result when flocculation takes
place at lower values of G.

The value of C may be increased greatly by recirculation of settled solids. This is used in
certain types of solids contact reactors (Section 6.4) and has been applied at Lake Tahoe as
part of a conventional coagulation system with separate rapid mix, flocculation and sedi-
mentation basins (8).

Design of rapid mix and flocculation units generally involves the choice of detention and G
value and selection of configurations, of mixing equipment, tanks, piping, etc. Unless the
designer provides for direct control of floe volume concentration through solids recircula-
tion, operating values of this parameter are determined indirectly through the chemical do-
sage and choice of G value and detention. Special attention should be given to avoiding ex-
cessive Tocalized shear and reducing short circuiting. Pretreatment should assure that waste-
water is free of debris (rags, sticks,_ etc.) which could damage mixing equipment. Special
considerations in design of solids-contact units are presented in Section 6.4.

G represents the root mean square velocity gradient (fps/ft) over the mixing basin. For me-
chanically-stirred basins it can be calculated from the relation:

G= (Su)~
Where: P = power applied to stirring (ft-lb/ sec = HP x 550)
V ::::: reactor volume (cu ft)
·U = viscosity of fluid (lb-sec/ sq ft)

Viscosity varies with temperature as follows:

T u
oc lb-sec/ sq ft

0.361 x 10-4
5 0.316x 10-4
10 0.273 x 10-4
15 0.239 x 10-4
20 0.210 x 10-4
25 0.187 x lQ-4
30 0.167 x lQ-4

. Formulas for calculating G from head losses in baffled basins or in conduits are given by
Camp (9).

6-2
 6.2 Chemical Mixing

·Chemical mixing facilities should be designed to provide a thorough and complete dispersal
of chemical throughout the wastewater being treated to insure uniform exposure to pollu-
tants which are to be removed.

The intensity and duration of mixing of coagulants with wastewater must be controlled to
avoid overmixing or undermixing.

Overmixing excessively disperses newly-formed floe and may rupture existing wastewater
· solids. Excessive floe dispersal retards effective flocculation and may significantly. increase
the flocculation period needed to obtain good settling properties. The rupture ofmcoming.
wastewater solids may result in less efficient removals of pollutants associated with those
solids (2) (4).

Undermixing inadequately disperses coagulants resulting in uneven dosing. This in turn

may reduce efficiency of solids removal while requiring unnecessarily high coagulant do-
sages.

In water treatment practice several types of chemical mixing units have been used. These in-
clude high-speed mixers, in-line blenders and pumps, and baffled mixing compartments or
· static in-line mixers (baffled piping sections). The high-speed mixer, as shown in Figure 6-1,
has been the most common choice for water treat~ent. Designs usually call for a 10 to 30
second detention tin:ie and approximately 300 fps/ ft velocity gradiant ( 10). Hudson and
. Wolfner (I I) recommend variable-speed mi~ers to allow for varying requirements for opti-
mum mixing. In solids-contact reactors the G values in the immediate mixing zone approxi-
mate those for high-speed mixing (See section 6.4).

High speed mixers designed on the above basis should be equally satisfactory for waste-
water applications. Culp, et al, ( I2) recommend providing two parallel units with a some- .
what larger detention: 2 minutes at total desigri flow with both units. It has been question-
ed, however, whether in-line blenders (with G values as high as 5000 fps/ft) should be used
for wastewater in view of the possibility of rupturing organic solids ( 4). Where flows must·
be pumped just prior to coagulation, ad_dition of chemicals at the pumps is feasible. The·
pump selection should take into account possible effects on organic solids of shear in centri-
fugal units. Where problems are anticipated, lower speed units such as screw pumps
. should be used. Baffled compartments or in-line static mixing devices are limited in their ef-
fectiveness as chemical mixing devices whether in water or wastewater treatment because:

I. Head losses of up to 3 ft are required.

2. G cannot be changed to meet requirements, but rather is a function of flow rate
through the units.

In mineral addition to biological wastewater treatment systems, coagulants may be added

directly to mixed biological. reactors such as aeration tanks or rotating biological con-

6-3
 DllYE MfOfANISM

SUPl'ORT BfAMS

OVERFLOW

IMPIUfll

FEED

FIGURE 6-1
IMPELLER MIXER

6-4
 tactors.

Based on typical power inputs per unit tank volume, mechanical· and diffused aeration
equipment and rotating fixed-film biological contactors produce average shear intensities
generally in the range suitable for chemical mixing. Parker (13) indicated that an analysis of
data;for 14 activated sludge plants revealed that G ranged:from 88 to 220 fps/ftwithanaver-
age of 136 fps/ ft. Localized maximum shear intensities vary widely depending on speed of
·rotating equipment or on bubble size for diffused aeration. Camp (9) presented bases for.
relating localized maximum shear intensities to bubble size in diffused aeration. For fine
bubble diffusion ( 1.5 mm bubbles) maximum intensity reaches 1500 fps/ ft with higher val-
ues for coarse bubbles.

No similar development has been located for rotating mechanical aerating equipment, but it
appears that maximum localized shears range from little more than the basin mean value
for large, low-speed devices such as rotating biological contactors, to perhaps as high as 50
times the mean for high speed ( 1800 rpm) mechanical aerators. Questions have been raised
about detrimental effects of high speed aerators on settling of activated sludge.

When using polymers, manufacturer's recomm·endations should be sought on the mixing

, conditions which optimize their effectiveness, and these should be supplemented by jar tests,
if possible. When coagulant aids are employed, provisions for multiple addition points
should be made at the rapid mixing basin and in the flocculator to optimize the perform-
ance of the coagulant.

6.3 Flocculation

The proper measure of flocculation effectiveness is the performance of subsequent solids

separation units in terms of both effluent quality and operating requirements, such as filter
backwash frequency. Effluent quality depends greatly on the reduction of residual primary
size particles during flocculation, while operating requirements relate more to the floe vol-
. ume applied to separation units.

For wat<:<r treatment using alum or iron coagulants and flow-through flocculation (as op-
posed to solids-contact units) traditional designs have been based on crof up to 100 fps/ ft
.and Gt values of 0.3 to 1.5 x 105 (10) and GCt values of 10-100 (3). The wide ranges· of ·
these parameters may reflect genuine differences between waters (or wastewaters) but may
~lso reflect different design approaches. Hudson (7i has suggested use of Gt values of 2 x .
10s which he claimed would produce high density floe with settling velocities equivalent to
those of larger lower de~sity floe produced at low G values. Camp ( l) has suggested use of ·
higher G values and resulting lower floe volumes to get equivalent primary particle agglo-
meration but with lower solids loadings on subsequent separation units.
Values in the ranges above are certainly ample for wastewater flocculation in flow through
units. Because of the larger coagulant doses commonly used in wastewater treatment (espe-
cially with phosphorus removal) detention times and Gt values can generally be lower. Culp
et al (12) recommend a maximum of 15 minutes detention for wastewater coagulation. Culp
and Culp (8) recommend using paddle speeds of 0.5 to ·1.0 fpm.

6-5
 Tapered flocculatiqn in which the flow is exposed to decreasing G values as it passes
: through the unit, can provide a rapid build-up of small dense floe with subsequent agglome-
ration at -lower G into larger but still dense particles. (9) (10) (11). Use of mul-
ti-compartment flocculators not only permits tapered flocculation, but also greatly red_uces
the high short-circuiting associated with single-compartment units. A wide variety of physi-
cal layouts are possible to achieve series flow throu_gh multiple compartments (IO) .

. Flocculation units should have multiple compartments and should be equipped with adjust-
able speed mechanical stirring devices to permit meeting changed conditions. In spite of
simplicity and low maintenance, non-mechanical, baffled basins are undesirable because of
inflexibility, high head losses and large space requirements.

Mechanical flocculators may consist of rotary, horizontal-shaft reel units as shown in Fig.
6-2, rotary vertical shaft turbine units as shown in Fig. 6-3 or other rotary or recipro-
cating equipment. Features of these various type units are discussed and compared else-
where (9) (10) (11).

Tapered flocculation may be obtained by varying reel or paddle size on horizontal common
shaft units or by varying speed on units with separate shafts and drives. A typical series of G
values for successive compartments would. be 100, 50 and 20 fps/ ft. In most cases, equip-
ment should provide overall Gt values up to 2 x 105 at maximum drive speed. Speed vari-
ation over a range of 1:3 or 1:4 should be possible (10) .

.G values are determined from the hp actually transmitted to the fluid (water hp). This
· should be distinguished from the total input hp which includes losses in motors, drives,
bearings, etc. It should be noted that G. is a mean value for the entire flocculator volume.
Pracdcal limits are set to localized high values at the flocculator blades or paddles by speci-
. fying peripheral speeds below about 2 fps .

. In applications other than coagulation with alum or iron salts, flocculation parameters may
be quite different. Lime precipitates are granular and benefit little from prolonged floccula- .
· tion or ve;y.low terminal G values. At Lake Tahoe a detention of 4.5 min. proved adequate.
Culp and Culp (8) recommend a minimum of 5 min. but as much as 10 min may be ~eded
to assure complete dissolution and reaction of CaO. As in water softening practice, G val-
ues of 100 or more are desirable.

Polymers which already have a long chain structure may provide a good floe at low Gt val-
ues. Often the turbulence and detention in the clarifier inlet distribution is adequate.

Settling and effluent clarity in the activated sludge process can frequently be improved by'
controlled flocculat~,n between the aeration tank and clarifier. Parker, et al, ( 14) showed
that flocculation at G = 40 to 60 fps/ ft and detention of 20 to 30 min. could reduce the SS
in aerator effluent (after settling) by some 45 to 55 percent. The benefits of flocculation de-
,Pend on the level of turbulence in the aerator, and on the sludge age which affects the natu-
ral flocculating characteristics_ of the sludge. In the above study sludge with a sludge age of
IO days was better destabilized and benefited more from flocculation than did sludge with a

6-6
 - - -
W.L
-
~~ -
PADOU9

I
II
II
II
II
II

" ..
II II

"
.
II
CnulDIT
:3
- II II II II II II " .. "

-_,y II
II
II
II
LI
II II
II
II
II
"
"
II
"
"
II

l
n ..
\

FIGURE 6-2
MECHANICAL FLOCCULATION BASIN
HORIZONTAL SHAFT-REEL TYPE

~MOTORIZED SPEED REDUCER

PK . HANDRAIL

o:i
COUPLING

.-_,
-.i. .I
........
.... ·•
::;·~
....
•-..,~- f

MIXING
IASIN ~.:,,,
·. .

~ .....
~;-.i-.~~-.~;_-:-~~~=~:·-~;-~:.~~:-.~~-.:-::·_,·~~~,__~~~~--

WATER
GUIDE BEARING
PRESSURE LUBRICATED. '-'-'-+:---...:..;..J
. ..
~·: :~ _; .·....:

'FIGURE 6-3
MECHANICAL FLOCCULATOR
VERTICAL SHAFT-PADDLE TYPE
(Courtesy of Ecodyne Corp~)

6-7
 sludge age of 3 to 4 days or 12 days.

This behavior may be interpreted in light of the observation by Dean.( 15) that activated
sludge contains an excess of natural anionic polymers. As sludge age increases these pol-
ymers are reduced-first to levels where destabilization is better-but then to levels below
the optimum.

6.4 Solids-Contact Processes

Solids-contact processes combine chemical mixing, flocculation and clarification in a single

unit designed so that a large volume of previously-formed floe is retained in the system. The
floe volume may be as much as 100 times that in a "flow-through" system. This greatly in-
creases the rate of agglomeration from particle contacts ( 11 ), and may also speed up chem-
ical destabilization reactions.

Solids contact units are of two general types: slurry-recirculation and sludge-blanket. In the
form~r, the high floe volume concentration is maintained by recirculation from the clari-
. fication to the flocculation zone, as illustrated in Fig. 6-4. In the latter, the floe solids are
a
maintained in fluidized blanket through which the wastewater under treatment flows up-
ward after leaving the mechanically stirred-flocculati~g compartment, as depicted in Fig.
6-5. Some slurry-recirculation units can also. be operated with a sludge blanket.

Solids-contact units have become popular in water treatment a,nd are being increasingly
considered in advanced wastewater treatment because of the following advantages:

1. Reduced size and lower cost result because fl~cculation proceeds rapidly at high
floe volume concentration.

2. Singk-compartment flocculati_on is practical because high reaction rates and the

slurry effects overcome short circuiting.

3. Units are available as compact single packages, eliminating separate units.

4. Even distribution of inlet flow and the vertical flow pattern in the clarifier improve
clarifier performance (16).

Equipment typically consists of £_Oncentric circular compartments for mixing, flocculation

and settling. Velocity gradients (G) in the mixing and flocculation compartments are devel-
oped by turbine pumping within the unit and by velocity dissipation at baffles. For ideal
flexibility it is desirable to independently control intensity of mixing (G) and sludge scraper
. drive speed in the different compartments. Ives (3) indicates that slurry-recirculation solids
contact reactors in the water treatment field operate with a velocity gradient in the range of
60 to 120 fpsi ft. Hudson and Wolf ner ( 11) indicate that in water treatment solid-contact re-
actors. with variable-speed turbine-type agitators apply velocity gradients of 300 fps/ ft in
the mixing zone while reaction zone values may vary from 100 fps/ ft near entrance to 20
fps/ ft at the settling zone boundary. Comparably proportioned units are being used in

6-8
 RAPID MIXING AND RECIRCULATION

TREATED WATER
EFFLUENT ~ 0 0 0

CLARIFIED
WATER

CLEAR WATER
SEPARATION

'RAW WATER
INFLUENT

SLUDGE REMOVAL

FIGURE 6-4
SOLIDS CONTACT CLARIFIER WITHOUT SLUDGE BLANKET FILTRATION
(Courtesy of Ecodyne Corp.)
 EFFLUENT COLLECTOR FLUME

AGITATCR

-·~~-- ·1
j
·~z.:;;;;_:::1 CHEMICAL HtO INlUS
! t

.
f

~=======~==·=·==-=-=·--"'--·~~~---41f f~;:<!tt'l .1NFlUfNT

I . l .
SKIMMING
SLOT

..-.
...... . .--.
!,fl.... •
.,,._,,_,..,....._'"~
.._... - ·1- . -...
,,- .. ........
- .
--~·..._.... _.. ~.
• .......
,.,......
•
_· - ----
,,,.,.,,. ,_,.
• . •'
. ·--~----------

::.~j~ _;_7::-:.:::r:~...:.
--1-·-· ..... ·t··- ..
. . --: .
ttt'ooooooo o o o o ooooooooot••

EFFLUENT
°'
I

.I

SAMPLE CONNS.j \
\\
SWING SAMPLE :
SLUDGE INOICA TOR - - ·
CONCENTRATOR
\
PRECIPITATOR ORAIN

FIGURE 6-5
SOLIDS CONTACT CLARIFIER WITH SLUDGE BLANKET FILTRATION
(Courtesy of the Permutit Co.)
wastewater treatment, but with little explicit consideration of G values.

Experience with solids-contact units in wastewater treatment has up to now been limited to
slurry-recircuJation units. Culp and Culp (8) have expressed concerns about the use of
sludge-blank_et units: septicity and uncontrolled blanket upsets under varying-load condi-
tions. -Slurry-recirculation units not requiring sludge blankets or with minimum blanket
depths are not very· sensitive to such upsets. Units equipped with scrapers have operated
without septicity problems treating secondary effluent at Nassau County, N .Y~ (17) and at
Ely, Min. (18).

Operation of s·lurry-recirculation solids-contact units is typically controlled by maintaining

steady levels of solids in the reaction zone. For lime treatment of wastewater at Ely and
Blue Plains a solids concentration of 10 to 12 percent by weight was found most effective
- - .
(for phosphorus removal) (18) ( 19). For tertia_ry alum treatfl!ent at_ Nassau County 45 per-
cent floe volume concentration proved most satisfactory ( 17). -

Design features of solids-contact clarifiers should include:

l. Rapid and complete mixing of chemicals, ·feedwater and slurry solids must be pro-
vided.This should be comparable to conventional flash mixing capability and
shouid provide for variable control of Gt values, usually by adjustment of recir-
culator speed.

2. Mechanical means for controlled circulation of the solids slurry must be provided
with at least a 3: 1 range of speeds. The maximum peripheral speed of mixer blades
should not exceed 6 ft/ sec. Rushton and Mahoney (20) offer means of estimating
pumping capacity of mixers.

3. Means should be provided for measuring and varying the slurry concentration in
the contacting zone up to 50 percent by volume.

4. Sludge discharge systems should allow for easy automation and variation of vol-
umes discharged. Mechanical scraper tip speed should be less than l fpm with
speed variation of 3: 1.

5. Sludge-blanket levels must be kept a minimum of 5 feet below the water surface.

6. Effluent launders should be spaced so as to minimize the horizontal movement of

clarified water.

Most\of' the above; requirements are based on those cited in Water Treatment-Plant. Design
( 10). Further considerations include skimmers and weir overflow rates. Skimmers should be
provided on all units since even secondary effluents contain some floatable solids and
grease. Overflow rates and sludge scraper design should conform to the requirements of
other clarification units.

6-11
6.5 References

I. Camp, T. R., Floe Volume Concentration, Jour. AWWA, 60, 656 (1968).

2. O'Melia, C. R., The Coagulation Process: Application of R~search to Practice, Re~

port submitted to ASCE (Oct. 1969).

3. Ives, K. J., Theory of Operation of Sludge Blanket Clarifiers. Proc. ICE; (Br.), 39, 243
(Feb. 1968).

4. Weber, W. J., Jr., Physicochemica/ Processes for Water Quality Control. John Wiley.
& Sons, Inc., New York (1972).'

5. Harris, H. S., et al, Orthokinetic Flocculation in Water Purification, J. San Eng. Div.,
ASCE, 92. SA6, 95 (Dec. 1966).

6. Parker, D. S. et al, Floe Breakup in Turbulent Flo~culation Processes, J. San. Eng.

Div. ASCE, 98, SA l, 79-99 (Feb. 1972).

7. Hudson, H. E., Jr., Physical Aspects of Flocculation. Jour-. AWWA, 57. 885 (July,
1965).

8. Culp, R. L. and Culp, G. L., Advanced Wastewater Treatment, Van Nostrand Rein-
hold Company, New York (1971).

9. Camp, T. R., Flocculation and Flocculation Basins, Trans. ASCE, 120, (1955).

IO. Water Treatment Plant Design, American Water Works Ass'n, Inc., New York
( 1969).

11. Hudson, H. E., Jr., and Wolfner, J. P., Design of Mixing and Flocculating Basins,
Jour. AWWA, 59,1257 (Oct. 1967).

12. Culp, G. L., et al., Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treatment Plant Design.

U .s:-EPA-Technology Transfer Seminar Publication (August 1973).

13. Parker, D. S., Effect of Turbulence on Activated Sludge Effluent Clarity, Paper
· Presented at 12th Annual Northern Reginal Conference, Calif. WPCA, (Oct. 1970).

14. Parker, et al, Physical Conditioning of Activated Sludge Floe. JWPCF, 43, 9, pg.
1817, (Sept. 1971).

15. Dean, R. B., Colloids Complicated Treatment Processes, Environmental Science &
Tech. pg. 820, (Sept. 1969).

6-12
16. Aitken, l.M.E., Reflections on Sedimentation Theory and Practice-Part I, Eff, and
Water Treatment lour. (Br.), 74, 226 (Apr. 1967).

17. Oliva, J. A. Department of Public Health, County of Nassau, Personal Commu-

·. nication. (March 1973).

18. Westrick, J. J., U.S. EPA, NERC, Cincinnati, Ohio, Personal communication (April,
1973).'

19. Kreiss), J. F., U.S.E.P.A., National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati,

.Ohio, Personal Communication, (April 1973).

20. Rushton, J. H. and Mahoney, L. H., Mixing Power & Pumpage Capacity, Annual
Meeting of AIME, New York (Feb. 15, 1954).

6-13
 CHAPTER 7

GRAVITY SEPARATION

7 .1 Introduction

Gravity separation refers to the removal of SS whose specific gravity difference from that
of water causes them to settle or rise during passage through a tank or basin under
quiescent conditions. Separation by settling is termed sedimentation; separation by rising is
termed flotation. The size of particles determines the fluid drag retarding this separation.
For a given specific gravity, smaller particles having greater surface area encounter more
drag and hence are more difficult to separate.

The factors affecting separation efficiency are discussed in depth for sedimentation, and
separate sections cover each of its major applications. The section on flotation indicates
special considerations pertaining to this process and deals with its applications. Finally two
sections deal with devices which enhance the performance of sedimentation basins.

7 .2 Configuration of Sedimentation Units

The tanks or basins in which sedimentation is carried out (also frequently termed clarifiers)
may be classified as horizontal flow or vertical-flow according to the predominant direction
of the flow path from inlet to outlet. It should be noted that, depending on placement of
inlet!' <!nd outlets, certain designs-particularly small radial flow tanks-may have a flow
path with significant components in both horizontal and vertical directions.

7.2. l Vertical-Flow Units

Vertical-flow applications in the U.S. have generally been limited to settling compartments
in flocculation-clarifiers, solids-contact units and activated sludge systems of similar
configuratiQn (Aero-Accelator, Rapid Block, etc.). In Europe, vertical-flow basins have
been used extensively. Kalbskopf has illustrated several European designs (l).

Vertical-flow units may be annular or rectangular, and are generally narrower at the
bottom than at the top. In annular designs, the flow is distributed at the bottom along the
circumference of the tank and rises to peripheral or radial effluent weirs or launders. Flow
in rectangular tanks is distributed at the bottom along the length of the tank and rises to
longitudinal or transverse effluent weirs or launders.

Annular units have been built with outside diameters to 150 ft, but the width from inner
wall to outer wall is much less. Figures 6-4 and 6-5 illustrate annular, vertical-flow units.

7 .2.2 Horizontal-Flow Units

In the U.S. horizontal-flow units, both rectangular and circular, are most often used for

7-1
 sedimentation applications. Tank proportions, inlet and outlet arrangements and types of
sludge and scum collecting equipment are summarized and discussed in the ASCE/WPCF
Manual for Sewage Treatment Plant Design (2). Individual bays of rectangular tanks
. should have a length to width ratio of at least four.

Flow through rectangular tanks enters at one end, passes a baffle arrangement, and
traverses the length of the tank to effluent weirs. In narrow tanks, longitudinal collectors
scrape sludge to single or multiple hoppers at one end (Figure 7-1). In tanks with multiple
wide bays, the longitudinal collectors scrape sludge to a cross collector which then moves
the sludge to a central hopper. Circular designs employ three inlet/ outlet configurations
with corresponding flow paths as shown in Figure 7-2. In configurations 7-2 (a) and (c),
sludge is removed by mechanical scraping to a central hopper or draw·-off. In configuration
7-2- (b) a . hydraulic
. .
suction
'
sludge
..
removal system is .employed.
.
.

7.3 Basic Factors Affecting Settiing Ta~k Design

7.3. l Hydraulic Loading

The basic parameter to which settling tank performance is related is the surface hydraulic
loading (Q/ A). This is the inflow (Q) divided by the surface area (A) of the basin, and is
commonly expressed in units of gpd/ sq ft.

Hazen (3) showed that under the following assumptions performance ts a function of
surface loading alone:

I. Quiescent or non-turbulent flow

2. .Uniform distribution of velocity over all sections normal to general flow direction

3. Discrete non-interacting particles

. ;,\_

4. No resuspension of particles once they reach the floor of the basin

Under these conditions all particles whose settling velocity (Vs) exceeds Q/ A are removed.
In addition, in horizontal r"low tanks particles of lower settling velocities are partially
removed in the proportion Vs/(Q/ A).

In actual basins conditions depart in many respects from those assumed in Hazen's original
analysis. The most significant of these departures are:

I. Currents induced by inlets, outlets, wind and density differences may cause short
circuiting or dead spaces within the tank.

2. Turbulence due to forward velocity or currents in the tank retards settling.

3. Flocculent solids may agglomerate into larger particles during passage through the
basin.

7-2
 DRIVE SPROCKET

· WATER LEVEL
FLOW
SKIMMING

CHAIN 8 FLIGHT 11 11
CROSS COLLECTOR 2 x6 FLIGHTS

SLUDGE HOPPER

A. WITH CHAIN AND FLIGHT COLLECTOR

TRAVELING
BRIDGE
BRIDGE
TRAVEL
COLLECTING 4 "" SKIMMING

WATER LEVEL

SLUDGE COLLECTION POSITION

'L7"....,_,,_____:_ SCREW CROSS

COLLECTOR

SLUDGE
HOPPER B. WITH TRAVELING BRIDGE COLLECTOR

FIGURE 7-1

RECTANGULAR SEDIMENTATION TANKS

(Courtesy.of FMC Corp)

7-3
 --+
EFFLUENT

(a) CIRCULAR CENTER-FEED CLARIFIER WITH

A SCRAPER SLUDGE REMOVAL SYSTEM

INFLUENT i --.....----~---+
L EFFLUENT
i

~=========:::::J-+ SL U0 GE
(ti) CIRCULAR RIM-FEED, CENTER
. . -TAKE-OFF CLARIFlrR WITH A
if YD RAUL IC SUCTION SLUDGE REMOVAL SYSTEM

+-- INFLUENT

_ _ _ __,,--+ SLUDGE

t cH I RC UL AR RI M-FEED, RI M TA KE -0 FF CLAR I F I ER

FIGURE 7-2

TYPICAL CLARIFIER CONFIGURATIONS

7-4
 4. Sludge may be scoured and resuspended at high forward velocities.

5. When influent solids concentrations are high, particles· settle as a mass rather than
discretely.

The subsections below indicate how investigators, most notably Camp (4), have attempted
to account for these departures by relating performance to additional parameters. The
relationships are not generally adequate to permit prediction of performance from design
values of the parameters, but they do provide insights helpful in deciding a number of tank
features such as shape, depth, inlet type, etc. In addition, such relationships offer guidance
in translating settling test results into sizing for full scale tanks. Procedures for conducting
and interpreting ~uch tests have been outlined by O'Connor and Eckenfelder (5) and others
( 6) (7) (8).

To account for departures of full scale tanks from ideal or test conditions scale-up factors in
the following ranges have been suggested (5):

Si?ing Parameter Scale-Up Factor

Area 1.25 tO- 1.75
Volume 1.5 to 2.0

These scale-up factors are not intended to cover extreme vanat10ns in flows or solids
loadings, or to allow for.operation at temperatures significantly different from those in the
tests. Neither do they include standby capacity as needed for units critical to overall plant
performance. Smith (9) has discussed the use of excess capacity factors to provide for
standby and to cover expected variations in loadings.

7.3.2 Short Circuiting

Short circuiting can greatly reduce the removal efficiency of a settling tank. Effects are
most critical for flocculent suspensions whose removal is affected by detention time (Sec.
7.3.4), but depending on the current pattern, removal of discrete particles may also be
affected. Shor~ circuiting is accentuated by high inlet velocities, high outlet weir rates, close
placement of inlets and outlets, exposure of tank surface to strong winds, uneven heating of
tank contents by sunlight, and density differences between inflow and tank contents.
Density-induced short circuiting can be a si.gnificant factor in secondary settling tanks
handling activated sludge mixed liquor ( 10). Inlet and outlet conditions, tank geometry, and
density differences due to influent SS concentrations produce steady short circuiting,
whereas effects of other factors are generally i·ntermittent and unpredictable.

The degree of short circuiting can be measured using tracer.studies. Figure 7-3 shows results
of such studies on four types of settling tanks ( 11 ), where short circuiting was due primarily
to inlet and outlet conditions and tank geometry. Studies of this type have confirmed that
such short circuiting is minimized in narrow, rectangular, horizontal-flow tanks and is most
serious. In circular horizontal flow tanks. Altti.ough upflow tank.s show the least short

7-5
 ~+ Radial Flow in Circular
Tank.

I tbrizontol flow in Widca

-r Roctan~ubr Tanlr.,

__.__ Horizpntol flow in Narrow

-f-- P.octanciulor f3nk.

~ Vqrtical Flow in Upflow

n T ~iqn of Tonk.
0
z
n
-...)
"'
z
I
-4
~

°' >-4
0.
z
>
-4

0
~
,...
...
-4

0 40~ l>O~ 10~ 100" 110"

PERCENTAGE OF NOMINAl DETENTION PERIOD

FIGURE 7-3
RESULTS OFMLT-INJECTION TESTS WITH .,_
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS
circuiting, practical problems in obtaining uniform initial flow distribution have limited their
use to small diameter units.

The degree of short circuiting in circular units can vary considerably, however, depending
on the type of inlet used. Inlet conditions have been shown to be more critical than those at
the outlets (12). For activated sludge final settling tanks, peripheral feed and certain
special-design center feed inlets have been shown to cause less short circuiting than
conventional center feed inlets ( 10) ( 13) (14 ).

Even where the degree of short circuiting can be measured or predicted, techniques for
evaluating the effect on t.ank performance ( 1) ( 15) are questionable as to their utility and .
accuracy. Hence, the best design approach is to avoid short circuiting as far as possible,
thus minimizing uncertainty as to its effects. The most important factors· to consider in
controliing short circuiting are dissipation of inlet velocity, protection of tanks from wind
sweep and ~neven heating, and reduction of density currents associated with high inlet ss·
concentrations (13).

Such density current ~hort curcuiting is a particular problem in settling tanks for activated
sludge. Fitch ( l 0) has presented estimates of the velocities of such currents as a function of
SS concentration, and has compared two fundamental approaches to preventing short_
circuiting from this source. These are dynamic stabilization as proposed by Camp (4) and
density stabilization. Dynamic stabilization requires shallow basins with high forward
velocities. (Froude numbers of 5 x 10 5 or greater). The resulting friction losses, in theory,
counteract stratification and instability of flow. Density stabilization essentially establishes
an upflow type pattern by introducing the dense feed at low velocities and close to the tank
bottom. Fitch showed that low inlet velocities are essential to successful density
stabilization, and proposed a novel center inlet design to achieve such velocities (see Section
7.4).

7.3.3 Turbulence

Turbulence levels in a settling· basin are normally difficult to estimate. The only exception is
turbulence due to drag from net forward velocity. Camp (4) has presented a basis for
estimating turbulence from this source and for compensating for its effects by increasing
tank area. Required inc~eases vary directly with forward velocity in the tank and with t_h~
desired removal rate.

Good design practice is to minimize other sources of turbulence such as inlet, outlet, wind
and density currents. These sources produce unpredictable levels of turbulence and may
increase short circuiting. Even where the degree of turbulence during sedimentation can be
definitely measured the effect on removal of flocculent particles is not easily predicted,
because agglomeration induced by turbulence can alter particle sizes and localized settling
velocities.

7-7
 7 .3.4 Particle Agglomeration

For the flocculent suspensions handled in wastewater treatment, particle contact and
agglomeration continues during sedimentation. Two mechanisms produce particle contacts:
velocity gradients within the settling tank, and differential settling rates; each of which
permit faster moving particles to overtake slower ones. Depending on the nature of the
influent suspension, either mechanism can significantly affect both the size and settling
velocity of floe and the fraction of fine, unsettleable particles remaining in suspension.
Regardless of surface loading on a settling tank, attachment of smaller, unsettleable
particles onto larger ones of separab~e size is essential in attaining high SS removal
efficiences. In any case, these larger particles must have the opportunity to agglomerate to
sizes which will be removed at the maximum surface loadings applied to the tank.
Otherwise massive failure of the separation process will occur with significant loss of SS in
the effluent.

Camp (4) asserted that the rate of particle contacts due to differential settling depends only
on the characteristics of the suspension. Fitch (16) ( 17) maintained that the rate also
increased with tank depth. In either case, the total number of contacts occurring due to
differential settling is a direct function of detention tiine, which at a given surface hydraulic
loading is, in turn, a function of settling tank depth: _In contrast, the rate of particle contacts
due to velocity gradients increases with forward velocity. and hence decreases with depth.

For the IO to 15 ft tank depths normally used in wastewater treatment in the U.S.,
agglomeration depends mainly on differential settling. For wastewaters such as raw sewage,
which agglomerate slowly under differential settling, detention time can have a significant
effect on settling tank performance (See Section 7.5).

Camp (4) urged the use of much shallower settling tanks, theorizing that the higher velocity
gradients would accelerate particle agglomeration sufficiently to more than offset the
reduction in detention time. Fitch ( 16) disputed this noting that-in stirred settling tests
velocity gradients comparable to those proposed by Camp provided little flocculation. In
any case, common U.S. practice has remained to design fairly deep tanks with low forward
velocities (about I fpm at mean flow) and to depend on some other means than gradients
due to forward velocity to achieve desired flocculation. Kalbskopf (I) indicated that in
Europe it is common, to design. shallower (3 to IO ft depth) primary settling tanks with
higher forward velocities (2.5 fpm at mean flow and up to 7.5 fpm at maximum flow).
Studies for the Emscher Mouth treatment facility (18) showed only minor variation of
primary effluent SS with forward velocity. Performance related much more to surface
loading. For any given surface loading, however, the best performance was at a velocity in
the range between 1.6 and 2.5 fpm.

It is well recognized that increasing velocity gradients by stirring the inlet zone of a settling
tank can often improve performance (I) (4) ( 19). Essentially this combines mechanical
flocculation and settling in a single tank. Compartmentation is desirable to reduce short
circuiting. The major advantage of such combined units is that a suspension can be
flocculated at decreasing G values (see Section 6.1) down to very low levels and then
delivered to sedimentation without subjecting the suspension to the shearing effects of

7-8
collection and redistribution. Recognizing this advantage, several equipment manufacturers
offer combined units designed on this basis. Where flocculation is to be used to upgrade
performance of existing settling tanks, the possibility of locating flocculation mechanisms
directly in the tanks should be considered. (See U.S. EPA, Process Design Manual for
Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants).

7.3.5 Bottom Scour

Where high forward velocities are used, the possibility of scouring previously deposited
sludge should be analyzed. As a rule of thumb, forward velocities should be limited to from
9 to 15 times the settling velocity of critical size solids to avoid scour (20).

7.3.6 Hindered Settling and Compaction

When a concentrated suspension such as activated sludge mixed liquor settles under
quiescent conditions, a distinct interface develops almost immediately between the sludge
and the clarified liquid above it (21). As illustrated in Figure 7-4, this interface subsides for
·a time at a constant rate. This rate is termed the initial settling velocity of the sludge.
Because the accom'panying upward displacement of liquid reduces this settling velocity to
below that of discrete particles of the sludge, the process is termed hindered settling.

As the sludge mass continues to settle an interparticle structure develops in the more
concentrated lower layers and the subsidence rate slows further. Figure 7-5 illustrates this
compaction or thickening of sludge in a full scale tank. If high sludge concentrations are to
be obtained, thickening rather than solids separa~ion may control the tank sizing.· Sizing
secondary settling tanks for activated sludge to meet thickening requirements is discussed in
Section 7 .6.

7.4 Clarifier Design Considerations

7.4. l General

In selecting the particular tank shape, proportions, equipment, etc. the designer should:

l. Provide for even inlet flow. distribution in a manner which minimizes inlet
velocities and short circuiting.

2. Minimize outlet currents and their effects by limiting weir loadings (see Sec. 7.5
and 7.6) and by proper weir placement.

3. Provide sufficient sludge storage depths to permit desired thickening of sludge.

4. Provide sufficient wall height to give a minimum of 18 inches of freeboard.

5. Reduce wind effects on open tanks by providing wind screens and by limiting fetch
of wind on tank surface with baffles, weirs or launders.

7-9
 CLEAR WATER ZONE

a:
l&.I
>- HINDERED SETTLING
Cl
..J CONSTANT COMPOSITION
V= F(C)

TRANSITION. ZONE
VARIABLE COMPOSITION

ULTIMATE CONCENTRATION

TIME
CYLINDER

FIGURE 7-4

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SETTLING ZONES

OVERFLOW LEVEL

CLEARIFICATION
,_::c ZONE
CL
II.I
0

Cl)
z DEPTH
(ii oir
er SLUDGE
w COMPRESSION ILANKET
a: ZONE
0
z

INCREASING SLUDGE CONCENTRATION

FIGURE 7-5
SEDIMENTATION IN .A SECONDARY SETTLING TANK

7-10
 6. Consider economy of alternative layouts which can be expected to provide
equivalent performance.

7. Maintain equal flow to parallel units. This is most important and often forgotten.
Equal flow distribution between settling units is generally obtained by designing
equal resistances into parallel inlet fiow ports or by flow splitting in symmetrical
weir chambers.

7.4.2 Inlet Design

Inlet design for rectangular tanks, where the distance from inlet tQ outlet is large, is less
critical than for circular tanks where there is generally little separation between inlet and
outlet.

In rectangular tanks flow is distributed over the width of the tank by provision of multiple
inlets. Size and spacing vary considerably from one design to another. Small openings are
avoided in wastewater applications because of the possibility of fouling. Maximum spacings
are generally less than lO ft. Target baffles are commonly provided to help dissipate the
velocity of the inlet jets. Distribution to multiple inlets ·in a rectangular tank usually
involves· a manifold conduit. A method, dt;veloped by Dobbins, for design of inlets and
manifold conduits, is presented elsewhere (22).

The common type of center feed for circular tanks depends on symmetrical baffling to
distribute flow equally in all radial directions. The high degree of short circuiting with such
inlets has led manufacturers to develop several special inlet designs for circular tanks-both
center and peripheral feed .

. Figure 7-2b and c show peripheral feed units. In these units, inlet ports discharge outside a
deep peripheral baffle and flow passes under this baffle to enter the tank. In a peripheral
feed unit manufactured by Lakeside Equipment Corp., the inlet line to the tank discharges
tangentially into a tapered race located behind a similar skirt baffle. The manufacturer ·
claims that the tangential motion imparted to the tank contents reduces short circuiting. In
model studies, the latter type of peripheral unit showed significantly higher removals of iron
floe than a similarly l<?aded center feed unit (23). This was attributed to better conditio·ns
for particle agglomeration in the peripheral feed model.
..
A center feed .inletmanufactured by . Dorr-Oliver, Inc; has two races with
tangentialiy-introduc~d flows rotatin.g in opp~site directio~s. Shear befween these rotating
flows dissipates the energy of the inlet velocity before the inflow leaves the feed well ( 10).

The modular Energy Dissipating (MED) Feedwell, manufactured by Envirotech Corp.,

forces all flow to pass through honeycombs of small tubes, mounted vertically around the
entire feedwell periphery. The manufacturer claims that the honeycomb creates a laminar
flow pattern with uniform radial velocities and that periodically reversing the modules on
their pivot mountings(changing flow direction through them) will clear the honeycomb of
any accumulated solids.

7-11
Available data comparing performance of primary and secondary clarifiers using special
and conventional inlets are presented in Table 7-1. - ·

7.4.3 Economy

The two major elements in settling tank cost are the structure and the sludge collection
mechanism. Installed cost for the mechanism is typically 30.to 40 percent of the structural
cost. Structural costs for multiple· rectangular and circular tanks (horizontal flow) are
comparable, provided .common-wall construction is used for the rectangular units ( 1) and
liquid depths are not more than about IO ft. At greater depths, circular units with tank walls
designed as hoops show increasing savings. Single circular units are less expensive than the
same size rectangular basin. Where tanks must be covered, costs may favor rectangular
units because of their shorter roof spans. European data ( 1) indicate structural costs for
vertical flow units may run 50 percent higher than horizontal units of the same volume, but
the vertical tanks have deep conical bottoms eliminating the need for costly sludge collector
mechanisms.

Rotary collectors for circular tanks generally cost 20 percent less than chain-and-flight
collectors for comparable rectangular units. In addition, maintenance requirements for the
rotary units are decidedly lower. Travelling-bridge collectors for rectangular tanks
apparen~ly compete favorably with rotary circular collectors in cost and ease of
maintenance. They are common in Europe but until recently have not found widespread
application in the U.S. A recent comparison (27) for secondary tanks showed a floating
travelling bridge collector with siphon sludge drawoffs to be decidedly cheaper than either
chain-and-flight or circular mechanisms.

7.4.4 Skimming

In rectangular tanks with chain-and-flight collectors, skimmings are moved toward their
discharge point by return travel of the flights at the tank surface (Figure 7-lA). In circular
tanks skimmings are moved by travel of a surface arm attached to the rotary collector
(Figure 7-2). A surface arm can be similarly used in rectangular tanks with travelling-bridge
collectors. Discharge of scum from the settling tank may be continuous or Intermittent
depending on quantity produced. ~kimmer m_ecban_isms are of two types: dipping-weir and
sloping-beach. In the first, a slotted tilting pipe or other weir device is positioned during
skimming so that scum overflows from the tank together with considerable water. In
sloping-beach units scum is raked mechanically up a beach leaving most of the water
behind. The latter are simple to provide on circular tank mechanisms where they are almost
standard. For rectangular _tanks .with chain-and-flight collectors, however, a separate
mechanism is required to move scum up the sloping beach. In this application, use of sloping
beach rather than weir type it is desirable to minimize the moisture content in the scum and
facilitate subsequent handling. Where scum is to be pumped away from the tanks the less
expensive weir-type skimmers are generally preferable.

7-12
 TABLE 7-1

PERFORMANCE OF SPECIAL SETTLING TANK INLETS

Loading Effluent SS
Special Inlet Type and Test Special Conventional Special Conventional Refer-
Application Location Period Inlet Center Feed Inlet Center Feed ence
--
gpd/sq ft gpd/sq ft mg/l mg/l

Peripheral Feed (Rex- Ann Arbor, 5/22/61 1408 951 11 14 24

Nord) - Activated Mich. to
-...J
I Sludge Final Clarifier 6/22/61
w

Sioux Falls, 8/12/58 to 2015 401 30 30 24

S.D. 9/27 /58

Peripheral Feed Ewing-Lawrence, 6/70 to 1000± 1000± 67 81 25

(Lakeside Equipment) N.J. 12/70
Primary Clarifier

Modular Cell Inlet ' Odgen, Utah 10/70 to 520-715 520-715 31 46 26

Feedwell (Enviro- 5/71 850-950 850-950 31 48 26
tech) 950-1150 950-1150 31 54 26
7 .5 Primary Sedimentation

In theory, sizing of primary tanks may be regarded as a question of economics. Successive

increments of t_ank area. (pro".iding lower loadings and longer detentions) typically yield
diminishing returns in performance. At some point it becomes more economical to accept
higher loads in subsequent units rather than provide more primary tank capacity. Some
designs have even omitted primary tanks entirely. Von der Emde (28) has indicated this may
be advantageous if one or more o( the following conditions apply:

l. Sludge from the facility is to be pumped away for treatment elsewhere

2. Problems are expected ·with .odors in primary tanks or poorly settling sludge in
.secondary tanks

3. Aerobic digestion or extended aeration processes are to be used.

As a practical matter, performance-loading relationships adequate for use in cost

optimization studies can currently be obtained only by extensive testing of the actual
·wastewater in existing full scale or pilot facilities, taking into account variations in flows
and characteristics. The generalized performance-loading curves for sedimentation units
available in the literature (2) (8) ( 19) (29) are unsatisfactory even as a basis for predicting
performance at particular design loadings much less for cost optimization studies. Such
curves are based on average daily plant flows from diverse sources, and ignore effects of
diurnal flow variations and of major in-plant flows such as waste secondary sludge, which
may be recycled to the primary tanks. The effect of su'ch unaccounted-for factors may be
seen in the wide scatter of removal-loading data plotted in the WPCF I ASCE Sewage
Treatment Plant Design Manual (2).

In the absence of reliable performance-loading relations, primary tank designs may be

based on the typical parameters shown in Table 7-2.

TABLE 7-2

TYPICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR PRIMARY CLARIFIERS

Hydraulic Loading
Type of Treatment Average Peak Depth
gpd/ sq ft ft
Primary Settling Followed
by Secondary Treatment 800:1,200 2,000-3,000 10-12

Primary Settling with Waste

Activated Sludge Return 600-800 1,200-1,500 12-15

Sizing should be calculated for both average and peak conditions (if fl~w equalization is not
used) and larger size used.

7-14
These parameters are applicable to normal municipal wastewaters primarily of domestic
origin and should provide SS removals of 50 to 60 percent.

Weir loading limitations between 10,000 and 30,000 gpd/ ft (24-·hr basis) have been sug-
gested for primary tanks (19) (29). At usuaJ surface loadings, up to 1200 gpd/ sq ft, round
c>
tanks with single peripheral weir fall in this range for a1f but. very large diameters 1oo ft).
Thus normal practice is to provide only the single weir. In contrast, at ~urface loadings
as low as.. 600. gpd/ sq 'ft rectangular tanks with single transverse weirs across the effluent
end exceed this range if the tank length is over 50 ft. Although rectangular tanks with weir
rates of more than 100,000 gpd/ ft have shown SS removal in the normal range (30), rec-
tangular tanks are commonly equipped with multiple weir troughs to provide loadings of
30,000 gpd/ ft or less. However, weir loadings are not as critical for primary tanks as they
are for secondary clarifiers.

Sludge solids can be estimated directly from the expected SS removal, making sure to
include waste activated sludge returned to the primary tank in the solids loading. The sludge
volume can be calculated based on expected concentration. If sludge is properly thickened
in the primary
.
tank and pumping
.
is carefully
. . controlled to avoid
'
pulling excess
.
water, solids
concentrations of 2 to 7 percent may be obtained. On this basis typical primary sludge vol-
umes for domestic sewage would range from 0.2 to 0.5 percent of plant flow. The concen-
tration used in particular estimates should be based on actual plant experience or at least on
settling/ thickening tests. Quantities of skimmings are quite variable. On a sustained basis
few plants average over l cu ft/ mg (free water decanted) but scum handling facilities should
be capable of moving peak loads of perhaps six times this amount.

. 7.6 Secondary Sedimentation

7.6. l Tank Sizing-General

The approach to sizing secondary clarifiers varies with the type of biological process they
serve.

7 .6. l. l Tan~ Sizing For Trickling Filt~r Effluent

Clarifiers following trickling filters are basically sized on hydraulic loading. Solids loading
limits are not involved in this sizing. Where further treatment follows sedimentation, cost
optimization may be considered in sizing the settling tanks, but the effort of developing ade-
quate performance-loading relations is seldom justified. Typical design parameters for
clarifiers following trickling filters are presented in Table 7-3. In applying the hydraulic
loading values from the table to design, sizing should be calculated for both peak and aver-
age conditions and the largest value determined should be used. At the indicated hydraulic
loadings, settled effluent quality is limited primarily by the performance of the biological
reactor not of the settling tanks.

7-15
 TABLE 7-3

TYPICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR SECONDARY CLARIFIERS

Hydraulic Loading Solids Loading*

Type of Treatment Average Peak Average Peak Depth
gpd/ sq ft lb solids/ day I sq ft ft
Settling Following
Trickling Filtration 400-600 l ,000-1,200 10-12

Settling Following
Air Activated
Sludge (Excluding
Extended Aeration) 400-800 l ,000-1,200 20-30 50 12-15

Settling Following
Extended Aeration 200-400 800 20-30 50 12-15

Settling Following
Oxygen Activated
Sludge with
Primary Settling . 400-800 1,000-1,200 25-35 50 12-15

*Allowable solids loadings are generally governed by sludge thickening characteristics

associated with cold weather operations.

7 .6. l.2 Tank Sizing For Activated Sludge Mixed Liquor

Activated sludge settling tanks have two distinct functions: solids separation and producti~n
of a concentrated return flow to sustain biological treatment. Figure 7-6 illustrates how
important final tank underflow concentration is in maintaining the level of active solids
(and he·nce treatment) in the aerator mixed liquor.

As indicated in Section 7 .3.6, the initial separation of activated sludge solids involves
hindered rather than discrete settling. For this type of settling, tanks must be sized so the
maximum surface hydraulic loading is less than the minimum initial settling velocity {ISV)
expected at maximum mixed liquor concentration and at minimum temperature. If the
hydraulic loading exceeds the ISV massive failure and overflow of solids will result.

To perform properly while producing a concentrated return flow, activated sludge settling
tanks must be designed to meet thickening as well as solids separation requirements. The
critical element in thickening is the rate at which solids are transported downward and
removed in the tank underflow. This is termed the solids transport or solids flux capacity,
generally expressed in the units of solids loading. lb/ sq ft/ day. When the actual solids
loading applied to a tank exceeds its transport capacity, solids are being added faster than

7-16
 Q+R
Q = WASTEFLOW C=MLSS Q+ R v Q
-SECONDAR
SETTLING

R+W
C= Cu

R =RECYCLE
C= Cu
W=WASTE
(a+ R) MLSS = Rx Cu C =Cu

MLSS
= _ ....R....__ Cu
Q + R

: FIGURE 7-6

DEPENDENCE OF MLSS CONCENTRATION ON

SECONDARY SETTLING TANK
UNDERFLOW CONCENTRATION pl)

7-17
 they are being removed. If this condition persists the blanket of solids in the tank.will build
up and_ eventually overflow with _drastic effects on effluent quality. If significant solids are
lost from the system, biological treatment efficiency will be impaired. Tank depth may be
important in containing blanket buildup from diurnal peaks in solids loading.

Dick (31) has analyzed solids transport capacity assuming both solids and (vertical) under-
flow ve.locity uniformly distributed over the plan area of the tank. Although these condi-
tions are approximated only in moderate size circular tanks, this analysis provides major in-
sight into the thickening process and ·represents the only rational and straightforward ap-
proach currently available for estimating solids transport capacity. Under the conditions as-.
sumed, solids trans.port capacity depends on only two factors: the thickening characteristics
_of the solids (Le., the relati~n between subs_idence rate and concentration wi~hin the slu~ge
blanket) and the tank underflow rate. To get a concentratyd underflow requires a low sludge
return rate which in turn means low solids transport capacity. High underflow rates have
been resorted to for handling poorly compacting sludges. This is only partly effective since
· while increasing solids transport capacity, higher underflow rates also increase solids load-
ings due to the higher sludge recycle.

Methods for developing hydraulic and solids loading parameters from tests of settling and
thickening characteristics are discussed in Section 7 .6.3. Typical design parameters for clar-
ifiers in activated sludge systems treating domestic waste are given in Table 7-3. In applying
hydraulic and solids loading values from this table, sizing should be calculated for both
peak and average conditions and the largest value determined should be used.

Settling tests provide worthwhile gliidance in selecting design loadings. They should certain-
ly be included wherever pilot study of biological treatment is warranted by unusual waste
characteristics or treatment requirements. Testing is essential in any case where proposed
loadings go beyond th~ upper limits· shown in Table 7-3.

Sizing activ~ted sludge s~ttling tanks according}_o proper hydrau_lic and solids loading para-
meters protects against massive failure, but does not by itself· guarantee high quality
effluent. After separation of the mass of activated sludge solids, significant quantities of small,.
slowly settling particles may still be left in th'e clarified liquor. The amount and character of
such residual suspended solids logically relate to the loading and operating conditions in the
aeration tank, but few specific studies have explored such relations. A study in Baltimore,
Md. (32) indicated that sludges with poorer thickening characteristics left lower residual
solids in the effluent. This was confirmed by studies covering a number of plants in Sweden
(33).

As noted in Chapter 6, the concentration of these residual solids can be reduced by floccula-
tion ~f the mi~eci" liquor. b~t~ee~· aeration ·and" settling, or' by use. of "recirculation-type or
sludge-blanket~type .solids contact reactors·. Finally, although rates are lower, flocculation
in the clear water zone still appears to be a significant mechanism in removal of solids not
already entrapped in the sludge mass as it settles. This indicates that basin depth and deten-
tion are important in getting effluent SS down to low levels. Mixed liquor settling tests run
at several tr.eatmeohnl~ntLc;;rj,g,,Sweden (33) showed that residual turbidity above the sludge
. u.s EPA Heaaqua ef'S'"LIU a• Y . ·
Mail code 3404T
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW 7-18
Washington, DC 20460
202-566-0556
interface dropped significantly over the first hour.

7 .6.2 Development of Loading Parameters from Mixed Liquor Settling Tests

7.6.2. l Surface Hydraulic Loadings

Initial settling velocity (ISV) at actual mixed liquor concentration may be determined in a
single test simply by plotting the height of the slt1_?$e-liq!.!.id interface vs. time and noting the
slope of the straight line portion of the plot. The critical minimum ISV value for a particu-
lar system may be estimated from results of a number of individual tests. The designer
should attempt to establish relations between ISV and biological process parameters such
as mixed liquor concentration and organic loading. The selected ISV value should then re-
flect conditions most unfavorable to settling including correction for minimum expected
temperature. Finally a capacity factor as discussed in Section 7 .3.1 should be applied to
convert the critical ISV to a hydraulic loading.

The resulting maximum surface hydraulic loading should not be exceeded by any sustained
maximum flow (say 4-hr duration). Initial settling velocities for mixed liquor from air acti-
vated sludge systems have been reported to range from 3 ft/hr to over 20 ft/hr (4) (21)(34).
For good settling (non-bulking) air activated sludges from municipal wastewaters the ·fol-
lowing design relation between the ISV and the mixed concentration has been suggested
(34):
Vi = 22.5e -338Ci

Where:
Vi = settling velocity in ft/ hr
Ci = concentration in lb I lb
Bulking sludges will show ISV values well below those indicated by this line. Sludges with
superior settling qualities may show considerably higher values.

7 .6.2.2 Sludge Volume Index

The sludge volume index (SVI) widely used to guide operating control of the activated
sludge process, provides an approximate indication of sludge compaction characteristics.
The index is calculated by dividing the initial mixed liqu~r SS concentration (percent) into
the settled_ volume. (percent of initial volume) occupied by the solids after one half hour
of settling.

The reciprocal of the SVI is often taken as an approximate indication of the maximum re-
turn sludge concentration which can be obtained with a given mixed liquor ( 100/SVI = per-
cent solids). The index has been used as a guide to sizing return sludge pumping require-
ments to maintain different mixed liquor concentrations (2). Although the SVI does not
give a direct indication of soi ids transport capacity, it has bee~ suggested that· for index
values of less than 100,.underflow concentrations below l percent and mixed liquor concen-
' hydraulic rather than loadings will govern clarifier sizing (2).
trations below 3000 mg/I,

7-19
 · 7.6.2.3 Solids Loading

Based on the analysis discussed in Section 7 .6. l, Dick (31) has proposed a method for deter-
mining limiting solids transport capacity as· a function of underflow rate, given a curve or
equation defining the relation of settling velocity to concentration. Dick and Young (35)
have formulated the method Into a series of equations, assuming that the settling veloc-.
ity-concentration curve could be represented in tlie fornr ·

V = a.c -n

where
V is settling velocity
c is concentration
and
a and n are appropriate constants for the units used.

The most serious problem in applying the method is determining the settling veloc-
ity-concentra.tion, relation. Dick suggests developing the relation from a series of ISV tests
on the same mixed liquor at different initial concentrations ( obt;ined by settling, decanting
clear )iquid and. resUSB_endlng the solids). There is a serious question whether a curve devel-
oped from such tests really represents the behavior of the solids in the sludge blanket of a
clarifier. Nevertheless this approach is. the best presently available for estimating solids
transport capacity fom settling tests. Others suggested ( 6) are open to even more serious
objections.

In translating solids transport capacity to an allowable solids loa~ing some safety factor
may be needed to allow for possible critical conditions (temperature, poor thickening char-
acteristics, etc.) not reflected in the test work.

In a design application trial solutions at different return sludge rates may be justified to de-
termi~e the effect on tank sizing of the different solids loadings and capacities that result at
the various. underflow rates. Sizing should be based on .peak solids.loadings associated with
sustained maximum Dows unless specific testing has justified a reduction taking advantage
of storage of peak solids by increases in sludge blanket height. Such storage should be
avoided with nitrifying sludges (34).

7 .6.2.4 Settling Test Procedures

Although it has been demonstrated (36) (37) that factors such as column diameter, sludge
depth, dissolved oxygen and application of stirring can significantly affect the results of
settling tests, standard values for such factors or standard allowances for their variations
have not been adopted. Dick (36}has detailed test procedures and indicated (38) preference
for use of ·sludge depths of 3 ft.' column diameters of 3.5 in. or mo're and slow stirring at tip
speeds of 10 in./ min.

7-20
 7.6.3 Flow Stabilization and Density Currents

Two approaches to preventing short circuiting from density currents, were described in Sec-
tion 7 .3.2: dynamic stabilization and density stabilization. An exhaustive study of shallow
activated sludge settling tanks has been made in Sweden (33). Included were tracer studies
on tanks under actual operating conditions and parallel quiescent and stirred settling col-
umn tests on the mixed liquor. These tanks, although designed for dynamic stabilization,
showed serious short circuiting. Due to flocculation in the tanks, however, effluent quality
was better than predicted from the quiescent settling results and actual detention times.

In the U.S. where final settling tanks commonly have design depths 10 ft or more, flow
stabilization depends totally on density. U nfortuilately studies of the type conducted in
Sweden have apparently not been run on tanks designed for density stabilization. In the
side-by-side performance tests (Section 7.4) comparing special inlet designs for circular
tanks with conventional center feedwells, density stabilization could have been important,
but no data were taken to show the degree of short circuiting. Neither were any parallel
settling column tests run. Tracer studies of these special inlets generally have been run on
clear water, so they fail to show any effects of density stabilization. Even without these ef-
fects, special inlets displayed Jess short circuiting ( 13) ( 14 ).

In an attempt to minimize undesirable density current effects, several designs have varied
the placement of sludge drawoffs and effluent weirs in relation to the inlet. Sawyer (39)
pointed out the "submerged waterfall effect" that occurs when the density current reaches
the tank floor in its initial downward sweep. In conventional rectangular or circular tanks
where the sludge drawoff is located below the inlet the impact of the "waterfall" can dilute
the collected sludge and resuspend a portion of it. Peripheral-feed circular tanks avoid this
problem as do those equipped with suction-type mechanisms which remove sludge from the
entire tank floor. Even in tanks with centerfeed and center sludge drawoff, use of deep feed-
wells discharging at low velocities can minimize the problem ( 10). Rectangular tanks have
been constructed with sludge drawoffs located away from the inlet. Excellent results have
been obtained at Ne~ York City with sludge d_rawoffs at mid-len_$th of the t~nks (30). This
arrangement uses the density curre~t 'to speed sludge removal but prevents the density cur-
rent from entering the outlet zone of the tank. Rectangular tanks may also be equipped with
suction-type sludge removal on traveling-bridge mechanisms.

In one special rectangular tank arrangement, effluent weirs are distributed over the length
of the tank, with baffles in the upper part of the tank to impede counter currents induced by
density current below and force vertical flow to the weirs. In peripheral feed circular tanks,
tests have shown that units with peripheral drawoffs located just inside the inlet channel
produce better effluent than units with weirs located more toward the tank center (40).

Weir hydraulic loadings of 15,000 gpd/ ft at average design flows are suggested in the Ten
State Standards (29), with allowances of up to 20,000 gpd/ft where weirs are located so that
density currents do not upturn below them. Loadings of up to 100,000 gpd/ ft have been
used without apparent problems in designs such as those of New York City where weirs are
well separated from density current effects (30).

7-21
 7.6.4 Sludge and Skimmings Removal

Suction-type sludge ~emoval should be considered where~er slud.ge detention in the tanks is
critical and doubt exists _about _conveyance time for other mechanisms. Desirable features
_in suction-type mechanisms include independent flow coptrols for each suction drawoff and
visible gravity sludge discharges.

Federal guidelines (41) require skimming equipment on secondary settling tanks to remove
floating sludge and any oily materials not separated in previous treatment. Scum quantities
generally are small in relation to those from primary tanks (0.1 cu ft/ mg). Where no
primary tanks are included in plant process, scum quantities from secondary tanks could be
conservatively estimated on the same basis as for primary tanks. Effluent weirs should be
laid out to permit skimming the maximum possible portion of the tank surface.

Maximum practi.cal concentrations of underflow from secondary clairifiers in activated

sludge systems range from 0.5 \o 2.0 percent solids, depending on settling, and compaction
characteristics of the sludge. Actual concentrations depend on the return sludge pumping
rate. Sludge concentrations of 3 to 7 percent solids may be ol?tained from secondary clari-
fiers i11 trickling filter systems.

7.7 Chemical Sedimentation

Sedimentation of chemically coagulated or precipitated wastewaters is similar to sedimen-

tation of wastewaters without chemicals. The design of tanks can proceed on essentially the
same basis, provided special consideration is given to the effects of chemical treatment on
settling characteristics, sludge quantities, resistance of the sludge to movement by collecting
and pumping equipment, and the special maintenance problems encountered_ with lime
coagulation. Few data have been reported concerning settling characteristics of chemically
precipitated floe in wastewater treatment. Some data are available on chemical precipitation
in water treatment using similar chemicals (42).

From the literature it is apparent that actual surface loadings vary considerably from one
application to another (2) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49). This wide variation emphasizes
the importance of testing and pilot work in designing chemical precipitation facilities. In the
absence of testing indicating higher figures to be satisfactory, the following typical surface
loading rates may be used for sizing tanks (47) (50):

Chemical Peak Surface Loading

gpd/ sq ft

Alum 500-600
Iron 700-800
Lime 1400-1600

In general, these design rates may be used for primary, secondary or tertiary applications.
It should be noted, however, that they are based on limited data and may be revised when
more experience is available.

7-22
 Sludge quantities from chemical precipitation can be estimated from the SS removal and
the stoichiometry of chemical reactions involved. Volumes depend on sludge concentrations
which are highly variable (l to 15 percent) and are best determined by actual test. Equip-
ment suppliers should be consulted about strength and power of collector equipment to
handle the dense sludges expected from lime precipitation. Extra smooth piping glass-lined
or PVC, should be used for lime sludges. Average sludge productions determined from raw
wastewater coagulation by lime,. irorr and alum are 6,500, _l 740 and 1120 _lb I mg respectively
(47). Average sludge volumes for the same locations for lime and iron are 10,000 and 13,000
gal/ mg, respectively (47). Brown (51) observed a sludge production of 1894 lb solids/ mg
( 6275 gal/ mg) using alum for precipitating trickling filter effluent.-

7.8 Flotation

7.8. l Applications

This section deals with flotation induced by introduction of fine gas bubbles into waste-
water. Since most SS in municipal wastewater have specific gravity values only slightly
above l, adhesion of the gas bubbles to the solids particles readily makes them buoyant.

.
For
-, flotation of solids
~ .
in municipal
....
wastewater,
- gas bubbles .must
..
be. quite fine (.01 to 0.1
mm); otherwise, their own rise rate prevents significant adhesion to the solid particles.
Three methods of introducing gas bubbles have been shown to create bubbles sufficiently
fine for flotation of municipal wastewater SS. Vacuum flotation and dissolved-air flotation
(DAF) both create conditions in which the wastewater is supersaturated with air at some
pressure. Upon reduction of that pressure, air comes out of solution as finely-divided bub-
ble~. Auto-flotation can_ occur in algae suspensions if they becom~ ·sufficiently super~
saturated with dissolved oxygen from photosynthesis. Vacuum flotation and au~oflota­
tion are not often used because the former is expensive and the latter can only operate under
limited conditions of warm weather and bright sunshine (52). Diffused or submerged tur-
bine aerat~rs create bubbles much too coarse for flotation of municipal wastewater solids.

Pressure and vacuum flotation units have found only limited application in treatment of
municipal wastewater. It has been difficult to justify using these units in conventional appli-
cations such as primary SS removal or mixed liquor clarification because sedimentation is
ordinarily cheaper, simpler and often provides· better results.

Advantages which might favor use of flotation in special applications include: 1) higher sur-
face loadings, hence smaller tanks sizes (important where space is critical); 2) ability to
handle peak seasonal loads or storm flows (in some designs flotation may be used inter-
mittently to· increase capacity of settling tanks); 3) effectiveness in removing solids which
. are difficult to settle.

Dissolved-air flotation has been sugges~ed for sep_aration of grit and scum in a single treat-
ment unit (2) (53) (54). Performance data for such applications are lacking, however. Be-
cause it can produce -a float of much thicker consistency than settled activated sludge, dis-
- solved-air flotation has been tried for mixed liquor solids separation. Full scale studies at

7-23
 Manassas, Va. (55) indicated that this application was not economically competitive with
conventionai systems.

7.8.2 Dissolved-Air Flotation

As shown in Figure 7-7, dissolved air flotation (OAF) units commonly employ rectangu-
lar tanks with separate chain-and-flight scum and sludge ·collectors. Circular units are also
commercially available. The widest application for these units has been as thickners for
waste· ac~ivated sludge. Units used for SS separation are similar, but design parameter val-
ues vary according to the application. To avoid fouling of pressurizing and pres-
sure-regulating equipment and excessive shearing of influent solids, a stream of recycled ef-
fluent is usually pressurize~. Upon pressure release, this stream is blended with the inflow·
to be treated. Other methods include pressurizing all or part of the influent stream.

Design of OAF units involves selection of values for a number of parameters including per-
cent recycle flow, operating pressure, pressurization retention time, air _flow, .and surface
hydraulic loading, solids loading (area basis) and float detention period. Variables reflec-
ting influent characteristics indude flow, solids loading, liquid temperature and type and
quality of influent solids .. Investigators have attempted to relate flotation performance to
the air to solids ratio and a number of other variables with a limited amount of success.

Mulbarger and Huffman (56) noted that float concentrations depend more on float deten-
tion time than solids loading. They related capture in flotation to a parameter equal to the
air to solids r:itio divide<l by the product of surface hydraulic loading and dynamic viscosity.

Values of specific paramet.ers used in actual applications vary widely. Typical ranges cited
are as follows (2) (50) (56) (57) (58) (59) (60) (61):

Parameter: Range:

Pressure, psig 25 to 70
Air to Solids Ratio, lb/ lb 0.01 to O.l
Float Detention, min 20 to 60
Max. 24-hr
Surface Hydraulic Loading, gpd/ sq ft 500 to 4000
Recycle, percent 5 to 120

Available data from specific applications are summarized in Table 7-4.

In flotation equipment special attention must be given to the inlet, outlet and collector
mechanism configurations. The flotation tank must permit aggregate rise with a minimum
of interference in the form of turbulence or obstructions and provide for removal of floated
froth, settled sludge and treated effluent. Effluent ports must be sufficiently submerged to
prevent interference with the froth on the surface. The inlet conditions of the flotation tank
are critical to proper performance. Baffles, walls, and other obstructive energy-dissipating
. devices tend to destroy aggregate bonding with resulting loss in flotation efficiency. Also,

7-24
 SLUDGE
DISCHARGE

INFLUENT

RECiRCULATION PUMP
RECYCLE,.-
FLOW _)

Al.R FEED '-----.,,-~RETENTION TANK

AIR DISSOLUTION

4EAERATION PUMP

FIGURE 7-7
SCHEMATIC OF A DISSOLVED-AIR
FLOTATION UNIT
(Courtesy of Komllne-Sanderson)°

7-25
 TABLE 7-4

DISSOLVED-AIR FLOTATION APPLICATIONS

Flotation
Chemical
Type of Surface
Design. Municipal
Treatment
Hydraulic Detention -SS Performance Data
Plant Flow Wastewater Coa~ulant Dose Loading Time Inf. Eff. Removal Ref. Remarks
mgd mg/I gpd/sq ft hrs. mg/I mg/I percent

Aker. Sweden 0.4 Primary Eftluent Alum{ a) 100 2360 0.31' 71 (c) (62)
Klagerup, Sweden 0.12 Primary Effluent Alum{a) 159 1180 0.37 77.(c) (62)
Salemstaden. 2.16 Primary Effluent AJum(a) 175 2540 0.26 60(C) (62)
Sweden
...... Bara, Sweden 0.08 Aerator Mixed Alum 2480 0.24 (62)
'
iv·-
Liquor
a-,'
Kungsor. Sweden 1.93 Unsettled Trick- Alum(a) 145 4480 0.20 97(d) (62)
ling Filter
Effluent
Flen, Sweden 2.54 Unsettled Trick- Alum{a) 3360 035 (62)
ling Filter
Effluent
Prince William 1.0 Aerator Mixed None 360 3.4 30 (56) Limiting solids
County, Va. Liquor to loading 1S lb/lb
JOO SF
Bellair, Texas (b) Aerator Mixed Cationic 8 2000 70 (63)
Liquor Polymer 30 17
Stockton, Calif. (b) Lagoon Effluent Alum 75-225 0.32 94 12 87 (52) Includes filtration
to to
152 20
(a) 30-60 min. of flocculation provided before flotation. (b) Pilot Plants.
(c) BOD removal; no SS data given. (d) P removal; no SS data given.
· turbulence in the. region of the froth will result in losses of floated solids. Ettelt (58) report-
ed several different designs of inlet structures in his prototype units. His tangential flow in-
let appears to offer c~nsidera6le promise where such designs are compatible with the entire
structure.

Further discussion of design features of dissolved-air flotation units may be found in the lit-
erature (56) (58)_(59) (60).

7.9 Shallow Settling Devices

The potential advantages of multiple tray shallow settling devices have long been recognized
(3) (4), but early prototypes of such equipment were unsuccessful due to.practical problems
of flow distribution and sludge removal. .In recent years, shallow settling devices of im-
proved design, such as tube settlers, have been applied to water and wastewater treatment.
Tube settlers consist of bundles of small plastic tubes with hydraulic radii ranging from one
inch upward and lengths of 2 ft or more, depending upon the particular application. Square ·
· tube sections are most common but hexagonal and other shapes have been used by yarious
manufacturers.

Tubes are commonly inclined sieeply (600) to horizontal and fabricated in modules, as
shown in Figure 7-8. These modules have beam strength which permits their installation in
settling tanks, as shown in Figures 7-9 and 7- iO. Ciarifier influent is introduced b~neath the
tube modules. The flow passes upward through the modules with the solids moving counter-
currently by gravity (Figure 7-11) and falling from the tube bottoms into the sludge collec-
tion zone beneath. The clarified effluent is collected above the tube modules.

Free standing package units with tubes only slightly inclined (50) have found some appli-
cation in small chemical clarification/ filtration systems for tertiary wastewater treatment.

Tube settlers promote sedimentation in three ways: I) the multiple tubes stacked one above
another provide an effective settiing area several times that of the projection in plan of the
modules; 2) the small hydraulic radius of the tubes maintains laminar flow and promotes
uniform flow distribution; 3) in steeply inclined tubes, the movement of sludge against the
di~ection of flow favors particle contact and agglomeration. This ad~itional flocculation off-
sets the reduction in their horizontal projected area caused by inclining the tubes. For alum
floe suspensions a given length.tube has been shown to provide most effective removal at an
inclination of about 45 degrees, and performance even at 60 degrees was comparable to that
when horizontal (64).

Tube settlers have been promoted both for reducing required size of settling tanks and for
. improving their performance, but manufacturers presently tend to emphasize improved per-
formance and recommend the same surface hydraulic loadings for tanks equipped with tube
settlers as for conventional tanks.

Comparative data on performance of tanks with and . without tube settlers (either
. side-by-side or before-and-after) are shown in Table 7-5. The data are quite limited and

7-27
-...J
I
N
00

• FIGURE 7-8
MODULE OF STEEPLY 'INCLINED TUBES
(Courtesy Neptune Microtloc, Inc.)
 FIGURE 7-9
TUBE SETILERS IN EXISTING CLARIFIER

SUPPORT MODULE

TUBE SETTLER
MODULES

FIGURE 7-10 .
PLAN VIEW OF MODIFIED CLARIFIER

7-29
DIRECTION OF
FLOW

TO SLUDGE.
COLLECTION

FIGURE 7-11
TUBE SETILERS - FLOW PATIERN

7-30
 TABLE 7-5

TUBE SETILER INSTALLATIONS

Operational Data
Using Tube Settlers
Plant Flow Existing Facility
Tube Over- Tank Over-
Plant Location Type Design Actual Location Overflow Rate Effluent SS flow Rate flow Rate Effluent SS Reference
mgd
--
mgd gpm/sq ft
-
mg/I gpm/sq ft gpm/sq ft mg/I
-..J
Hopewell Township. Activated 0.13 0.13 Secondary 0.34 6~70 65
'
VJ
Pennsylvania Sludge Clarifier 2 0.68 27
Trenton. Activated 6.5 5.6 Secondary 0.56 0.29 8 66
Michigan Sludge Clarifier
Lebanon. Activated 0.75 1.25 Secondary 0.61 61 0.85 0.61 30 67
Ohio Sludge Clarifier
rather inconclusive as to the benefits obtained from the tube settlers.

Tube settlers have found wider application in water treatment than in wastewater. For
wastewater, tube settlers may find their best applications in tertiary coagulation and settl-
ing. They also may be of help in upgrading performance of units with serious short circuit-
ing problems.

When installed, settling tubes usually cover one half to two thirds of the basin area. To pre-
vent fouling of tubes, the remaining area between the inlet and tube area is arranged to pro-
vide scum removal. The portion of the basin equipped with settlers should have collecting
.
weirs at 15 ft or closer spacing to induce an even vertical flow distribution and reduce short
circuiting.

Tube settler installations require a support grid (usually designed to support one man) and
surface baffles to separate the tube settler and scum collection area. Minimum basin depths
should be l 0 to 12 ft.

Long term studies have revealed that in wastewater treatment the upper surface of the settl-
ing tubes becomes coated with sludge (68). Long term fouling of the tubes with grease or
rags has not been a problem, but in orde·r to maintain a high degree of solids removal, it is
generally necessary to install an air grid and periodically interrupt flow to introduce air to
remove the sludge build-up on the tubes.

A typical air wash cycle consists of draining the tank to the level of the.tubes and then al-
lowing air to rise up through the tubes. The air is supplied either from a fixed grid or a
scour system attached to the rake arm. After the air wash, approximately 15 to 25 min is re-
quired for the effluent SS to return to normal, e.g., from 60 mg/ l to 10 mg/ l before the ·
unit can be returned to service (68). A short quiescent period of no fiow may also be needed
between the drain down and the air wash(69). Generally, required cleaning frequency varies
from one week to several months (70). Where serious sludge carryover conditions are ex-
perienced, however, it has proven difficult to prevent fouling with even the highest cleaning
frequency (71).

7.10 Wedge-Wire Settler

Wedge-wire settlers are wire matrices installed in clarification basins similarly to tube set-
tlers. They are designed to ~mprove the quality of settled effluent from activated sludge or
trickling filter treatment.

The equipment can be installed in any conventional clarifier configuration. The settling de-
vice consists of a matrix constructed from parallel wires (See Figure 7-12) suspended be-
neath and parallel with the surface of the water so that the wastewater must pass upward
through the mesh before reaching the effluent weir. Over 200 secondary clarifier in-
stallations in England are equipped with wedge-wire settlers (72).

Typically, the wire in the matrix is triangular in cross-section and arranged with apex point-

7-32
 TANK WALL
INFLUENT
FINAL EFFLUENT OUT

SLUDGE
DRAW- OFF

WEDGEWIRE PANELS

FIGURE 7-12;

SIMPLE WEDGE WIRE CLARIFIER

4"x3 TIMBER FRAME

SECURED BY RAGBOLTS TO
WALLS.~ ~(WEDGE WIRE PANELS.

41/2" WALL BUILT

UP FROM TANK
FLOOR.

OUTLET WEIR

FIGURE 7-13

INSTALLATION OF WEDGE WIRE PANELS·

. 7-33
ed downward, to provide 0.125 to 0.250 mm openings at the top surface. The openings com-
prise about 15 percent of the total area. Construction is of either stainle"ss steel or ~luminum
and the wires must be rigidly fixed. The wire "rack" is supported within the tank about
6-inches below the water surface on steel angles or other similar structural grid-work (See
Figure 7-13).

Used in conjunction with effluent launders at· spacings of 15 ft or less, wedge-wire settlers
distribute flow quite uniformly over the entire area of the basin, producing a.nearly ideal
upflow clarification zone above the wire (65). Finer particles which settle in this zone even-
tually coalesce into a sludge blanket which aids in removal of near-colloidal particles. When
the blanket builds in thickness and nears the water surface (2 to 4 days) cleaning is neces-
sary. The basin level is 19wered below the wire level and the wire is hosed down to clean off
the accumulated solids. Total clean up time is about one hour (72).

Wedge-wire settler applications have been limited to relatively low surface hydraulic load-
ings, i.e., 600 gpd/ sq ft with peaks to 800 gpd/ sq ft. Effluent quality has been roughly re-
lated to flow rate (73). Under stable conditi~ns an effluent SS of 15 to 20 mg/ l could be ex-
pected at 600 gpd I sq ft and l 0 mg/ l at 300 gpd I sq ft. Results of side by side tests of secon-
dary clarifiers treating trickling filter effluent (.l 50 mg/ 1 SS) indicated that standard clari-
fiers produced effluents from 7 to 77 mg/ l with an average of 41 mg/ l while identical
wedge-wire settlers produced effluents of 1.6 to 18 mg/ l with an average of 8 mg/ 1 (74).
All units operated at a relatively low rate of 300 gpd I sq ft. This low hydraulic loading ap-
peared significant to the wedge-wire settler performance, but it had little effect on the ef-
fluent quality of the conventional settling unit.

In activated sludge clarification use of the wedge-wire settlers reduced effluent SS to 8 to 16

mg/ l compared with 30 to 40 mg/ l from the same conventional clarifier at a rate of 600
gpd I sq ft (74).

Pullen (75) cited 5 clarifiers of small size ( 18,000 to 170,000 gpd), which were equipped with
wedge-wire screens, experiencing a 50 percent improvement in effluent SS quality.

Wedge-wire settlers are limited to multiple tank installations so that during shut down for
washing flow can be diverted to other clarifiers. Drain and wash down flow can be recycled
to pretreatment units or to sludge handling systems.

7-34
7.1 l References

l. Kalbskopf, K. H., European Practices in Sedimentation, in Water Quality Improvement

by Physical and Chemical Processes, Univ. of Texas Press, Austin, Texas (1970).

2. Sewage Treatment Plant Design, WPCF Manual -of Practice No. 8, ASCE Manual
·No. 36 (1959).

3. Hazen, A., On Sedimentation, Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng., 53, 45 ( 1904).

4. Camp, T. R., Sedimentation and Design of Settling Tanks. Trans., Am. Soc. Civil
Engrs., 111, 895 ( 1946).

5. O'Connor, D. J. and Eckenfelder W. W ., Evaluation of Laboratory Settling Data for

Process Design in Biological Treatment of Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 2, Rhein-
hold Publishing Co. (1958).

6. Eckenfelder, W. W. and Ford, D. L., Water Pollution Control, Jenkins Book Publishing
Company, Austin, Texas (1970).

7. Weber, W. J., Physicochemica/ Processes for Water Pollution Control, Wiley-_ Inter-
science ( 1972).

8. Metcalf, L., and Eddy, H. P., Sewerage and Sewage Disposal, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York (1930).

9. Smith, R., Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment of Wastewater, lour.

WPCF, 40, 1546 (Sept. 1968).

IO. Fitch, E. B. and Lutz, V:/. A., Feedwells for Density Stabilization, JWPCF 32, 147
( 1960).

11. Aitken, l.M.E., Reflections on Sedimentation Theory and Practice-Part /, Eff. and
Water Treatment Jour. (Br.), 7, No. 4, pg. 226 (Apr.1967).

12. Geinopolis, A. and Katz, W. J., United States Practice in Sedimentation of Sewage
and Waste Solids, in ·water Quality Improvement by Physical and Chemical Pro-
cesses, Univ. of Texas Press, Austin, Texas (1970).

13. Katz, W. J. and Geinopolis, A., A Comparative Study of Hydraulic Characteristics of

Two Types of Circular Solids Separation Basins iri Biologicai Treatment of Sewage
and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 2 Rheinhold Publishing Company (1958).

14. Dague, R. R. and Baumann, E. R., Hydraulics of Settling Tanks Determined by Mod-
els, Presented at 1961 Annual Meeting of Iowa Water Pollution Control Association
(Reprinted by Lakeside Equipment Corp.)

7-35
15. Villemonte, F.R., Rohlich, G.A., et al, Hydraulic and Removal Efficiencies in Sedimen-
tation, Basins :Third International Conference on Water Pollution Research, Munich,
Section II, Paper 16 (1966).

16. Fitch, E. B. Sedimentation Process Fundamentals. in Biological Treatment of Sewage

: and Industrial Wastes, Vol. 2, Rheinhold Publishing, Co. (i958).

! 7. Fitch, E. B., Significance of Detention in Sedimentation. Sewage and Industrial

Wastes, 29, 1123 (Oct. 1957).

18. Knop, E., Design Studies for the Emscher Mouth Treatment Plant, JWPCF 38, 1194
(July 1966).

19. Fair, G. M., Geyer, J. C. and Okun, D. A.; Water and Wastewater Engineering, 2,
·. John Wiley & Sons, New York (l 96.8).

20. ;Ingersoll, A. C., McKee, J. E. and Brooks, N. H., Fundamental Concepts of Rectangu-
.}ar. Settling Tanks Trans ASCE 121, l (79 (1956).

21. Eckenfelder W. W. and Melbinger, N., Settling and Compaction Characteristics of

. Biological Sludges, Sewage and Industrial Wastes 29, 1114 (Oct. 1957).

22. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, U.S. Navy, Pollution Control Systems. Ch. 10
iri ·Civil En&ineering Design Manual, DM-5.

23. Cleasby, J. L., Baumann, E. R., and Schmid, L., Comparison of Peripheral Feed and
.'center Feed Settling Tanks Using Models. Report by Iowa Engineering Experiment
Station, Ames, Iowa, (February, 1962).

24. Reed, R. V., Rexno_rd, Personal Communication; (April 1973).

25. Hikes, Burd, Lakeside Equipment Corp., Personal Communication (May, 1973).

26 .• Envirotech, Municipal Equipment Division, Eimco Modular Energy Dissipating Clari-

fier Feedwell, T_echnical Brochure: MED 121, 10172.

27. Mercer, R. H., Rectangular vs. Circular Settling Tanks. The American City, 98, (Oct.
1973}.

28. Von der Emde, W., To What Extent are Primary Tanks Required?, Water Research, 6,
395 (1972).

29 .. Recommended Standards for Sewage Works. Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River

Board of State Sanitary Engineers ( 1968). ·

7-36
30. Gould, R., Wards Island Plant Capacity Increased by Structural Changes, Sewage and
· · Industrial Wastes, 22, 997 ( 1950).

31. Dick, Ri~hard_ I., Role of A.ctivated Sludge Final Settling Tanks. J. SEO, ASCE, 96,
423 (Apr. 1970).

32. Keefer, C. E., Relationship of the Sludge Density Index to the Activated Sludge Pro-
cess, lour. WPCF, 35, 1166 (1963).

33. Fischerstrom, C.N.H., Isgard, E. and Larsen, I., Settling of Activated Sludge in Hori-
zontal Tanks. J. SEO, ASCE, 93, SA3, 73 (June 1967).

34. Suggested Peaking Considerations for Activated Sludge, Sanitary Engineering Staff
· Report, Iowa State University ( 1971 ).

35. Dick, R. I. and Young, K. W., Analysis of Thickening Performance of Final Settling
Tanks, Proceedings of 27th Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, (1972).

36. ·Dick, R. I. and Ewin, B. B., Evaluation of Activated Sludge Thickening Theories, J.
SEO, ASCE, 93, SA4, 9 (Aug. 1967).

37. Veselind, P. A., Discussion of Evaluation of Activated Sludge Thickening Theories. J.

SEO ASCE 94, SAl, 185 (Feb. 1968).

38. Dick, R. I., Thickening in Water Quality Imrovement by Physical and Chemical Pro-
cesses, Univ. of Texas Press, Austin, Texas (1970).

39. Sawyer, C. N., Final Clarifiers and Clarifier Mechanisms. Biological Treatment of
. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol. l, Reinhold Publishing Co, New York (1956).

40. Fall, E. B., Jr., Redesigning Existing Facilities to Increase Hydraulic and Organic
Loa_ding, Vol. 43, pg. 1695, Jour. WPCF (1971).

41. Federal Water Quality Administration, Federal Guidelines for Design. Operation and
Maintenance of Wastewater Treatment Facilities (September, 1970). · .

42. Geinopolos, A., Albrecht, A.E., and Katz, W: J., The Character of Suspended Solids
and Basin Hydraulics are Key Factors in the Clarification of Water and Wastewater,
Industrial Water Engrg., 3, 10, 19 (Oct. 1966).

43. Green, 0., Eyer, F., and Pierce, D., Studies on Removal of Phosphates and Related
Removal of Suspended Matter and BOD at Grayling, Michigan, Distributed by Dow
Chemical Co.

44. Hennessey, J., Keilinski, R., Beeghly, J. H., and Pawlak, T. J., Phosphorous Removal
at Pontiac, Michigan. Presented at U.S. EPA, WQO Design Seminar, Cleveland, Ohio
(Apr. 1971).

7-37
45. Oliva, J. A., Dept. of Public Health, County of Nassau, .Personal Communication
(March, 1973).

46 .. Culp, R. and Culp, G.,.Advanced Wastewater Treatment, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co ..

(1971).

47. Kreiss!, J. F. and Westrick, J. J., Municipal Waste Treatment by Physical-Chemical

. Methods. U.S. EPA, National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.

48 .. Water Treatment Plant Design, American Water Works Association, Inc., New York
( 1969).

49. U.S. EPA, Advanced Wastewater Treatment as Practiced at South Tahoe. Proj. No.
·_ 111010 ELQ08171 (August 1971).

50. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering, Collection. Treatment. D{sposal.
: McGraw-Hill, New York (1972).

51. Brown, James C., Alum Treatment of High-Rate Trickling Filter Effluent. Chapel
Hill. ·North. Ca~olina. ·supplementaf Information for u.s: EPA Technology Transfer
. Design Se~in-ar on Upgrading Trickling Filters, ·Salt Lake City, Utah, N.ov. 13-15
(1973).

52. Parker, Denny S., et al, Algae Removal Improves Pond Effluent, Water and Wastes·
Engineering, ·10, (,pp. 26-29_(January, 1973).

53. Wahl,A.J., Larson, C.C., et al, 1963 Operator's Forum. lour. WPCF, 36, 401 (April,
1964).

54. 'Katz, W.J.,Solfd~ Separation Using Dissolved-A_ir Fiotation. in Air Utilization in the
Treatment of Industrial Wastes, University of Wisconsin (1958).

55. Mulbarger, M. C., et al, Manassas Va .. Adds Nutrient Removal to Waste Treatment.
Water and Wastes. Engineering, 6: 4, pp. 46-48 (April 1969).

56. Mulba~ger, Michael_C., .and .Huffman, Donald D., Mixed Liquor Solids Separation By
Flotation. Jour. SEO, ASCE, 96, SA4, pp. 861-871 (Aug. 1970).

57. Levy,R. L.;White, R. L., Shea,'T. G., Treatment of Combined and Raw Sewages with
the Dissolved Air Flotation Process. Water Research, Pergamon Press, Great Brittain,
Vol. 6, pp. 1487-1500 (1972).

58. Ettelt, G. A., Activated Sludge Thickening by Dissolved Air Flotation. Proc. 19th Pur-
due Ind. Wastes Conf. ( 1964).

7-38
59. Vrablik, E. R., Fundamental Principles of Dissolved Air Flotation of Industrial
Wastes. Proc. 14th Purdue Ind. Wastes Conf. ( 1959).

60. Masterson, E. M.,and Pratt,J. W., Application of Pressure Flotation Principles to Pro-
cess Equipment Design, in Biological Treatment of Sewage and Industrial Wastes, Vol
II, Reinhold Pub., Co., New York ( 1958).

61. Ort. J. E., Lubbock WRAPS It Up. Water and Wastes Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 9, pp.
63-66 (Sept. 1972).

62. Experience of Chemical Purfication, National Swedish Environment Protection

Board (1969).

63. Anderson, L., The Permutit Company, Personal Communication (January 1973).

64. Culp, G., Hansen, S., Richardson, G., High-Rate Sedimentation in Water Treatment
Works, Jour. AWWA, 60, 681(June,1968).

65. Hansen, S. P., Culp, G. L. and Stukenberg, J. R., Practical Application of Idealized
Sedimentation Tht;ory in Wastewater Treatment, Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation, 41, No. 8, pp. 1421-1444 (1969).

66. Nt:ptune Mocrofioc Incorporated, City of Trenton Sewage Treatment Plant. Case His-
tory No. 27 (1971).

67. Oppelt, E. T., Evaluation of High Rate Settling of Activated Sludge, Interim U.S ..
EPA Internal Report, Advanced Waste Treatment Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio
- (1973).

68. Slechta, A. F., Conley, W. R. Recent Experiences in Plant-Scale Application of the

Settling Tube Concept Jour. WPCF, 43, 1724 (August 1971).

69. Neptune MicroFLOC, Inc., Application Criteria for Tube Settling In Activated S_ludge
Plant Secondary Clarifiers, Technical Release No. 3.

70. Slechta, A., Neptune Micro-FLOC, Inc., Personal Com_munication (May, 1973).

Hennessey, T. L., City Engineer, Trenton, Michigan, Personal Communication (April,

71. 1973).

72 .. Sparham, V. R., Improved Settling Tank Efficiency by Upward Flow Clarification,

Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 42, 801 (May 1970, Part 1).

73. Sparham, V. R., Personal Communication.

7-39
(74). Crockford, J. B., Sr., Sparham, V. R., Developments to Upgrade Settlement Tank
· Performance. Screening. and Sludge Dewatering Associated with Industrial Waste-
water Treatment. Proc. 27th Purdue Ind. Wastes Conference (May 3, 1972).

75. Pullen, K. G ..• Methods of Tertiary Treatment.Pebble and Wedge Wire Clarifiers. Lich-
field Rural District Council, Pollution Monitor, October/November (1972).

7-40
 CHAPTER 8

PHYSICAL STRAINING PROCESSES

8.1 General

Physical straining processes are defined for the purpose of this manual as those processes
which remove solids .by virtue of physical restrictions on a media which has no appreciable ;
thickness in the direction of liquid flow.

Physical straining devices may be grouped according to the nature of their straining action.
(See Table 8-1 ).

8.2 Wedge Wire Screens

8.2. l Inclined Screens

Inclined screens, ar.e typified by the Hydrasieve, (Figure 8-1).made by C-E Bauer, Division
of Combustion Engineering Inc., or the Hydroscreen made by Hydrocyclonics Corporation.
These devices were originally developed in 1965 for the pulp and paper industry to dewater
and classify pulp slurries having solids contents of 6 percent or less (l). The units operate by
gravity and function as an inclined drninage board with a screen of wedge wire construction
having openings running transverse to the flow.

The first full scale municipal application of Hydrasieves was at the Ohio Suburban Waste-
water Treatment Plant at Huber Heights in 1967 treating raw wastewater (1 ).

8.2.1. i Equipment Details

The screen consists of three sections with successively flatter slopes on the lower sections.
(Figure 8-2). The screen wires are triangular in cross section as shown in Figure 8-3, and
usually spaced -0.06 in. apart for raw wastewater screening appiications. In the Bauer
. unit, these wires bend in ·the· plane of the screen, as illustrated in Figure 8-4. They are
straight and transverse to the flow in the Hydrocyclonics unit.

Above the screen and running across its width is a headbox; Figure 8-2 shows two possible
inlet designs. A light-weight hinged baffle at the top porti9n of the screen reduces flow
turbulence in the Bauer unit. To collect the solids coming off the end of the screen several
arrangements can be used, including a trough with a screw conveyor.

Inclined screening units are generally constructed entirely of stainless steel. Lighter units
with a fiber glass housing and frame costing about 25 percent less (_I) may also be obtained.
Dimensions and capacities for hydrasieve units are given in Table 8-2.

8-1
 TABLE 8-1

PHYSICAL STRAINING PROCESSES

Waste Percent
Principal Hydraulic Straining Solids SS
Applications Device Capacity Surface Composition Removals

Pretreatment & Inclined High flow rates Coarse 10 to 15% 5-25

Primary Treat- wedge-wire 4-16 gpm/in of .01 to .06 in solids by
ment stainless screen width (250-1500 weight
steel screens microns)

,, ,,
Rotary 16-112 gpm/sq ft Coarse 16 to 25% 5-25
stainless steel .01 to .06 in solids by
00
I
N
wedge wire (250-1500 weight
screens microns)

" ,, Centrifugal 40-100 gpm/sq ft Medium 105 0.05-0.l % 60-70

screens

Secondary and Micro- Medium flow Medium (b) 250-700 mg/I 50 to 80

Tertiary SS Screens rates 3 to 10 15-60 microns (app. 0.05%)
Removal gpm/sq ft

II II
Diatomite Medium flow rates N/A (b) up to 90
filters 0.5-1.0 gpm/sq ft

,, " Ultra- Low flow rates Fine (a) 1500 mg/1 >99
Filters 5 to 50 gpd/sq ft 10-3 -15 (1.5%)
microns

(a) These values typify the range of solids filtered by the media. Removals are a function of media thickness and
not media opening sizes.
(b) Straining occurs through particulate I11at of solids on screening surface.
 FEED
HEAOllOX

FIGURE 8-1

HYDRASIEVE SCREENING UNIT

Courtesy C-E Bauer

SLUDGE ~
EFFLUENT

FIGURE 8-2

HYDRASIEVE SCHEMATIC

8-3
 FIGURE 8-3
SCREEN DETAIL

FIGURE 8-4
CURVED SCREEN BARS

Courtesy C-E. Bauer

8-4
 TABLE8-2
SPECIFICATIONS OF HYDRASIEVES
OVERALL DIMENSIONS
Width Depth Height Weight Capacity
ft ft ft lb mgd
2 3.5 5 350 0.2
3.5 4 5 550 0.4
4.5 5 7 650 0.9
5.5 5 7· 800 1.2
6.5 5 7 1000 1.5
7 9.5 7.3 1800 2.9
14 9.5 7.3 3600 5.8
21 9.5 7.3 5400 8.7
28 9.5 7.3 7200. 11.6
35 9.5 7.3 9000 14.5

8.2.1.2 Process Description and Design

Influent wastewater enters and overflows the head box, on to the upper portion of the screen.
On the screen's upper slope most of the fluid is removed from the influent. The solids mass
on the following slope, because it is flatter, and additional drainage occurs. On the screen's
final slope the solids stop momentarily, simple drainage occurs, and the ·solids are d·isplaced
from the screen by oncoming solids (2).
In test studies and actual installations hydrasieves have been operated satisfactorily at
loading capacities of 4 to 16 gpm per in. of screen width ( l ). This hydraulic capacity is a
function of the viscosity (which is a function of the temperatu-re of the fluid), .the solids load-
ing, and the spacing of the individual slots. Slot width is selected by actual tests using
sample screens. Once the slot opening has been chosen the screen's capacity per foot of
width can be determined from empirical relationships. Since work to date has not been suf-
. ficiently extended to actual municipal wastewater conditions, pilot studies should be the
prime basis for design.
Little quantitative work has been done on the solids loading capacity of a hydrasieve but
generally speaking, for good performance, the influent should be dilute enough for smooth
flow over the weir. Unit sizes designed to accommodate more than I mgd are available;
however, for pilot studies a 6-in. wide by 22 in. long screen can be used provided flow
rates are limited to 5 to IO gpm ( l ).

8.2.1.3 Operating Experience

At the 3 mgd Huber Heights plant in Ohio hydrasieves ahead of trickling filters have
effectively replaced primary clarifiers. Using 3 hydrasieves 72 in. wide and 54 in. long with
a slot opening. or" 0.06 in., an average suspended solids removal of 25 percent was
obtain~d while the units oper.ated over a flow range of 1.5 to 4.5 mgd. Roughly I cubic yard
of solids was removed per million gallons of wastewater with an average solids content of 12
to.15 p·ercent (3)(4).

8-5
 Although inclined screens cannot remove SS to the same extent as a sedimentation tank,
they have been favorably received by operators because they do an excellent job of
removing trashy materials which may foul subsequent treatment of sludge handling units.
Their ability to remove fine grit is limited by size openings. Separate grit removal
equipment, if needed, should be installed after the inclined screens. In a pilot study at South
Buffalo Creek Sewage Treatment Plant at Greensboro, North Carolina, hydrasieve
suspended solids removals ranged from IO to 30 percent with an average removal of 20 per-
cent (5).

At the U.S. EPA Blue Plains pilot study in Washington, D.C. (6) hydrasieves were installed
in an effort to eliminate operational problems of debris collection on the mixers and plugg-
ing of recycle and waste discharge lines. Although the screens eliminated these problems,
suspended solids removals varied from only 7 to 11 percent. The low removals were attrib-
uted to the wastewater's age (24 to 48 hours) (7).

An installation list is included (Table 8-3). Some of these installations are temporary;
hydrasieves are being used for short term alleviation of excess solids and flows coming into
plants which are to be abandoned when new facilities are built.

Operating experience in these installations varies as to cleaning and maintenance

requirements. Gene-rally, a daily washing of the screen surfaces, which takes about 5
minutes, is sufficient for good screen performance. Washing is normally done with steam or
hot water to remove grease which accumulates and blinds the screen preventing passage of
· wastewater through the screen, and resulting in poor separation (5).

Daily steam cleaning proved necessary at Freehold, N .J. (8) but other installations such as
Huber Heights required only monthly steam cleaning (3). Grease build-up requiring steam
cleaning appears to be related to low air and wastewater temperatures, exposure of units
and high grease content in wastewater.

Inciden~al to the removal of suspended solids in this process is the aeration of the separated
water. At the Huber Heights plant raw wastewater impinging on a Bauer screen has been
found to be aerated up to a level of 2 or more mg/ l of diss:>lved oxygen (3). A noticeable
reduction in odors from the grit removed in the subsequent chamber has also been claimed
along with the elimination of scum in the digester (3).

8.2.2 Rotating Wedge Wire Screens

Hydrocyclonics, to overcome grease blinding problems of its own wedge wire screen,
developed a rotating wedge wire screen which backwashes itself (Figure 8-5). Wastewater
passes vertically downward from the outside to the inside of the drum by gravity. The
screened wastewater then passes out through the lower half of the drum to a collection
trough.

8-6
 TABLE 8-3

WEDGE WIRE SCREENS MUNICIPAL TREATMENT INSTALLATIONS

All units below are Bauer units unless otherwise indicated:

PLANT & LOCATION REMARKS

Ohio Suburban Water Co. 3-4 mgd

Huber Heights, Ohio

Rochelle Treatn:ient Plant

Rochelle, Illinois

Prophetstown Treatment Plant

Prophetstown, Illinois

Corinna Treatment Plant

Corinna, Maine

Bucks County Sewage Authority

Mr. MacNamara Executive Director
(Hydrocyclonics Units)

Upper Gwynedd
Towamencin Municipal Authority
Lansdale, Pa.

Irvine Ranch Water District

Irvine, California

Hercules-A WT Div.
Freehold Township, N.J.
Mr. Ron Lee, Engineer

Montgomery County Commissioners 10 mgd

Moraine, Ohio

STP Rogersville, Tennessee

(Hydrocyclonics Units)

Blue Plains Pilot Study

Washington, D.C.

· S. Buffalo Creek STP 0.03 mgd

Greensboro, N. Carolina

8-7
00
I
00

, FIGURE 8-5

ROTATING WEDGE WIRE SCREEN AT NORTH CHICAGO S.T.P.

(Courtesy of Hy_drocyclonics Corp.)
Solids are retained on the outside of the drum and are removed by a fixed scraper blade. A
screen spacing of 0.06 inches is recommended for service on raw wastewater. In comparison
with static screens, the manufacturer claims the rotating units require less maintenance,
lower operating head and smaller space and produce dryer solids (9). Table 8-4 shows com-
parative design data for rotating and stationary wedge wire screens. ( 10).

TABLE 8-4

DATA SHEET-WEDGE WIRE SCREENS

Parameter Inclined Rotary

S.S. Removal, percent 5 to 25 5 to 25

Flow rate 4 to 16 gpm 15 to 112 gpm/sq ft

per inch of
screen width

Wire Spacing .01 to .06 in. .01 to .06 in.

-
.Percent solids by \Vt. 12 to 15

Volume of solids 1 to 2 cu yd of
produced solids per million
gallons of waste-
water

8.3 Microscreening

8.3. l General Description

As shown in Figure 8-6 in its usual configuration a microscreen unit consists of a motor
driven rotating drum mounted horizontally in a rectangular chamber. A fine screening
media covers the periphery of the drum. Feedwater enters the drum interior through the .
open end and passes radially through the screen with accompanying deposition of solids on
the inner surface of the screen. At the top of the drum pressure jets of effluent water are
directed onto the screen to remove the mat of deposited solids. The dislodged solids
together with that portion of the backwash stream which penetrates the screen are captured
in a waste hopper as shown in Figure 8-7. Solids flushed from the unit are sent to sludge
handling systems or recycled to the head of the plant. Units may be equipped with
ultraviolet lights to control biological growth on the screen media. Effluent passes from the
chamber over control weirs oriented perpendicular to the drum axis.

8-9
00

FIGURE 8-6
TYPICAL MICROSCREEN UNIT
(Courtesy of Cochrane Division, Crane Co.)
 BACKWASH HOPPER1
SPRAY SYSTEM
---MESH SYSTEM
DRUM L I F T - - - -

00

- I

; ....

FIGURE 8-7

MICRO-MATIC@)STRAIN ER
--INFLUENT
(Courtesy of Zurn Ind .. Inc.)
 8.3.2 Functional Design

The functional design of a microscreen unit involves:

l. Characterization of suspended solids in feed as to concentration and degree of.

flocculation, as these factors have been shown to affect microscreen capacity,
performance and backwashing requirements (9)( 11)

2. Selection of unit design parameters wh.ich will assure suffident capacity to meet
maximum hydraulic loadings with critical solids characteristics, and provide the
required performance over the expected range of hydraulic loadings and solids
characteristics.

3. .Provision of backwash and supplimental cleaning facilities to maintain the design

capacity.

Table 8-5 shows typical values for microscreen and backwash design parameters for solids
removal from secondary effluents. Similar values would apply to direct microscreening of
good quality effluent from fixed film biological reactors such as trickling filters or rotating
biological contac.!._~rs, where the mic!osc:r~ens replace secondary settling tanks (9).' -This
application is not widely practiced, however.

Microscreening has been used for the removal of algae from uncoagulated lagoon effluents.
At Bristol, England, algae reductions of 1565 to 450 algae per ml and 989 to 168 algae per
ml were achieved on astrerionella, cyclolella and !'Ynedra (12). However many classes of
algae, e.g. chlorella, are too small to be removed, even on fine screens (23 microns) and ex-
cessive loadings (up to 2 x 106 algae per ml) make this application a limited one.

The parameters of mesh size, submergence, allowable headloss and drum speed [rpm =
peripheral speed/ J
(diameter)] are sufficient to determine the flow capacity of a ·
microscreen with given suspended solids characteristics ( 13).

8-12
 TABLE 8-5

MICROSCREEN DESIGN PARAMETERS.

Item Typical Value Remarks

Screen Mesh 20-25 microns Range 15-60 microns

Submergence 75 percent of height

66 percent of area

Hydraulic 5-10 gpm/ sq ft

Loading of submerged drum
surface area

Head-loss (HL) 3-6 in Maximum under extreme con-

through Screen dition: 12-18 in. Typical
designs provide for overflow
weirs to bypass part of flow
when head exceeds 6-8 in.

Peripheral i5 ipm at 3 in. (HL) Speed varied to control

Drum Speed 125-150 fpm at extreme maximum speed
6 in. (HL) 150 fpm

Typical Diameter 10 ft Use of wider drums

of Drum increases backwash require-
ments.

Backwash Flow 2 percent of throughput

and Pressure at 50 psi
5 percent of throughput
at 15 psi

Among these parameters peripheral speed, hydraulic loading and major variations in mesh
size also affect performance on a given feed flow. In addition, drum speed and diameter
affect the wastewater flows and pressures needed to effect proper cleaning of the screen.

8-13
 8.3.3 Hydraulic Capacity

The filterability index developed by Boucher (14) quantifies the effect of the feed solids
characteristics on the flow capacity of a particular fabric. Boucher assumed that at any
constant laminar flow rate the headloss, AP in ft, through any given strainer fabric would
increase exponentially with the volume passed per unit1area (V.in cu; ft/sq ft):.

In the above relation the filterability index is the exponential rate constant I (in l /ft).

From the filterability index concept Mixon ( 13) developed hydraulic capacity relations for
continuous operation of a rotating drum microscreen, which can be expressed as follows:

µ = ~ = In [ ( ~) (it-) + I J
(~)
Where:
, µ . = mean flow velocity through submerged screen area (fps)
Q = total flow through microscreen (cfs)
A = submerged screen area (sq ft)
P = pressure drop across screen (ft)
CF·= fabric resistance coefficient (ft/ fps or sec) (clean fabric headloss at 1 fps
approach velocity)
I = filterability index ( 1I ft)
<P = decimal fraction of screen area submerged
R = drum rotational speed (rpm)

The expression 'A.PI Cl'' represents the initial flow velocity through the clean screen as it en-
ters submergence.CF is a particular characteristic of the screen fabric, varying inversely
with mesh opening size as follows:

Mesh Size Fabric Resistance CF

mu ft/ fps
15 3.6
23 1.8
35 1.0
60 0.8

8-14
Limits on .6 P reflect screen fabric mechanical strength and expected operating conditions
for the unit. A typical value is 0.5 ft at normally-expected maximum flow.

The relation of parameters in the expression(I¢,/R) shows that the effect of a higher index
or faster buildup of headloss on the screen may be offset by maintaining a higher drum
rotational speed.

Figure 8-8 is a graphical representation of the above relation which Mixon obtained by
plotting Q/ A against ..6.P/CF for various values of the parameter I</>/ R.

The graph shows lines of constant value for the ratio

E = Q/A
.6P /CF

which is the ratio of the mean velocity through the screen to the initial velocity when the
screen enters submergence. Recognizing the effect of drum speed on performance Mixon
suggested selecting I</>/ R to keep the ratio E below 0.5. Above this limit he assumes that
insufficient opportunity is given for a mat to form on the drum and solids removal efficien-
cy is likely to suffer.

The filterability index may be determined by Boucher's laboratory procedure (14), by field
testing with an apparatus available from Crane Co. (11) or by analysis of test data from
pilot microscreen units using relations such as those proposed by Mixon or Boucher. In
some cases where numerous values of 'I' have been obtained,a relationship to influent SS
loading may be obtained ( 15). Solids loading limitations such as those noted by Lynam, et
al, (16) would have broader applicability if they were related to a maximum filterability
index under which a particular microscreen could maintain a given capacity.

8.3.4 Performance

Suitable relationships have not been developed for quantitative predictions of micros<:;reen
performance from knowledge of influent characteristics and key design parameters. Where
performance must be predicted closely, pilot studies should be made. Where close
prediction is less critical, performance data from other locations with generally similar
conditions may serve as a guide.

Table 8-6 provides performance data for a number of microscreen installations for SS
removal from secondary effluents including the first such installation made at Luton
Sewage Works, England, in the early l 950's. Table 8-7 lists additional American
installations provided by two manufacturers.

8-15
 1.0·,.-----r---__,.-.....,.-...-....---.....- - - - - - -
~81-----+----1--+-+-4-----+---~---'--~

o.11-----+-----+---+-+-~"'-.,,t£-~~'-----1---+-~

0~81-----+-----+---+-.W-..4-7-c._-P=-+---=-._..=--+-~

o~e1-----+-----+--4'-'..~~~-..,...q...----1--~~~

u
~ 0.0 .. l---+---~L,1-~--::~+----::;;oo--F--~L--+-~
~
~

~
0 o.o 2 1-----jS.j~.,L--.l~-+--b--"F------¥----l--=ol.-~

0.011----~W"'-----+,.......,,=-+-+-:f-----+----,,_."""'=l=~--+-+-4

o.ooeJ--~~+---::;..-e::...-+--+-¥--b...-:!!==--+----+--+___,~

0.006J----+----=i-~~~+--+----+--.!!:'..~-b-.....,'--+---1

0.004

0.002 '----_i..::_ _..-J'----J-...L-...L.-----"'------1---1-..L..-..J

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.080.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
/::,. P Cf F'f/SEC

TYPICAL DESIGN RANGE

5-10 GPM/SQ FT

FABRIC MESH-MU
MARI< 0 23
MARI< I 35

FJGURE 8-8
MICROSCREEN CAPACITY CHART(l3)

8-16
 ,_.E 8-6
MICROSCREEN INSTALLATIONS
Hydraulic
Load on
Drum Submerged Average Suspended
Dia. Area Plant Flow Solids
x Screen No. of
LOCATION Country Influent Source Width Mesh Units Max.~ Max. ~ Influent Effluent Removed Reference
-rtmu- gpm/sq ft mgd mgd mg/l mg/l percent

Luton England Trickling Filter --·-- j

60 9.0 3 14 8 45 19
Bracknell England Trickling Filter 7.5x5, 35 2 6.3 2.2 6.3 2.2 20 11 45 19
16.2 6.9 57
}-\ambledon R.D.C. England Trickling Filter 35 10.8 2.5 2.5 0.6 14 8 45 19
Elmbridge 23 10.8 2.5 2.5 0.6 14 7.7 45

Leighton- England Trickling Filter 35 6.8 3.9 2.0 l. 2 29 11 60 19

Linslade U.D.C.
Fleet U.D.C. England Trickling Filter lOxlO, 35 2 6.0 2.0 3.6 1.2 15 6 60 9 ,19

Esher U.D.C. England Trickling Filter lOxlO, 3 10.8 (Design Flow) 19 9 60 9

Hatfield R.D.C. England Trickling Filter 7.5x5, 3 2.55 (Design Flow) 14 8 43 9 ,19
9.0 (Design Flow)

The Borough of England Trickling Filter lOxlO, 23 5 5.3 (Max. Flow to 28 7 75 9

Bury St. Edmonds Date)
00 4.0 37 6 83+10 9
I
Franklin Township U.S.A. Trickling Filter lOxlO, 23 2 7.8
STP Murraysvilie, Final-Settling
Pa. Tanks
4.3 3.3 Pilot Study 17 6.6 62 9 ,19 ,20
Letchworth England Act.Sludge Final 5x3, 23
Clarifiers
5 1.5 1.0 3.2 2.2 13. l 3.9 70 9,19
Basingstoke England Act.Sludge Final lOxlO, 23
Clarifiers
2.5 1.25 Pilot Study 54 8 85 17
Euclid, Ohio U.S.A. Act.Sludge with 2.5x2, 23
Chem. Precip. in 40 gpm 20 gpm
Primary Clarif.
(FeCl)
2.5 1.25 Pilot Study 38 10 74 17
Euclid, Ohio U.S.A. Act.Sludge with 2.5x2, 23
Chem. Precip. in 40 gpm 20 gpm
Final Clar if.
(FeCl)
2.5 1.25 Pilot Study 65 21 68 17
Euclid, Ohio U.S.A. UNOX Final 2.5x2, 23
40 gpm 20 gpm
Clarifiers
1 27 7 73 15
Lebanon, Ohio U.S.A. Act.Sludge 5xl, 35 1
23 l 17 2 83 lS
Final Clarif. 5xl,
5.3 2.6 1.5 0.8 6-28 4-11 SS(ave.) 16
Hanover Park,111. U.S.A. Act.Sludge lOxlO, 23
Final Clarif.
15 (Design Flow) 10 3 67 9
MSD North Side U.S.A. Act. Sludge 12_.5x30, 23
STP Chicago, Ill. Final Clarif.
 TABLE 8-7

MUNICIPAL MICROSCREENER INSTALLATIONS

Plant Unit Straining

Flow Units Sizes Media*
Location mgd"". No. D x L, ft microns

Arthur Bloom Apts. Courtesy Zurn Industries

Lancaster, Pa. 0.1 2 4x2 20
(polyester)

Ecological Utilities
North Miami, Fla. 2.7 lOxlO 20
(polyester)

City of Murfreesboro
Murfreesboro, Tenn. 4.0 2 lOxlO 20
(polyester)

MSD Chicago
Lemont, Ill. 2 lOxlO 21

City of Cookeville
Cookeville, Tenn. 7.2 2 lOxlO 21

City of Dayton
Dayton, Tenn. 5.4 2 lOxlO 20
(polyester)

Department of Public Works

Erie, Pa. 45.0 3 10xl5 21

Village of Pepperpike
Pepperpike, Ohio 1.0 6x6 21

Borough of Bellefonte
Bellefonte, Pa. 3.0 3 6x6 21

Good Samaritan Hospital

Islip, New York 0.2 4x4 21

* All fabrics stainless steel unless otherwise indicated.

8-18
 TABLE 8-7 (continued)
MUNICIPAL MICROSCREENER INSTALLATIONS

Plant . Unit Straining

Location Flow Units Sizes Media*
mgd No DxL, ft microns
Borough of Carroltown
Carroltown, Pa. l.O 2 4x4 21

Cincinnati Dept. of Sewers

Cincinnati, Ohio 0.5 4x4 21

Muncie Mall
Muncie, Indiana 0.2 4x4 21

Opalaka Sewage Plant

Chesterland, Ohio 0.3 4x4 21

I.B.M.
Essex Junction, Vt. 0.2 4x4 35

Hot Springs Village

Hot Springs, Arkansas 0.3 4x4 21
(Courtesy of Crane Co.)
Union "76" Oil Co.
Clarion, Pa. 0.1 5xl 23

Deer Creek State Park, Ohio 0.3 5x3 23

Oakbourne Hospital,
Westchester, Pa. 0.1 5xl 23

. Sugar Creek STP,

Greene County, Ohio 6.0 2 IOxlO 23

Little Miami STP,

Greene County, Ohio 6.0 2 IOxlO 23
.___,
Westminster, Md. 3.0 lOxlO 23

Hammond, Ind. l.5 7:5x5 23

East Wheatfield Township, Pa. 0.1 5xl 23

8-19
 TABLE 8-7 (Cont'd)
MUNICIPAL MICROSCREENER INSTALLATIONS

Plant Unit Straining

Location Flow Units Sizes Media*
mgd· No. D. x'.L, ft. microns
Hartville, Ohio 2.5 2 7.5x5 23

Louisville, Ky. 0.8 2 5x3 60

Browntown, Minn. 0.1 5xl 23

Salisbury, N .C. 6.0 2 I Ox IO 23

Allen County, Ohio 2.5 2 7.5x5 23

Fairmont, Minn. 6.0 2 IOx IO 23

Parkway, Md. 15.0 5 I Ox IO 23

Penn State University, Pa. 0.3 5x3 23

Bolingbrook, Illinois 0.5 7.5x5 60

Park Forest, Illinois 2.0 2 7.5x5 23

Sugar Creek, Ohio 0.3 5x3 23

Union Oil Co.

Harrisburg, Pa. 0.1 5xl 23

Chicago Metro Sanitary District

Chicago, Illinois 2.0 IOxlO 23

Ursuline Academy, Ohio 0.3 5x3 35

Jackson ~ownship, N.J. 0.1 5x I 35

FWPCA Research Project, Phila. 0.2 5x3 23

Akron STP, Ohio 3.0 7.5x5 60

Wm. Henry Apts., Dowington, Pa. 0.2 5xl 35

8-20
 TABLE 8-7 (continued)

Plant Units Unit Straining

Location Flow No. Sizes Media
mgd D x:L, ft microns
Franklin Twp., Pa. 4.0 2 lOxlO 23

Hempfield Twp., Pa. 6.0 2 lOxlO 35

Chelsea Ridge Apts., N.Y. 0.2 5x3 23

Harpeth Valley, Tenn. 1.5 7.5x5 23

University School
Cleveland, Ohio 0.1 5xl 23

Willoughby Hills
Cleveland, Ohio 0.1 5xl
,.,..,
L.:J

Lionville, Pa. 0.7 2 5x3 23

Margate STP, Fla. 3.5 2 lOxlO 23

Lauderhill STP, Fla. 3.5 2 lOxlO 23

Bel-Aire STP,
Miami, Florida 0.9 7.5x5 23

Homestead, Fla. 0.2 2 5xl 23

Upper Sandusky, Ohio 1.5 2 7.5x5 23

Petosky, Michigan 2.5 2 lOxlO 23

Ravenna, Ohio 1.5 2 7.5x5 23

Bolingbrook STP, Ill. 0.5 7.5x5 60

Commonwealth Edison, Ill. 2.0 lOxlO 23

Lucas County, Ohio 0.2 2 5xl 23

Pymatuning State Park, Pa. 0.1 5xl 35

8-21
 Figure 8-9 shows average operating results from a number of British tertiary microscreen
installations with various hydraulic loadings.

Figure 8-10 presents the results of three extended British studies on microscreening of
trickling filter and activated sludge secondary effluents.

Some general conclusions can be made about the microscreen as a device for removing SS
from secondary effluents:

l. Under best operating conditions microscreen units can reduce solids to as low as
. 5 mg/ l.

2. Although the SS removal pattern is irregular, performance tends to be better at

lower hydraulic loadings (Figure 8-lOa).

3. Increases in influent suspended solids are reflected in the effluent but with
noticeable damping of peaks (Figure 8-10).

4. M icroscreens are applicable in place of clarifiers to polish effluent from low rate
trickling filters, if the solids are generally low in concentration and well flocculated
(Figure 8-lOb).

Other investigations provide insights beyond those cited above:

Data from Lebanon, Ohio, ( 15) show better removal with smaller mesh sizes.

Commenting on how solids characteristics affect microscreen performance, one British

study (8) notes that a clear non colloidal secondary effluent containing a reasonable amount
of suspended solids would result in a better effluent than colloidal effluent containing less
suspended solids. ·

Chemical application can unfavorably alter solids characteristics: Lynam, et al. ( 16)
· reported poor removals when applying an alum flocculated secondary effluent directly to a
microscreen. In contrast, at Euclid, Ohio ( 17) a microscreen removed 74 to 85 percent of
th.=. ~o!ids from the settled effluent of .an activated slu~¥~ pi!_o~ _e_lant with mineral addition
for phosphorus removal. The better performance at Euclid could be attributed to a tougher
biological nature of the effluent solids.

Microscreen suppliers (9) ( 18) stress the importance of minimizing shearing action on
microscreen influent to avoid breaking up flocculated particles. This is advanced as a reason
for settling limits on drum peripheral speed and for avoiding pumping ahead of microscreen
units.

Lynam, et. al, ( 16) indicate that microscreening at lower drum speeds yields better quality
effluent. This is a,ttributed to better straining action through the thicker mat of solids which
builds up at low speeds.

8-22
 e PLANT OPERATED AT MAXIMUM
FLOW RATES OF 9.2 TO 10.8 gpm /s.f.
o PLANT OPERATED AT MAX IM UM
FLOW RATES OF 6.0 TO 6.8 gpm/a.f.

......
ai
2:

(I)
(I)

...z 10

w
~
..J

'"w"
LL

0 10 20 30 40
INFLUENT SS Mg/I

FIGURE 8-9

MICROSCREEN REMOVAL ATV ARIO US FLOW RA TES

(After Isaac and Hibbert (19))

8-23
 CONCENTRATION OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS
80 ' - Filter Effluent
- - Humus Tank Effluent
o-o Microstrainer Effluent
60
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
(p.p.m.) 40

20

0 .........-...-............................-...........~~...............................................................................-'-+-'-I'
7~5S2IB~M~n~8~6ro3V1~~~~
April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan
1962 1963
A. HARP£NOE;N . SEWAtE WORKS
(Courtesy of Crane Co.)

SUSPENDED SOLIDS (influent)

z 30
0
~-
a::
!Z~
we
u-
z
0 10
I.)

?400
~ ....
g~ 300
u. .o
~200

1966 1967

B. L.ETCHWORTH WATER POLLUTION CONTROL WORKS

Data were obtained from 1malysis of continuous records, each point rcprcsentin){
weekly mean hourly readings. Broken lines indicate break in operation of plant

FIGURE 8-10

MICROSCREENING OF TRICKLING FILTER

PLANT EFFLUENT

8-24
 40
35

30

SUSPENDED 25
SOLIDS
(mg/El 20

15

Sept Oct Nov Dec Jon Feb Mor Apr Moy Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

1968 1969

C. FLEET U· D· C.
(Courtesy of Crane Co.)

FIGURE 8-W (Continued)

8-25
As shown in Figure 8-8 under peripheral speed and hydraulic loading limits set by
manufacturers and regulatory authorities, the ratio E for most microscreen designs actually
falls below 0.1, a lower limit suggested by Mixon for most efficient utilization of equipment.

The wide range of suggested design values underlines the need for developing quantitative
relations between removal efficiency and key design parameters.

8.3.5 Microscreen Construction

The basic screen support structure is a drum shaped, suitably stiffened rigid frame
supported on bearings to allow rotation. Designs using water lubricated axial bearings or
greased bearings located on the upper inside surface of the rotating drum allow
submergence well above the central axis.

Both plastic (polyester) and stainless steel are used for the microscreen media itself. Greater
mechnical strength, especially at higher temperatures, is the prime advantage stated for
stainless steel (9) (18). Greater economy and chemical resistance are pointed to as
advantages of plastic ( 18).

Depending on manufacturer, screen fabric is supplied either in small sections (8 in. x 12 in.)
supported by and fastened directly to the drum frame or in larger (l8 in. x 24 in.) panels
consisting of fabric integrally bonded to a grid like supporting mesh of stainless steel. These
panels are attached to the drum frame.

One manufacturer offers a microscreen unit with an accordion or pleated outer surface to
achieve up to 30 percent more filtering surface within the same general dimensions of regu-
lar designs. The unit is 12.5 feet by 30 feet and has a rated capacity of 15 mgd. This unit is
shown in Figure 8-l l.

In the past cast bronze and cast carbon steel were used as drum and frame construction
materials. The present practice is to use fabricated carbon steel. Generally, smaller units are
factory assembled in steel tanks while large units are placed in concrete structures.

Table 8-8 illustrates the approximate size and power requirements for various microscreen
units.

8.3.6 Screen Fabric and Operating Headloss

M icroscreen fabrics normally are woven of stainless steel or plastic (polyester with
polypropylene supporting grid) with openings in the range of 15 to 60 microqs, .. , :
····. ', . :· ,.•

Plastic fabric is less subject to chemical attack by strong chlorine or acid cleaning.solutions.
Stainless steel can better withstand temperatures encountered in steam cl~aning . ' : ,.

Suggested operating headloss limits for microscreens are based on observation of the effect
of differential head on screen life. Standard design calls for a 3 in. headloss at average flows

8-26
 FIGURE 8-11

MICROSCREEN UNIT WITH PLEATED OUTER SURFACE

(Courtesy of Cochrane Div., Crane Co.)

U.S EPA Headquarters Library

Mail cvde 3404T
1200 Peiw~ylvar112 Avenue NW
Wci::>hio1oto11 , cic 20460
2u2-5b6-0556

8-27
 TABLE 8-8

TYPICAL MICROSCREEN POWER AND SPACE REQUIREMENTS

Drum.Sizes Floor Space Motors Approx.. Ranges

Source Diam. Length Width Length Drive Wash Pump of Capacity
Code ft ft ft ft BHP 'BHP mgd

A 5.0 1.0 8 6 0.50 1.0 0.07 - 0.15

A 5.0 3.0 9 14 0.75 3.0 0.2 - 0.4
A 7.5 5.0 11 16 .2.00 5.0 . 0.5 - 1.0
A 10.0 10.0 14 22 5.00 7.5 1.5 - 3.0

B 4.0 4.0 7 15 0.75 1.0 0.2 - 0.4

B 6.0 6.0 10 17 2.00 1.5 0.5 - l.0
B 10.0 10.0 14 22 5.00 5.0 1.5 - 3.0

Code A Courtesy Crane Co., Cochrane Div.

Code B Courtesy Zurn Industries

and 6 in. for normally-expected maximum flows (9) ( 18). For occasional peaks (less than 3
percent of time) headlosses up to 24 in. can be tolerated. Crane Co. indicates that stainless
steel screens operated under the above conditions would have a life of 10 years; if operated
continuously at a 24 in. headloss the same screen might only last 6 months. (9)

8-28
 8.3.7 Hydraulic Control

Hydraulic control of microscreening units is effected by varying drum speed in proportion

to the differential head across the screen. The controller is commonly set to give a
peripheral druin speed of 15 fpm at 3 in. differential and 125 to 150 fpm· at 6 inches (9)
{18). In addition, backwash flow rate and pressure may be increased when the differential
reaches a given level (9) (18).

The operating drum submergence is related to the effluent water level and headloss through
the fabric. The minimum drum submergence value for a given installation is the level of
liquid inside the drum when there is no flow over the effluent weir. The maximum drum
submergence is fixed by a bypass weir which permits flows in excess of unit capacity to be
bypassed; at maximum submergence the maximum drum differential should never exceed
15 inches.

Effluent and bypass weirs should be designed as follows:

l. Select drum submergence level (70 to 75 percent of drum diameter) for no flow
over the effluent weir.

2. Locate top of effluent weir at selected submergence level.

3. Determine maximum flow rate.

4. Size effluent weir to limit liquid depth in effluent chamber above the weir to 3 in.
at the maximum flow rate.

5. Position the bypass weir 9 to 11 in. above effluent weir. (3 in. head on effluent weir
maximum flow plus 6 to 8 in. differential on drum at maximum drum speed
. and maximum flow).

6. Size bypass weir length to prevent the level above effluent weir flow exceeding 12
to 18 in. at peak maximum flow or overflowing the top of the backwash collec-
tion hopper.

8.3.8 Backwashing

Backwash jets are directed against the outside of the microscreen drum as it passes the
highest point in its rotation. About half the flow penetrates the fabric.,dislodging the mat of
solids formed on the inside ( 15). A hopper inside the drum .receives the flushed-off solids.
The hopper is positioned to compensate for the trajectory that the solids follow at normal
drum peripheral velocities.

Microscreen effluent is usually used for backwashing.· Straining is required to avoid

clogging of backwash nozzles. The in-line strainers used for this purpose will require
·periodic cleaning; the frequency of cleaning will be determined by the quality of the
backwash water.

8-29
The backwash system used by Zurn employs two header pipes; one operates continuously at
20 psi, while the other operates at 40 psi· when the unit receives a high solids loading. The
Crane system also uses two sets ·of jets but both operate continuously at pressures from 15
to 55 psi. Under normal operating conditions these jets operate at 35 psi. Once a day they
are operated at 50 psi for 1 h hour to keep the jets free of slime build-up. Should this
procedure fail to keep the jets clean, the pressure is raised to 55 psi. At this pressure the
spring loaded jet mouth widens to allow for more effective cleaning.

Backwash pressure is also increased to compensate for heavy solids loadings w_hich require
the higher pressure for thorough cleaning. Crane reports that no major problems have been
encountered with this jet design (9).

Prior to 1967 Crane designed backwash systems to operate only at 15 psi. A pilot study in
Letchworth England (20) showed the superiority of the higher pressure system. Results of
this study showed:

l. Operation at 50 psi, as opposed to 15 psi, increased the process flow capacity

30 percent.

2. Suspended solids concentration in the backwash increased from 260 mg/ l at 15

psi to 425 m&I l at 50 psi.

3. Water consumption of the jets as a percent of process effluent decreased from

5 · percent at 15 psi to 2 percent" at 50 psi.

In general, backwash systems are operated at as low a pressure as possible consistent with
successful cleaning. High pressure operation incurs added system maintenance, particularly
jet replacement, and is used only as needed.

8.3.9 Supplemental Cleaning

Over a period of time screen fabrics may become clogged with algal and slime growths, oil,
and grease. To prevent clogging, cleaning methods in addition to backwashing are neces-
sary.

To reduce clogging from algae and slime growth, Crane Company recommends the use of
ultraviolet lamps placed in close proximity to the screening fabric and monthly removal of
units from service to permit screen cleaning with a mild chlorine solution. While most liter-
ature sources say ultraviolet lamps are of value, one authority (21) feels these lamps are
uneconomical because they require frequent replacement. Zurn Industries claims that, be-
cause their screening fabric is completely bonded to.the supporting material, crevices where
algae become lodged are eliminated and backwashing alone is sufficient to remove algal and
associated slime growths (l8):.

8-30
Where oil and grease are present, hot water and/ or steam treatment can be used to remove
these materials from the microscreens. Plastic screens with grease problems are cleaned
monthly (9) with hot water at 120° F ( 18) to prevent damage to the screen material. Down
time for cleaning may be up to 8 hours.

8.3.10 Operation

In starting a microscreening unit care should be taken to limit differential water levels
across the fabric to normal design ranges of 2 to 3 inches. For example, while the drum is
being filled it should be kept rotating and the backwash water should be turned on as soon
as possible. This is done to limit the formation of excessive differential heads across the
screen which would stress the fabric during tank fill-up.

Leaving the drum standing in dirty water should be avoided because suspended matter on
the inside screen face which is above the water level may dry and prove difficult to remove.
For this reason introducing unscreened waters, such as plant overloads, into the
microscreen effluent compartment should also be avoided (18).

If the unit is to be left standing for any length of time the tank should be drained and the
fabric cleaned to prevent clogging from drying solids.

8.4 Other Screening Devices

Conventional mesh screens have not been used with success in municipal wastewater
treatment. Recently, however, a centrifugal screen, the Sweco Concentrator, has
demonstrated its effectiveness. In this unit, influent is directed against the inside
of a rotating cylindrical screen cage (See Fig. 8-12). It is claimed that the rotational
speed (centrifugal force of 3 to 6 gravities) increases hydraulic capacity and, together with
the impingeme.nt angle, permits separation of solids finer than the screen openings ( 150 to
165).

Separated solids and the rejected portion of the liquid flow are removed from the bottom
of the unit while effluent is taken off at the periphery. Screen blinding is cleared by timer-
actuated spray cleaning systems which direct water jets against both the inner and outer
screen surfaces.

At Contra Costa County, California, a 60 inch unit treats 0.9 mgd wastewater containing
about 200 mg/ l SS (22). The waste flow is split into two streams, a small volume (15 per-
cent) concentrated stream and a supernatant (85 percent of influent) stream. The concen-
trated stream is settled in the conventional primary basin (formerly overloaded but now ca-
pable of good solids reduction at the lower hydraulic loading). The supernatant is treated by
flotation (the Sweco concentrator does not specifically remove floatables but thoroughly
aerates the wastewater aiding subsequent flotation) and finaHy, flotation and settled con-
centrate effluents are mixed and chlorinated before disposal. Overall SS reductions for the
system including concentration, flotation, settling and chlorination are reported as 70 to 80
percent. Similar removals are claimed for settled secondary effluent from aeration pro-
cesses (23). Design flow rates are claimed to range from 40 to 100 gpm/ sq ft. The con-

8-31
 lnf1u nt Distribution Pans
Rotating Screen Cage

Concentrate Collector
Removable Ser en Parels

00
I
w
N

-- Influent

Efflu nt Discharge

- - - Effluent Collector

Concentrate Discharge

FIGURE 8-12

THE SWECO CONCENTRATOR

(Courtesy of SWECO, Inc.)
 centrator is of epoxy-lined steel and screen construction is of stainless steel or polyester in
plastic frames. During operation the outside of the screen is washed every 20 minutes with
cold clarified water and the inside with 5 to 7 gl?m hot water.

8.5 Diatomaceous Earth Filters

Diatomaceous earth (DE) filters have been applied to the clarification of secondary
effluents at pilot scale. No full-scale installations have been characterized in the literature.
They produce a high quality effluent but appear unable to handle the solids loadings
normally expected in this application.

DE filtration utilizes a thin layer of precoat formed around a porous septum to strain out
the suspended solids in th_e feedwater which passes through the filter cake and septum. The
driving force can be imposed by vacuum from the product side or pressure from the feed
side. As filtration proceeds, headloss through the cake increases due to solids deposition
until a maximum is reached. The cake and associated solids are then removed by flow
reversal and the process is repeated. In the cases where secondary effluents have been
treated by this process, a considerable amount of diatomaceous earth (body feed) has been
required for continuous feeding with the influent in order to prevent rapid buildup of
headlosses. Generally, the DE filtration process is capable of excellent removal of
suspended solids but not colloidal matter.

A wide variety of diatomaceous earth (diatomite) grades are available for use. As might be
expected, the coarser grades have greater permeability and solids-holding capacities than do
the finer grades which will generally produce a better effluent. Some grades of diatomite are
pretreated to change their characteristics for improved performance. A number of vessel
configurations are available, with open-basin vacuum and vertical pressure designs most
common. (See Figures 8-13, and 8-14.)

Design criteria for diatomite filters have been discussed by Bell (24). The filtration cycle can
be divided into two phases, run time and down time. Down time includes the periods when
the dirty cake is dislodged from the septum and removed from the filter and when the new
precoat is formed. Run time commences when the feed is introduced to the filter and ends
when a li_miting headloss is reached. The single most important factor in secondary effluent
filtration by DE filters is the amount of body feed required during the filtration or run time.'
The body feed rate is the largest operating cost factor and strongly affects the operating
economics of the process. Similarly, it is related to cycle time between backwashing which
determines the installed filtering area, hence the capital cost economics. A ratio of 5 to 6
mg/ l of body feed per JTU of influent turbidity was required at San Antonio and the
possible need for a higher ratio was suggested (25). Another pilot study used a variety of
. ratios and filtration rates and used both pressure and vacuum systems for secondary .
effluent filtration (26). Some results from this study are shown in Table 8-9. Both studies·
indicate that a precoat of about 0.1 lb/ sq ft of filter area and greater than 6 mg/ l of body
feed per JTU of turbidity should. be used.

An English study with a reversible-flow DE unit also resulted in uneconomical operating

conditions due to excessive body feed, short filter runs and high backwash water·

8-33
 CORROSION PROOF CORRO ION PROOF
FILTER ELEMENTS TANK
FILTERED WATER
OUTLET

00
I
w
~

I
ANGLE IRON
FRAME

RAW WATER
INLET
BAFFLE
-~ -.-
DRAIN
FIGURE 8-13
VERTICAL LEAF VACUUM FILTER
(Courtesy of Johns-Manville)
 FIGURE 8-14
VERTICAL LEAF PRESSURE FILTER, VERTICAL TANK
(Courtesy of Johns-Manvilie)

8-35
 TABLE 8-9

DIATOMACEOUS EARTH FILTRATION OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT

Turbid it~
Flow Rate Body Feed In Out Run Length Type
gpm/ sq ft mg/ l rru Tru hr

0.53 42 5.5 0.8 19.5 Vacuum

0.75 33 5.2 0.8 10.7 Vacuum
1.0 19 4.4 0.4 5.4 Vacuum
0.50 50 8.2 3.1 50.0 Pressure
0.81 42 8.3 3.9 28.4 Pressure
1.0 45 7.5 3.0 31.0 Pressure

requirements (27). Acceptable operation was possibly only with very low influent solids (3
to 13 mg/ 1). None of these studies considered the possibility of recovering DE filter aid,
which could reduce the estimated costs significantly (28).

8.6 Ultrafiltration

8.6.1 General

Ultrafiltration (UF) is the title given to a form of membrane separation which employs
relatively coarse membrane separation at relatively low pressures. The process should be
differentiated from reverse osmosis which is a similar process used for dissolved solids
separation using fine membranes and high pressures. Ultrafiltration, using a thin
semi-permeable polymeric membrane is reported most successful in separating suspended
solids as well as large-molecule colloidal solids (0.002 to 10.0 µ) from wastewater (29).
Fluid transport and solids retention are achieved by regulating pore size openings. Thus, the
ultrafiltration process is a physical screening through molecular-sized openings rather than
one controlled by molecular diffusion.

A system employing high-MLSS aeration followed by UF operated at Pikes Peak since

1970 has proven capable of removing virtually 100 percent of the suspended matter and 93
to 100 percent of the associated BOD, COD and TOC from aerated mixed liquors (30).

8.6.2 Application

Several installations (29) (30) (3 I) have proven the ability of the activated
sludge-ultrafiltration process to remove all SS and almost all bacteria and BOD. These
systems are typified by Figure 8-15. Results of such installations are given in Table 8-10.
Because UF installations have all produced zero SS effluents, other parameters are given to
illustrate process capability. More detailed data on the Pikes Peak installation is given in

8-36
 - DISCHARGE

POTABLE WATER SUPPLY

1,
DISINFECTION!

POTABLE NON-
POTABLE
~--!~----
~
MEMBRANE

USE USE
ULTRA-
00
I FI LTRATI ON
w
-..I CELL
t
~
j

, (/)
t-3
tr:!
(/)
HIGH-SOLIDS t"'i
ACTIVATED SLUDGE c::
t1
HOLDING PRESSURIZED G)
tr:!
-... TANK GRINDER - REACTOR
- (AERATOR)

FIGURE 8-15
SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF THE PIKES PEAK TREATMENT & REUSE SYSTEM
Table 8-1 l. Coliform counts in all instances were above zero but were attributed to outside
contamination rather than passage through the membranes (30) (31).

TABLE 8-lO
RESULTS OF ULTRAFILTRATION INSTALLATIONS

Effluent Superficial
Capacity BOD Coliform Flux Pressure Flow Rate
-
gpd ~gi I No.I 100 m sq ft final ps1. fps

Fabric Fire
Hose, 3',600 2-15 l-100* 18 8 22-27 4-6
Sandy Hook (av. 5)

Pikes Peak 21,000 0-11 ** 30 6 50 5-6

16 9

* includes deliberate upset tests

**attributable to external contamination

The major drawback of. ultrafiltration is the high capital and operating costs. Phosphate
and color removal are both negligible, but they may not be necessary in many places. The
high cost may be offset by compactness where space is a critical factor, such as on a ship or
a mountain top. A 6800 gpd shipboard installation was designed to occupy a volume of 6 x
8 x 9 ft (31 ).

8.6.3 Design

The most important design considerations are:

I. Membrane area

2. Membrane configuration

3. Membrane material

4. Membrane life

5. Driving force.

8-38
 TABLE 8-11
SUMMARY OF PIKES PEAK DATA

Weighted
CSSTP'70 Summit '70 Summit '71 Summit '72 Average
72 days 22 days 49 days 83 days 226 days Percent
Parameter Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff. Removal
00
'
v.; BOD (mg/I) 382 285 1 362 1.3 426 6.2 384 3 99.2
\0

COD(mg/1) 678 20 547 32 738 52 839 536 737 40.5 94.6

TOC (mg/l) 192 7.5 136 6.6 197 9.8 185 8.1 95.6

TSS (mg/l) 323 0 129 0 172 0 263 0 249 0 100

FLUX (gpd/sq ft) 30 to 6 16 to 9

MLSS (mg/l) 3954 4156

Fecal Coliform
(per 100 ml) 0 0 6 11 9
 8.6.3. l Area

Membrane area is a function of flux which is determined by membrane construction and the
fouling characteristics of the wastewater. A flux of 8 gpd/ sq ft has proven satisfactory at
. the Pikes Peak installation and can be used as a normal design figure in calculating
necessary area. Membrane flux tends to decrease with time due to surface fouling. It has
been found that physical elimination of foulants, mostly organic acids and polarized
materials, lessens their flux-reducing effect (29). By operating the process at liquid velocities
of 3 to IO fps parallel to the membrane surface, scouring of contaminants can be
accomplished and a more stable flux achieved (29). At such velocities, with normal
membrane fluxes, single-pass design would require impractically large membrane area.
Therefore, the wastewater is recirculated as shown in Figure 8-15. Some blowdown of
concentrated waste results to prevent excessive solids buildup. The blowdown can be
intermittent, at a rate sufficient to keep the MLSS within acceptable ranges, usually 4,000
to 15,000 mg/ l (29) (32).

8.6.3.2 Membrane Configuration

This aspect of design concerns the amount. of membrane surface area which can be
incorporated into a module. Because of low membrane fluxes it is imperative to design the
module to maximize membrane surface area. One configuration adopted solely for
ultrafiltration is the storage battery confi6uration, as shown in Figure 8-16. The membrane
is cast on both external faces of a hollow plate. A number of these plates are arranged in a
parallel array. The edges of these plates face the incoming stream of solids and act as a
coarse screen which can be backwashed by reversing the direction of the approaching flow.
Other designs .include tubular support elements over which a membrane is wound helically
or in which the membrane is enclosed in a continuous spiral.

8.6.3.3 Material

The membrane itself is made up of two basic layers:

I. Sur.face-an extremely thin homogenous polymer of O. l to I0.00 microns

(typical, 5.0 microns).

2. Surface support-an open cell of 5 to IO mil thickness

The membrane, in turn, is supported on a porous sheet (paper) for added mechanical
support.

The thin surface layer controls the transport and rejection properties of the membrane.
Numerous means and types are available and can be tailored to the particular application.
Typical membrane specification ranges are listed in Table 8-12.

8-40
 Outlet

00
I
.i:..
Recirculating
flow inlet

U ltrafiltrate

~Cover

FIGURE 8-16
"STORAGE BAITERY'., MEMBRANE MODULES
(Courtesy of Dorr-Oliver).
 TABLE 8-12

TYPICAL MEMBRANE SPECIFICATIONS

Material Most organic polymers

Water Permeability 7-290 gpd per sq ft at 30 psi
Molecular weight 340-45,000
Retentivity 60-100 percent
Maximum Operating
Temperature 50-120°C

Water permeability is used to characterize the porosity of the membrane, but does not
represent the stabilized, long-term. flux on a process fluid. In the waste treatment field,
fluxes of 7 to 10 gallons per square foot of membrane surface per day are typical (31).

Given the current state of membrane manufacturing technology, almost any set of clean
water performance characteristics, without consideration for fouling can be produced. A
few of the leading manufacturers of ultrafiltration membranes are Romicon Corp., Abcor,
Inc. and Dorr-Oliver, Inc. Catalogues offering a wide variety of membranes are available.

8.6.3.4 Membrane Life

Membrane life is a function of fouling and required flux rates. A membrane may be
considered acceptable for a life span of 6 months in continuous operation with an initial flux
of 18 and a final flux of 8 gpd/ sq ft. A plant must be designed for the lower figure and
membrane replacement made when the design figure is reached.

8.6.3.5 Driving Force

The driving force for transport of water through the membrane is pressure. Operation is
achieved at pressure gradients of approximately 25 psi. Total system pressures do not
exceed 50 psi. Very recent work has shown that vacuum extraction of the product can be
used advantageously in certain applications (31 ).

8-42
8.7 References
l. Ginaven, M.E., The Hydrasieve-A New Simplified Solids-Liquid Separator; Paper
Trade Journal (January 19, 1970).

2. Ginaven, M.E., A New Low Cost Device for Solids Recovery from Effluent; Cost En-
gineering; 16, 4, pp 4-10 (Oct., 1971 ).

3. Wittenmyer, James D., A Look at the Future Now, Presented at the Ohio Water Pol-
lution Control Conference (June 20, 1961 ).

4. Wittenmyer J.D., Operating Experience, Ohio Water Pollution Conference (June 16,
1972).

5. Wong, Alan, Personal Communication, Hazen and Sawyer.

6. Bishop, D.F. Jr., U.S. EPA Internal Monthly Report, May, 1972, Contract No.
68-01-0162.

7. O'Farrell, Tom, Personal Communication, Sanitary Engineer, U.S. EPA Blue Plains
Pilot Study.

8. Lee, R., Personal Communication, Hercules, Inc., A WT Division.

9. Hydrocyclonics Corp., Rotostrainer Bulletin.

10. Diaper, E.W.J., Personal Communication, Crane Co. (April, 1973).

l l. Diaper, E.W.J., Tertiary Treatment by Microstraining, Water and Sewage Works,

116, pg. 202 (June 1969).

12. Diaper, E.W.J., Oxidation Pond Effluent Improvement, 49th Texas Water and Sew-
age Works Associations's Short School, College Station, Texas (March 1967).

13. Mixon, F.O., Filterability Index and Microscreener Design, Jour. WPCF, 42, pg. 1944
(Nov. 1970).

14. Boucher, P.L., A New Measure of the Filterability of Fluids with Application to Wa-
ter Engineering, ICE Jour. (Brit.), 24, 4, pg. 41'5 (1947).

15. Bodien, D.G., and Stenburg, R.L., Microscreening Effectively Polishes Activated
Sludge Effluent, Water and Wastes Engineering, 3, pg. 74 (Sept. 1966).

16. Lynam, B., Ettelt, G., and McAloon, F., Tertiary Treatment at Metro Chicago by
Means o} Rapid Sand Filtration and Microstrainers, Jour., WPCF, 41, pg. 247 (Feb.
1969).

n. Havens and Emerson Ltd. Consulting Engineers,-Report on Wastewater Treatment Pi-

lot Plant for the City of Euclid, Ohio (April 30, 1971).

8-43
18. Sapper, John, Personal Communication, Zurn Industries (April, 1973).

19. Isaac, C.G. and Hibberd, R.L. The Use of Microstrainers and Sand Filters for Ter-
tiary Treatment. Water Research, (Britain) 6, pg. 465, ( 1972).

20. Trusdale, G.A., and Birkbeck, A.E., Tertiary Treatment of Activated-Sludge Ef-
fluent, Metropolitan and Southern Branch International Filtration Exhibition and
Conference, The Institute of Water Pollution Control (Brit.}, 67. pg. 483 (l 968).

21. Microscreening Plant for Effluent Polishing. Effluent and Water Treatment Jour., Per-
mutit, (July 1971).

22. Saucer, Victor, Concentrator and Floatation Cell Increase Wastewater Plant Capacity
Fourfold, American City 88, 4, pg. 49, (April, 1973).

23. falby, W.J., Personal Communication, SWECO Inc., Los Angeles, Calif. (May,
l 973).

24. Bell, G.R., Design Criteria for Diatomite Filters, Jour. AWWA, 54. pg. 1241 (Oct.
1962).

25. Wells, W.N. and Davis, D.W., Filtration of Activated Sludge Plant Effluent, Public
Works, 98, 4, pg. 94 (Apr. 1967).

26. Summary Report-Advanced Waste Treatment R_esearch Program ( 1964-1967),

U.S. 0.1., FWPCA Publication WP-20-A WTR-19 (l 968).

27. Guiver, K., and Huntington, R., A Scheme for Providing Industrial Water Supplies by
the Re-use of Sewage Effluent. Water Pollution Control (G.B.), 70, pg. 74 (1971).

28. Filter and Recovery Systems Bulletin FF 206. Celite Technical Data, Celite Div.,
Johns-Manville Corp. (1971).

29. Smith, C.V. Jr., Di Gregario, D. and Talcott, R.M., The Use of Ultrafiltration Mem-
branes for Activated Sludge Separation. Purdue Ind. Waste Conf. 517 I 69. Water Re-
novation of Municipal Effluents byReverse Osmosis, Water Quality Office, U.S. EPA.
Project EPA 17040 EOR (Feb. 1972).

30. Bemberis, !vars, Personal Communication, MST Marketing, Dorr-Oliver Inc.

(March, 1973).

31. Bemberis, Hubbard and Leonard, Membrane Sewage Treatment Systems. American
Soc. of Agric. Engrs., 1971 Winter Meeting.

32. Schwartz, Warren A., Record Memorandum, Office of Program Co-ordination, U.S.
EPA, (July 6, 1972).

8-~4
 CHAPTER9

GRANULAR MEDIA FILTRATION

9.1 Introduction

9 .1.1 Applications and General Description

This process, long applied in treatment of municipal and industrial water supplies, is
becoming widely used for waste.water treatment both in upgrading existing conventional
plants and in designs of new advanced treatment facilities. Next to gravity sedimentation it
is the most widely used process for separation of wastewater solids. The following specific
applications have been noted ( 1):

I. Removal of residual biological floe in settled effluents from secondary treatment

by trickling filters or activated sludge processes.

2. Removal of residu::il chemical-biological floe after alum, iron, or lime precipitation

of phosphates in secondary settling tanks of biological treatment processes.

3. Removal of solids remaining after the chemical coagulation of wastewaters in

tertiary or independent physical-chemical waste treatment.

In these applications filtration may serve both as an intermediate· process to prepare

wastewater for further treatment (such as carbon adsorption, clinoptilolite ammonia
exchange columns, or reverse osmosis) and as a final polishing step following other
processes.

Granular media. filtration involves passage of water through a bed of granular material with
resulting deposition of solids. Eventually the pressure drop across the bed becomes
excessive or the ability of the bed to remove suspended solids is impaired. Cleaning is then
necessary to restore operating head and effluent quality to acceptable levels. Most filters
operate on a batch basis, the entire unit being removed from ser·vice for periodic cleaning.

The time in service between cleanings is termed the run length. The head loss at which
filtration is interrupted for cleaning is called the terminal head loss.

9.1.2 General Design Considerations

Filter design involves selection of the following filter characteristics ( l ):

l. Filter configuration

2. Media sizes and depths and materials

3. Filtration rate (gpm/ sq ft)

9-1
 4. Terminal head loss (ft of water)

5. Method of flow control

6. Backwashing design features

The major goal in design is to achieve effluent qu3:1ity objectives at low capital and
operating costs. The most important characteristic in determining capital costs is the
filtration rate, which fixes the filter size. Oper~ting costs are affected primarily by
filtration rate, terminal head loss, media characteristics and backwash design. The first
three filter characteristics determine the cost of power for operating head and the
production of the filter per run. The backwash design determines the cost per cleaning of
operator attention, washwater pumping, air scouring (compressor operation) and treatment
of dirly washwater. The cost of cleaning per unit volume treated (cost per cleaning divided
by p~oduction per run) depends on all four factors.

Section 9.3 discusses the interrelation and effects on performance of process variables
describing the characteristics of filters and of influent wastewaters. Many investigators have
attempted to relate filter performance quantitatively to these variables (2) (3) (4) (5) (6).
Unfortunately, such relations are of little help in predicting performance except under
specific conditions already explored in pilot work. In part, this is due to the wide variations
in the filtering characteristics of wastewater, solids and to the dearth of reproducible
objective data from well-conceived studies of wastewater filtration. In part, however, it may
be inherent in the nature of the filtration process that any fully. general quantitative
relations. describing it would be too complex for practical use. Nevertheless existing
theoretical relations· are useful in providing: l) general insight into filter behavior, 2)
·frameworks for analysis of data from pilot investigations and 3) bases for comparing cost
effects of alternatives in specific applications.

9.1.3 Basis for Design

Wherever possible,designs should be based on pilot filtration studies of the actual waste
(Section 9.9). Such studies are the only way to assure:

l. Meaningful cost comparisons between different filter designs capable of equivalent

. performance (7), i.e., producing the same output quantity and quality over the
same time period.

2. Most economical selection of filter rate, terminal head loss and run length for a
given media application.

3. Definite effluent quality performance for a given media application.

Pilot studies are also useful for determining effects of pretreatment variations or for
characterizing filterability in terms of performance attainable with a specific filter design.
Where there is no opportunity for pilot studies, parameters for workable designs can still be

9-2
determined from the discussions of wastewater and filter characteristics in the sections
below. The parameters will necessarily be conservative and will tend to give more costly
designs and less assurance of effluent quality than parameters based on testing. Facilities
designed without pilot testing are likely to be small ones, for which the design should
provide long filter runs and minimize required operating attention.

Another approach to obtaining economical facilities is to prepare a fUnctional specification

which will permit competitive bidding between suppliers of alternative filter systems.
Functional requirements should include:

I. Guarantees of specified performance; both capacity and effluent quality.

2. Guarantees of proposed values of all factors which affect operating costs such as
head or power requirements and backwash volume to be recycled.

Bids should be evaluated based on total present worth including operating costs, which
should be calculated by a predetermined formula using factors in the guarantee.

This approach will work best when bidders are supplied test results characterizing the
filterability of the waste flow. In any case, bidders should be given full information on the
wastewater and treatment to be provided ahead of filtration plus the opportunity of testing
dflm:nts from such lreatmerit where already in operation.

9.2 Process Alternatives

Filter units generally consist of a contammg vessel, the granular media, structures to
support or retain the media, distribution and collection devices for influent, effluent and
washwater flows, supplemental cleaning devices, and necessary controls for flows, water
levels or pressures.

Some of the more significant alternatives in filter layout are discussed below.

9.2.1 Alternative Flow Directions

Most filter designs employ a static bed with vertical flow either downward or upward
through the bed. The downflow designs traditionally used in potable water treatment
(Figures 9-l and 9-2 (a) (d) and (e)) are most common, but recently a number of
installations have been designed for upward flow (Figures 9-3 and 9-2 (b)). The Eurdpean
biflow design (Figure 9-2 (c)) employs both flow directions with the effluent withdrawn
from the interior of the bed. U pflow washing is used regardless of the operating flow
direction. Two special filter designs employ horizontal radial flow through an annular bed.
Media is cycled downward through the bed, withdrawn at the bottom, externally washed,
and returned to the top. (See Section 9. IO).

9-3
Pipe gallery----......
floor

Filter drain-~~~_;
Filter to waste--~~~...,..,.

[}j!~--Effluent to
clear well

FIGURE 9~1
TYPICAL RAPID SAND FILTER
 GRID TO
RETAIN
SAND
INFLUENT

UNDERDRAIN
EFFLUENT INFLUENT CHAMBER

(o), CONVENTIONAL FILTER (b), UPFLOW FILTER (c), 81-FlOW FILTER

SINGLE MEDIA FILTERS

30-40" 28-48"

UNDERDRAIN GARNET SAND

CHAMBER

{d), DUAL MEDIA FILTERS (e), MIXED-MEDIA FILTERS

(TRIPLE MEDIA)

FIGURE 9-2

FILTER CONFIGURATIONS

9-5
 COVER OPTIONAL
(FOR CLOSED SYSTEM)

"GRID"

I
DEEP SAND LAYER SAND "ARCHES"

-i-
GRAVEL LAYERS
.. +
SPECIAL VENT

INLET RAW WATER

~u..----. .....-~~
-•J•WASt:4 WATER ~;;;;;;a 4 ( - . - -
AIR FOR
SANDFLUSH CLEANING

FIGURE 9-3
CROSS SECTION OF UPFLOW FILTER

9-6
 9.2.2 Gravity vs. Pressure Filtration

Filters may be designed with closed vessels permitting influent pressures above atmospheric
(Figure 9-4) or with open vessels where only the hydrostatic pressure over the bed is
available to overcome filter headlosses (Figure 9-1 ). Pressure units are generally preferable
where high terminal headlosses are expected or where the additional head will permit flow
to pass through downstream units without repumping ( 1) (8). They are most commonly
used in small-to-medium-sized treatment plants where steel-shell package units are
economical (8).

9.2.3 Media Alternatives

Figure 9-2 shows schematically a number of different filter configurations using fixed bed
media. The beds shown are all graded during upflow washing so that the finer material of a
given specific gravity is on top. It should be noted that the conventional single media filter
used in potable water treatment (Figure 9-2(a)) is generally unsatisfactory for wastewater
treatment because the wastewater solids cause a high headloss buildup at the fine surface
layer.

. In upflow designs, flow passes first through the coarser media which for a given head loss
buildup has greater capacity for retaining filtered solids. This is advantageous in
lengthening filter runs and increasing output. Dual and multi-media (Figure 9-2 (d) and (e))
obtain the same effect under downflow operation by placing coarser layers of lighter
material over finer denser material. An alternative downflow single-media configuration
not shown attempts to get the same advantage from use of beds of uniform-sized coarse
media with depths of 60 in. or more. The effects of significant media characteristics such as
size gradation, specific gravity and depth, on filter performance are discussed in detail in
Section 9.3.

In filters using external wash, the media is not vertically graded; particle size distribution
tends to be the same throughout the bed.

9.2.4 Batch vs. Continuous Operation

It is normal practice to design filters to operate on a batch basis with entire units taken out
of service for cleaning according to schedule or as required. Several special designs,
however, provide more or less continuous cleaning, either externally with media cycled
through the bed, or in-place with techniques such as traveling backwash or air pulsing of the
bed and air mixing of the liquid above it.

9.2.5 Normal Design

Most of this chapter will relate to fixed bed systems with intermittent upflow washing. Both
upflow and downflow designs will be included as normal design. Proprietary designs using
non-fixed beds or special washing systems are discussed in Section 9. IO.

9-7
 I 11 COUPLING
AIR RELEASE 11
50 PSIG PRESSURE 10 FLANGE IN FLUENT
VESSEL BACKWASH WASTE

11
2 FLANGE
SURFACE WASH
MEDIA

FILTE~ SUPPORTS
AT 1/4 POINTS

ELEVATION

a'- o" o.o.

11
DISTRIBUTOR- _12"x 16 MANHOLE
=

v MIXED MEDIA

UNDERDRAIN
LATERALS

SEC Tl 0 N

FIGURE 9-4

TYPICAL PRESSURE FILTER

(Courtesy of Neptune Microfloc, Inc.)

9-8
9.3 Process Variables

9.3.1 Performance Relations

The measures of filter performance are output quality and quantity. The variables which
determine or limit performance fall into two major groups: influent characteristics and the
physical characteristics of the filter. The latter include media ch_aracteristics, filtration rate,
available and applied operating head and the design and operating parameters of the filter
cleaning system.

In determining the fundamental limits on quality performance,the characteristics of prime

importance are those of the influent solids: concentration, strength, size, and the
physical-chemical properties governing adhesion of particles to each other or to the media
surfaces. Comm only a num her of filters with different physical characteristics can come
close to the limiting quality performance for a given influent. In contrast, quality
performance of given filters can vary widely for different solids characteristics.

In determining output quantity from filters, the influent solids characteristics-especially

floe strength and solids concentration-are again very inportant, but the physical
characteristics of the filter become significant too.

At run lengths of 24 hr or more, output depends aimost totaily on fiiter rate. As run lengths
become shorter, however, the effects of downtime and wa.shwater recycle during cleaning
become increasingly important (See Section 9.4). The washwater recycle volume depends
on the backwash flow rates and the wash cycle duration needed for adequate cleaning (see
Section 9.7). Factors governing backwash system design include:

l. Size distribution, depth and specific gravity of media

2. Nature of solids removed, principally their adhesion to the media and their
tendency to compact in a dense layer at the media surf ace

3. Type of supplementary cleaning provided.

Run length may by limited either by available head or by deterioration of effluent quality as
the filter bed becomes filled with solids (breakthrough). Which factor governs depends on
the interaction of several variables including:

l. Influent solids characteristics (all those which affect quality performance)

2. Flow rate

3. Temperature and viscosity of the wastewater

4. Media characteristics

5. The amount of head available.

9-9
1:-teadloss in a cleari bed varies directly with filter rate and inversely with grain size. In
determining head loss buildup, the most significant media characteristic is the grain or
pore size at the influent surface of the bed (or in some cases within finer denser layers of
multi-media filters). In downflow filtration through a graded bed, influent solids particles
larger than about 7 percent of the minimum grain size (9) will be removed by straining
provided their strength is sufficient to withstand the shear at the surface. Shear varies with
filter rate. and liquid viscosity.

In surface straining, head loss increases exponentially with time or solids accumulation (See
Chapter 8). Where significant solids loads ate removed predominantly by surface straining,
head loss buildup will be rapid, filter runs short and backwash frequency high. In addition
the solids removed at the surface tend to be compressed into a dense mat which is difficult
to remove in backwashing.

Removal of solids within the bed rather than just at the surface is termed depth filtration.
Both surface and depth filtration are usually involved to .some degree in any given
application.

In depth filtration head loss tends to build up linearly with time or with solids
accumulation. Compression of the solids removed is limited by the granular structure of the
bed. For downflow filtration within a single media, the farther solids penetrate into the bed,
the slower will be the rate of head loss buildup, but the sooner solids will breakthrough into
the effluent.

Tl~e factors which determine breakthrough for a single media are the media size and depth,
the flow rate and the resistance of deposited materials to shear within the bed. Hudson ( 10)
suggested characterizing the resistance of solids to breakthrough by an index, K, calculated
from the physical characteristics of the filter and the head loss at which breakthrough
occurs. The expression for the index is:

K =Vd3H/L

Where:

V = filtration rate-gpm I sq ft
H = head loss at breakthrough-ft
d = effective size of media-mm
! L = bed depth-ft

9.3.2 Influent Characteristics

The influent characteristics of prime importance in determining filter performance are

those of the solids to be removed. The only significant characteristic of the wastewater
liquid-as opposed to the solids-is viscosity which varies with temperature. Its effects on
development of filter head loss are generally small, however, in comparison to the effects of
solids accumulations or filter rates.

9-10
The characteristics of wastewater solids which govern or limit filter performance are
determined by the treatment processes ahead of filtration (see Section 9.1 ). In direct
filtration of secondary biological effluent the residual solids applied to the filter are
predominantly biological floe grown in the treatment process. In filtration of effluent fol-
lowing tertiary coagulation for phosphate removal the residual solids are predominantly
chemical floes. In filtration of chemically precipitated raw wastewater or primary effluent,
the solids consist of inorganic chemical floe with varying quantities of precipitated organics.

Loading, media and performance data for filter applications of the above three types are
shown in Tables 9-1, 9-2 and 9-3. Most data are for full scale installations but a few large
pilot facilities are included. The data are those ordinarily recorded in tests of filter
installations. These data show only that the systems filtering physical-chemical floe tend to
use somewhat lower filter rates and somewhat finer media (with dual or multi-media
configurations almost standard) and that effluent results for any given type of influent
source may vary considerably.

Compiling data from a number of filter installations treating biological effluents, Kreiss)
(33) found removals ranging from 50 to 90 percent with a mean of about 70 percent,
provided influent solids were below 35 mg/ I. Included were data for a variety of loading
rates media configurations and types of prior biological treatment. Subsequent compilation
of similar data for effluents from chemical treatment systems showed mean solids removals
of only 60 percent (34), indicating that on the avt:rage chemicai floe tends to be more
difficult to filter.

The only influent solids characteristic included in routine filter testing is the concentration,
perhaps because it is the only one that is easily measured. A few special studies have
attempted to take into account other characteristics such as floe strength, particle size
distribution (concentration vs. size) and properties governing adhesion of particles to each
other or to the media. Some other studies have tried to distinguish differences in filter
performance according to parameters of the treatment prior to filtration. Outlined below
are a'few significant additional insights into wastewater filtration provided by these special
studies.

9.3.2.1 Floe Strength

Biological floes tend to be significantly stronger or more resistant to shear than chemical
floes, at least those from alum or iron coagulants (2). Consequently, in filtering biological
floes, surface straining is generally significant and runs are almost always terminated by
excessive head loss. Breakthrough is rarely observed. In one study head losses as high as 30
ft were applied without deterioration of effluent quality (35). This contrasts with alum and
iron (hydroxide) floes which have been shown to penetrate readily into filters and to
breakthrough at relatively low heads ranging from 3 to 6 ft (2) ( 10) (36). In an isolated
instance where breakthrough of biological floe was observed, the index K was found to be
13.7, far above the range of 0.3 to 3.6 cited for alum or iron floe in water treatment (37). In
contrast to floes from other common coagulants, calcium carbonate precipitates are
strongly removed at the filter surface where they may form a dense compressed layer hard

9-11
 TABLE 9-1
RESULTS OF STUDIES OF
FILTRATION OF EFFLUENT FROM SECONDARY BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

TYPE OF INFLUENT BED CHARACTERISTICS HYDRAULIC SUSPENDED SOLIDS RUN

LOCATION FILTER SOURCE MEDIA SIZE DEPTH LOADING IN OUT REMOVAL LENGTH REFERENCE

typ-e mm in gpm/ft 2 mg/l mg/l percent hr

Luton, G. B. Gravity Activated Sand 36 1.6-4.0 25-50 3-6 72-91 12 (11)

Down flow Sludge
Gravity Trickling Sand 36 3.4 28-35 9-10 67-74 (12)
Down flow Filter s.o 13 8 40
.Hanover Park, Gravity Activated Coal 1.2-1.3 301 2.0 14 4 57 106 (13)
Illinois Down flow Sludge Sand . 8- . 9 4.0 16 4 67
Garnet . 4- • 8 l~J 27

Pressure Activated Sand 1-2 60 2.0 14 7 so 150 ( 13)

Up flow Sludge 4.0 15 6 67 17
s.o 13 6 54 7 (14)

~fr
Pressure Activated Coal· 1.4-1.8 2 16 7 56 90
Down flow Sludge Sand 0.8-1.0 4 15 s 67 15
6 16 6 62 22
8 13 6 54 31
10 18 8 SS 12
Walled Lake-Novi, Gravity Activated Mixed 0.2S-2.0 30 3-4 7 3 S7 ( 1 S)
Michigan Down flow Sludge media
Louisville, Ky.
(Hite Creek)
Pressure
Horizontal
Activated
Sludge
Coal
Sand
Garnet
1.0-1.2
0.45-0.SS
0.2-0.3
!•J
4.S
3.4 27 3 89 (16)

Coldwater, Pressure Trickling Coal 0.8 4.9 21 8 62 2. 5-8 (lS)

Michigan Downflow Filter Garnet 0.4-0.6 20}
20
Garnet 1. 2 9

9-12
 TABLE 9-1 (CONTINUED)
RESULTS OF STUDIES OF
FILTRATION OF EFFLUENT FROM SECONDARY BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

BED CHARACTERISTICS SUSPENDED SOLIDS

TYPE OF INFLUENT HYDRAULIC RUN
LO CAT IO~ FILTER SOURCE MEDIA SIZE DEPTH LOADING IN OUT REMOVAL LENGTH REFERENCE
type mm in gpm/ft 2 mg/l mg/l percent hr

Bedford To~nship, Pressure Activated Multi- lS 3 80 lS (lS)

Michigan Downflow Sludge media
\"entura, Cali- Gravity
fornia Deep Bed Trickling Sand 1-2 6 18 7 61 6-18 (17)
Downflow Filter
l'i est Hertfordshire, Immedium Activated Gravel 2. 2 44 2 9S (18)
26}
G. B. Up flow Sludge Sand 1-2 60 4.0 37 4 90
Pressure s.o SS 7 87
6.0 37 10 73
Ann Arbor, Down flow Activated Multi- 6 42 s 88 (19)
~tic h igan Sludge media
State College, Pa. Pressure Activated Sand 84 3-12 6 1 8S 6 (20)
Down flow Sludge

Springfield, Ohio Gravity Contact Sand 0.4S 10 s. 3 14 s 64 (21)

Down flow Stabi-
lization

9-13
 TABLE 9-1 (CONTINUED)
RESULTS OF STUDIES OF
FILTRATION OF EFFLUENTS FROM SECONDARY BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

BED CHARACTERISTICS SUSPENDED SOLIDS

TYPE OF INFLUENT HYDRAULIC RUN
LOCATIO~ FILTER SOURCE MEDIA SIZE DEPTH LOADING IN OUT RE~VAL LENGTH REFERENCE
type mm in gpm/ft2 mg/l mg/l percent hr

Letchi.-orth, England rre~sure Activated Sand 1-2 60 5.3 17 7 60 ( 2 2)

Upf low Sludge
Upper St our Main Gravit)' Activated Sand 0.5-2.5 1.2-2.4 12 5· 58 (22)
Drainage, Freehold Down flow Sludge
l\orks ,' England
Harpenden, U.D.C. Gravity Trickling Sand 1.1 1-3 20 5 75 ( 2 2)
Down flow Filter
Rodbourne l\orks, Gravity Trickling Sand 1.5-3 1.6-3.2 21 5 75 (22)
Swindon, England Downflow Filter
Derby,· E.ngland Simater Trickling Sand 1-2 4-6 22 9 60 ( 2 2)
Radial Flow Filter
Thameside, England Immedium Activated Sand 1-3 63 3.3 9 2 74 (23)
Pressure Sludge 3.3 46 8 84
Upf low 5,0 8 6 20
5.0 37 10 74
Thameside, England Permutit Activated Sand 0.60-1.20 57 3.3 9 l 86 (23)
Up flow Sludge 3.3 32 7 78
5.0 11 4 60
5.0 28 s 83

Thameside, England Simater Activated Sand 0.5-1 3.3 11 3 74 (23)

Radial Flow Sludge 3.3 Sl 7 86
5.0 11 4 62
s.o 24 10 58

Ashton-Under-Lyne, Immedium Trick I ing Sand 1-2 60 4.5-5.0 30 8 80 (24)

England Up flow Filter

9-14
 TABLE 9-2
RESULTS OF STUDIES OF

FILTRATION OF CHEMICALLY TREATED SECONDARY EFFLUENT

BED CHARACTERISTICS SUSPENDED SOLIDS

TYPE OF INFLUENT HYDRAULIC RUN
LOCATIO~ FILTER SOURCE MEDIA SIZE DEPTH LOADING IN OUT REMOVAL LENGTH REFERENCE
type mm in gpm/ft2 mg/l mg/l percent hr

!~}
Piscataway, ~Id. Pressure A.S.+2-Stage Coal 1. 0 3 12 8 33 so (263
Downf low Lime Cla- Sand 0.5
rification

E1r, Minnesota Gravity High Rate Coal 2.3 8 <2 >75 24 ( 2 7)

24}
Downflow +2-Stage Sand 12
Lime Cla-
rifica-
ti on

Jefferson Parish, Up flow T.F.+In- Sand 3 40 21 48 2.5-6.S (28)

La. Line Alum
Injection
1'assau County, Gravity A.S.+Alum Coal 0.9 min. 2.5-3.S 2-10 0-2 80-90 16-48 (29)
N.Y. 36}
Down flow Clarifica- Sand 0.3Smin. l~
ti on
Lake Tahoe, Two-Stage A.S.+Lime Coal 2.8-4.0 9-15 0-1 93 4-60 ( 30)
California Pressure Clarifica- Sand 18}
12
tion+Ammonia Garnet 6 .
Stripping
and Recar-
bonation

9-15
 TABLE 9-3
RESULTS OF STUDIES OF
FILTRATION FOLLOWING CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF PRIMARY OR RAW WASTEWATER

BED CHARACTERISTICS SUSPENDED SOLIDS

TYPE OF INFLUENT HYDRAULIC RUN
LOCATION FILTER SOURCE MEDIA SIZE DEPTH LOADING IN OUT REMOVAL LENGTH REFERENCE
type mm in gpm/ft 2 mg/l mg/l percent hr

Washington, D.C. Gravity Two-Stage Coal 0.9 is' 1.7-6.3 14 6 70 12-50 (32)
Down flow Lime Cla- Sand 0,45 6J
rification

...,
Lebanon,Ohio Gravity Single Coal . 75 18 ~ 2.0 30 10 67 (31)
Down flow Stage Sand . 46 6
Lime Cla-
'°
I
rification
°'
Washington, D. C. Grav~ty Two-Stage Coal 1.2-1.4 2.4-4.4 139 33 74 ~24 (25)
24}
Down flow Lime Cla- Sand 0.6-0.7 12
rification

lfashington, o.c. Gravity Single Coal 1. 2-1.4 241 2.3-4.3 123 23 81 .,..24 (25)
Downflow Stage Sand 0.6-0.7 12f
Lime Cla-
rification
 to remove during washing (36). Comparative data are lacking on the strength of floes from
precipitation of phosphates in wastewater using alum, iron or lime. It is reasonable to
assume, however, that they are similar to aluminum or ferric hydroxide floe.

Polymer filter aids may be added to the filter influent to strengthen weak chemical floes
thereby permitting operation at higher rates without breakthrough. Doses of 0.1 mg/ l or
less are often adequate (8). Polymers added as coagulant aids in upstream settling or
flocculating units may similarly strengthen the residual floe applied to the filters. Ample
head loss must be available to meet losses due to the tougher floe, and doses must be kept as
low as possible to avoid excessive head loss.

9.3.2.2 Particle Size

Floe particle sizes in settled biological effluent tend to be bimodally distributed. Mean sizes
for the two modes in one study were 3 to 5 microns and 80 to 90 microns (2). About half of
the weight was in each mode. Theoretical work (38) suggests that particles in the lower size
· range are much less effectively removed by filtration than those in the higher range. Hence
for the best quality performance from filtration, the proportion of smaller size particles
must be reduced to a minimum by proper flocculation.

9.3.2.3 Filterability

The filterability of residual solids from secondary settling varies with solids retention time
and with liquid contact time in the biological process. For biological systems with higher
solids retention times and longer liquid contact times, filtered effluents tend to have lower
suspended solids. Culp and Culp (8) indicated the expected performance of multi-media
filters for plain filtration in secondary effluents as shown in Table 9-4.

TABLE 9-4
EXPECTED EFFLUENT SUSPENDED SOLIDS FROM MULTI-MEDIA
FILTRATION OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT

Effluent Type Effluent SS

mg/ 1
High Rate Trickling Filter 10-20
2-Stage Trickling Filter 6-15
Contact Stabilization 6-15
Conventional Activated Sludge 3-10
Extended Aeration 1-5

It is significant that the solids in extended aeration effluents filter particularly well, in as
much as they often settle poorly, leaving high concentrations in the secondary effluent. This
behavior may be understood from the flocculation studies of Parker, et al, (39) who found
that sludges with high solids retention times lose their tendency to agglomerate into larger
easily settleable particles, but increase in strength so that fewer are broken up into particles
of a size not readily filtered.

9-17
 9.3.2.4 Headloss Buildup vs. Solids Capture

While effluent quality reflects the solids which pass through the filters, headloss
development reflects the amount and location of solids which deposit in the bed. Both solids
loading (solids concentration times flow rate) and filter efficiency are important in
determining the buildup of headloss with increasing solids captur~ Various studies relating
headloss buildup to solids capture show widely different results. This would be expected in
view of the wide range of solids characteristics, media characteristics and filter rates, and
the very different headloss patterns that result from surface and depth filtration. Baumann
and Cleasby (I) cite specific solids capture values (average over the filter run) ranging from
0.035 to 0.35 lb/ sq ft/ ft of headloss. The variation was mainly in activated sludge effluent.
The trickling filter data, from a single plant in Ames, Iowa, showed values close to 0.07 lb/
sq ft/ ft of headloss for a wide range of media sizes and filter rates. British data for trickling
filter effluent, however, showed specific capture values averagi_ng 0.35 lb/ sq ft/ ft of
headloss over a filter run with initial values as high as 0.6 lb/sq ft/ft of headloss (40). For a
fine (0.5 mm) media with low solids loadings, Tchobanoglous and Eliassien (2) reported
valu_es. an order of magni~ude lower than the smallest cited by Baumann and Cleasby. It is
reasonable to expect the highest values of specific capture where the filter and influent
solids characteristics permit depth filtration and extremely low values where they promote a
high degree of surface straining.

9.3.2.5 Properties of Solids Affecting Adhesion

Available measures of the properties which affect adhesion of solids particles to other solids
or to media grains are limited to Zeta potential or the related electrophoretic mobility. Very
few studies have included such measures or attempted to relate performance to them.

Tchobanoglous (6) reported that reduction of natural negative electrophoretic mobility of

wastewater solids using cationic polymers improved filter quality performance. Where
sufficient polymer was added to reverse the negative charge of the particles performance,
though excellent at first, deteriorated rapidly after the first hour. With charge reversal,
initial performance apparently was aided by electrostatic attraction between the negatively
charged filter media grains and the positively charged wastewater solids. After an hour,
however, the grains were coated with positively charged solids, and the resulting
electrostatic repulsion interfered with filtration of further solids applied.

9.3.3 Physical Characteristics of the Filter

Most wastewater filter designs employ media configurations and loadings which minimize
surface straining and promote depth filtration (Section 9.4). A few special designs with fine
media (Section 9.6) are intended to remove solids primarily by surface filtration or
straining. These designs include provisions for overcoming the adverse effects of rapid
headloss buildup. Where surface filtration predominates, the media characteristics have
little effect on quality performance or head loss. In addition, removal of solids is quite
independent of filter rate or influent solids concentration (1). Hence the effects of physical
characteristics of filters are discussed below only in relation to depth filtration not surface
straining.

9-18
 9.3.3.1 Media Characteristics

The most important media characteristic in determining performance is size. Studies using
uni-size media have clearly demonstrated that finer media have greater removal efficiency
(2) ( 6) (7) (35) (41 ). Various investigators have related percent removal to powers of
diameter ranging from -1 to -3 (3). In finer media headloss per unit of removal (lb/cu in. of·
media) is also higher (2).

In a media graded from fine to coarse in the direction of flow, the highest solids
concentration is applied to the layers with the greatest removal efficiency. As a result,
removal is concentrated in a small depth with accompanying high headlosses.

In media graded from coarse to fine in the direction of flow, substantial penetration occurs
but most of the solids are removed in the coarser media where less head loss buildup results.
The finer layers, protected from heavy solids loadings, are available for polishing and to
prevent breakthrough as the coarser layers become filled with solids.

Media depth is most significant in coarse uniform beds. Because of the uniformity, the
efficiency of removal (as a percent of the solids applied to each depth) is nearly constant for
all layers of the filter. Penetration is substantial and extra depth is relied upon for polishing
and to retard breakthrough.

Size and specific gravity of media together are significant in determining expansion during
backwash and the degree of intermixing in multi-media beds.

9.3.3.2 Filter Rates

The effect of filter rates on quality performance can. vary widely depending on application.
In filtering biological floe at reasonably low influent solids concentration, the effect on
effluent quality of rates up to 10 gpm I sq ft is not very ·significant (24) (37) (42). In a study
of ultra high rate filtration (43), operation at up to 32 gpm/ sq ft still provided 50 percent
removals compared to 75 percent at 8 gpm/ sq ft. With weaker chemical floes or with high
influent concentration·s of biological solids (usually indicating poorly fundioning biological
treatment) filter effluent ·quality tends to degrade at filter rates above about 5 gpm/ sq ft
(33). Sudden changes in· filter rates may affect effluent quality more adversely than
sustained higher rates. ·

Higher filter rates tend to increase solids penetration. In cases where this significantly
reduces surface removal, head loss buildup per unit volume filtered may actually be less at
,higher rates. This was fllustrated in studies at Iowa State University involving settled
trickling-filter and lime-softening effluents (35) (36). For the trickling filter effluent,
production per run (at a given terminal head loss) increased slightly with filter rate over the
range tested up to 6 gpm/ sq ft. For the lime effluent, production per· run increased with
filter rate up to 5 gpm/ sq ft and then decreased (36). Existence of an optimum rate, as in
the latter study, has been suggested as typical of combined surface and depth filtration (1).
It has also been suggested that the advantages of using a coarse top media layer may be lost
if the filter rate is not high enough to force solids into the bed and limit surface straining (7).

9-19
 9.3.3.3 Cleaning System Variables

In addition to upflow washing, some form of auxiliary scouring of the media appears
essential to adequately clean wastewater filters. If cleaning is inadequate, two serious
problems will develop: filter bed crac-king and mud ball formation. Cracks open in filter
beds because of compression of excessively thick coatings on the filter grains. The resulting
localized heavy penetration of solids may both lower effluent quality and contribute to mud
ball formation.

Mud balls are compressed masses of filtered solids large and dense enough to remain in the
bed during backwashing. If conditions favoring their formation persist, mud balls tend to
increase in size and to sink deeper in the bed. Their presence increases head loss and may
lead to loss of effluent quality.

Both air scrubbing and surface or internal wate'r jets have been used for auxiliary scouring
of the media. Air injected below the media produces shear as the bubbles rise through the
bed. Water jets, positioned at the top of the expanded bed, produce high shear around the
surface media, which is the most heavily loaded with solids. In multi-media beds, jets may
be similarly provided at the expanded height of the media interface.

The main upflow wash and the auxiliary scouring systems should be controlled
independently to permit use together or separately. Washing procedures are discussed in
Section 9 .7. The key parameters for design of the cleaning system are the upflow wash rate
capacity and the air scour rate or surface wash rate capacity. Typically, upflow wash rates
are about 20 gpm I sq ft. The maximum capacity is selected to provide the desired degree of
fluidization and expansion of the media under critical high temperatures (See Section 9.7).
Capacities for auxiliary scouring are generally established empirically. Air scour rates
typically range from 3 to 5 scfm/sq ft_, and surface wash rates from l to 3 gpm/sq ft.

9.4 Selection of Filtration Rate and Terminal Headloss

Given adequate information on performance, the filter rate and terminal headloss for a
particular media design should be selected by making economic tradeoffs between filter
size, operating head requirements and run length, all within the limits dictated by effluent
quality requirements. This section outlines procedures for such tradeoffs and provides an
alternative basis for selection where specific performance information is lacking.

9.4. l Information for Economic Tradeoffs

Adequate information for making economic tradeoffs can be obtained only from pilot
studies of the specific media application. (See Section 9.9). Pilot studies should indicate the
buildup of headloss with time for various filter rates and for average and peak influent
solids concentrations-.. Results may be indicated in a form similar to Figure 9-5. With -this
information it is possible to estimate the filter run length, the net production and the capital
and operating costs of the filter for the given influent solids concentrations and for different
combinations of filter rate and terminal headloss (See Sections 9.1 and 9.3).

9-20
I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10
FILTER RATE ( gpm I sq ft)

FIGURE 9-5
RUN LENGTH VS. FILTER RATE FOR
VARIOUS TERMINAL HEAD LOSSES

9-2 l
In determining net production, allowances must be made. for downtime during cleaning and
for recycle of washwater through the treatment plant. The downtime effects are calculated
from the cleaning frequency, cleaning cycle duration and the number of individual filters.
Washwater recycle effects are calculated from the cleaning frequency and the backwash
rate and duration. Washwater recycle has no effect on net production if filter influent is
used for washing. Net production may be expressed as volume (filter rate x run length) or as
an average rate (gpm/ sq ft) over one filter cycle (run length plus cleaning time). The net
production rate is almost the same asthe filter rate for runs of 24-hr or more. For run
lengths below l 0 to 12-hr the differences become significant (l ); below 6 to 8-hr the effect
on production may be critical.

Short term peak loadings due to down time or recycle during backwash need not be
considered directly in economic tradeoffs. After the design filtration rate and terminal
headloss are determined, however, the design should be checked to assure that it can
accommodate these peaks within the available headloss and effluent quality limits. If not,
peak effects should be reduced or eliminated by increasing the number of filter units or by
providing equalizing storage for the backwash and wastewater flows.

The design should also be checked for its ability to handle the sustained peak loads imposed
when a unit is taken out of service for repairs. If the resultant shorter run lengths do
not provide enough capacity, the design may be revised as follows: peak hydraulic
loadings should first be reduced by increasing the number of filters keeping the total area
the same; if this reduction is not sufficient, the area should be increased beyond that
determined in the original design.

Before cost tradeoffs are made, the following must be defined:

l. Maxium flows and solids loadings for various durations up to 24-hr. A tentative
decision is required on the use of equalization to limit maximum wastewater flows.

2. Run length limits. The lower limit should be 6 to 8 hr to maintain reasonable net
production. The upper limit should be 36 to 48 hr to avoid anaerobic
decomposition of solids in the filter (l ).

3. Head loss limits. For gravity filters allowable head losses generally are below 10 ft.
Use of. heads much above this commits the design to pressure filters. Use of
pressure filters would be favored where pressurized discharge to following
facilities is needed ( 1). Gravity filters would be favored where the extra head for
pressure filters would require intermediate pumping but head for the gravity units·
·is available without such pumping.

4. Backwash design and expected cost per cycle. Manpower costs should reflect
whether the operation is to be automated. Backwashing costs should include costs of
treating recycled backwash in units ahead of the filters, and the recycled flow
should be deducted in determining the net production, ar" the filt~~s
U.S EPA f-1 .... oc1 QUa ,.,rs t rary
rlo L'b

Mail cod1:; 34U41

1200 Pennsylvarna Avenue NW
9-22 Washington, DC 20460
202-566-0556
 5. Space limitations. These may force use of higher filter rates.

6. Number of filter units. This should be tentatively selected to facilitate cost

estimates, but may be varied with little effect on the tradeoff calculations provided
labor is not a major factor in the operating cost per backwash. For reliability and
economy, a minimum of four to six units should generally be provided, with at
least two in even the smallest installations. Above these minimums, the number of
filter units, depends on the actual size of individual units. The practical maximum
size of gravity filters is about 800 sq ft.

In addition to limits indicated above, pilot testing may reveal: 1) upper limits on headloss or
rate required to avoid solids breakthrough and effluent quality deterioration, 2) an
optimum filter rate for minimizing headloss buildup. No filter rates lower than the
optimum should be considered in the tradeoffs.

9.4.2 Tradeoff Procedures

The following procedures are suggested for determining the most cost effective filter sizing,
design terminal head loss and run length. Figure 9-6, relating net production to filter rate
and. run length, ha.s ~een prep~red to faci!itate the analysis. The figure should be modified
before application if backwashing conditions differ significantly from those assumed in its
development.

I. From filter test data for average and maximum design influent solids con-
centration, prepare a headloss development plot (see example plot Figure 9-5).

2. Assume initial trial values for terminal headloss and filter run length. (See Item 12).

3. F01: the assumed terminal headloss and run length determine the filter rate from the
headloss development plot for maximum solids concentration.

4. For this filter rate and the assumed run length determine the net production rate
from Figure 9-5.

5. Determine filter sizing based on this net production rate and the maximum design
flow for a duration equal to the filter cycle time (run length plus downtime for
cleaning).

6. Estimate capital costs for filters based on above sizing and the design terminal head-
loss.

7. Determine average net production by dividing average flow by filter area.

8. Construct a plot of net production vs. filter rate based on run lenths to reach the
'trial value of terminal headloss at various filter rates with average solids concentra-

9-23
 10
INFINITE RUN LENGTH
20 HOUR RUN LENGTH'
10 HOUR RUN LENGTH
9
8 HOUR RUN LENGTH
6 HOUR RUN LENGTH
NET PRODUCTION RATE AT AVERAGE SOLIDS
8 LOADING AND 10 FT. TERMINAL HEADLOSS

-
t-
"-
d
7

(/)
......
~
~

-
C>

LL.I
6

t-
<t
a:
5
z
0
t-
(.)
:::>
Cl 4
0
a:
~

t-
LL.I
z 3

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
FILTER RATE (GPM/SQ. FT.)

FIGURE 9-6
NET PRODUCTION RATE VS. FILTER RATE
FOR VARIOUS RUN LENGTHS

9-24
 tions. (See Example Figure 9-6).

9. From the plot in 8. determine filter rate and run length to provide average
net production.

IO. Calculate operating costs based on the assumed terminal headloss and the run
length for average flow and solids loading.

11. Convert operating costs to present worth and add to capital cost to determine total
present worth.

12. Repeat above analysis assuming different values for terminal head loss and filter
runs. The objective is to find assumptions which minimize present worth, within
technological constraints.

It is suggested that a conservative initial value of 8 ft be assumed for terminal head-

loss with a run length of at least 8 hr at maximum solids concentrations. Subsequent
trials would explore use of higher headloss values to permit either longer runs or
higher filter rates whichever appears more advantageous. Judgement must be ap-
plied to minimize amount of calculation required.

9.4.3 Selection \Vithout Pilot Testing

Where it is impossible to test proposed filter media on the actual influent, guidance may be
obtained from results with the same media treating similar influents. In the absence of spe-
cifically applicable test results, filter rates and headloss allowances should be very con-
servatively selected, based on ample estimates of influent solids concentrations. To assure
adequate capadty it is suggested that, as a minimum, sufficient filter area be provided to
handle the. 24-hr design flow at 4 gpm/sq ft or the 4-hr maximum design flow at 6 gpm/sq
ft, whichever is more stringent. For predominantly chemical floe, the surface media should
be no finer than 1 mm and allowance should be made for a terminal headloss of IO ft. For
filtration of biological solids in secondary effluent the following procedures are suggested in
selecting terminal headloss and final filter sizing:

I. For the minimum filter area as determined above, estimate headloss buildup
based on expected solids removals and the following values of specific
capture:

Minimum Media Size

at Influent Surface Specific Capture
mm lb of solids removed/ sq ft/ ft of
headloss increase

1.8 0.07
1.3 0.035

9-25
 2. A void use of any finer surface media. Surface media coarser than 1.8 mm may per-
mit higher specific captures but problems of adequate cleaning must be considered
(See Section 9.7).

3. For the minimum filter area calculate the required head for 24-hr run length at aver-
age solids loading and for 8-hr run length at maximum (~-hr) ·solids loadings.

4. Provide for terminal headloss on the more critical basis above or use m.ore than
minimum filter size and recalculate solids loadings and heacii"oss requirements._

Designs based on the criteria above should be as flexible as possible to permit use of higher
rates or lower heads if operating experience shows this is possible. Flexibility to increase
rates is most valuable where capacity is to be increased in future stages. Flexibility in
pumping and control systems will permit head to be reduced to what proves necessary in
actual operation.

9.5 Filtration Media

9.5.1 Materials

Media commonly used in water and wastewater filtration include silica sand (sp gr 2.65),
anthracite coal (sp gr 1.4 to 1.6) and in special multi-media designs garnet (sp gr' 4.2) or
ilmenite (sp gr 4.5).

As they occur in nature these materials are not of uniform size but instead typically have a
grain size distribution such as that shown in Figure 9-7. Fair and Geyer (44) discuss size
measures for irregular particles, equivalent diameters, shape effects, etc. Natural grain size
distr_ibutions frequently are close to geometrically normal, i.e.plot as a straight line on log
probability paper. As shown in Figure 9-7, grain size distributions are often characterized
by two points, the l 0 percent and 60 percent size (d 10 and d6o). These are sizes such that
the weight of all smaller particles constitutes respectively 10 or 60 percent of the whole.
Media is frequently specified in terms of effective size (d 10) and the uniformity coefficient
(d6o Id 10 ).

It is possible to change the characteristics of a given media material by removing certain

size fractions. Coarser fractions may be seived out while finer fractions may be removed by
''scalping" (removing surface layers) after hydraulically grading material during upflow
washing. Fair and Geyer (44) present a method of calculating the size fractions which must
be removed to convert from one size distribution to another.

The most important modification for most media is to remove any very fine particles-say
those less than 80 percent of the effective size. Such fine material never constitutes more
than a small fraction of the media volume but, if not removed, may cause headlosses far
greater than would be expected for the given effective size.

With sufficient effort in size separation, it is possible to produce almost uniform media.

9-26
 U.S. Standard Sieves
3" 2" I" 3/4" 3/8" 4 6 IO 20 40 60 100 200
100 - . .. . . -
~
I

90
~ ~ I
' i
II I' '
\ I
I

.80 • 11

70 \ I! I i !
i
I

- 60 \ I I
II
'
1
'fili
..... 11 I

~
Q)

50
. I!I
>.
al
'°
N
I

-...J
...
Q)
.....i::: 40
l
~
~

30 '' '
\
.20 1

10
\
0
100 . 10 1.0
'" ~ ....._ ....
0.1 0.01

Grain Diameter in Millimeters

FIGURE 9-7
GRAIN. SIZE CURVE
Such media are frequently used in experimental investigations, but most designers have not
considered the extra cost justified in full scale installations. Important exceptions should be
noted, however: One equipment supplier, Dravo, emphasizes use of uniform coarse media in
deep beds; Baumann (7) recommends use of uniform anthracite and sand in dual media
filters pointing out that the extra cost is probably not more than l percent of the overall
cost of the filters.

9.5.2 Dual and Multi Media

Upflow washing stratifies a bed in accordance with the settling velocities of the media
particles as determined by their size, shape and specific gravity (See Section 9.7). In a dual
or tri-media bed, although each media component is still graded fine to coarse in a
downward direction, lighter coarser media can be maintained abo':'e finer denser media.
This makes it possible to approximate a coarse-to-fine gradation in down flow filtration
units. Another advantage of dual or multi-media over a single medium is that mud balls
formed in the filter remain above the coal-sand interface where they are subject to auxiliary
scrubbing action (-1).

The maximum settling velocities of media particles also determine the minimum wash rate
required for adequate fluidization of the bed during backwash. Hence, for a given media
size at the top of the bed, lower wash rates can be used if each media component is more
uniform and the top portion of the filtration is of anthracite rather than a heavier material.
Baumann and Cleasby (l) recommend that dual or multi-media be sized so the coarsest
(dgo) sizes of each component have about the same minimum fluidization velocity.

9.5.3 Pore Size and Intermixing of Media Components

The hydraulic behavior and filtration performance of any given media are more properly
related to pore size than to grain size. For single media component, pore size is directly
proportional to grain size, and the porosity (percent of volume represented by pores) is a
constant depending only on media shape. Coal which tends to be angular has a porosity of
almost 0,5 whereas sand porosity is closer to 0.4. In water treatment applications, coal
media, because of its greater porosity, has been found to give poorer removals but lower
pressure iosses than sand of the same· grain size (45).

The pore size in multi-component filter media depends on the degree of intermixing of the
components. With no mixing, pore size distribution simply follows that of the components.
With intermixing, however, the finer layers of the denser material below are dispersed into
the voids of the coarser layers of lighter material above. No precise methods have as yet
been demonstrated for calculating actual pore size, or even the degree of intermixing, from
the characteristics of media components. Where such information is of interest it may be
obtained from test columns or from experience with specific combinations of components in
other installations. Limiting size ratios have been proposed to control intermixing and to
avoid the extreme where lower density coarse media is overtopped by very fine high density
media. Camp (46) has hypothesized that for dual media filters with an interface size ratio
(coarsest coal/ finest sand). of 2.8 no intermixing should result, whereas for a ratio of 4.~

9-28
intermixing would occur over a depth of about 5 inches. Baumann (7) indicates only limited
intermixing ( 6 inches) and no overtopping with highly uniform coal and sand having a size
ratio of 3.35.

Culp and Conley (47) indicate that to avoid overtopping in dual media beds, the
effective size of the coal grains must be no more than about three times the effective
size of the sand. Whatever the exact limiting ratio, designs using coarser
anthracite to accept higher solids loadings at lower head losses must also use
correspondingly coarser sand. Where stringent effluent quality or weak
floe conditions require a finer media component than the sand, garnet can be· used.
Coal/garnet size ratios as high as five will not result in overtopping.

The significance and desirability of intermixing in dual or multimedia beds is a subject of

debate. Camp (46) has reported deliberate selection of dual media sizes to minimize
intermixing, whereas some manufacturers actively promote intermixing as advantageous in
three and four component media, claiming that controlled intermixing approximates a
"theoretically ideal" coarse to fine gradation of voids in the direction of filtration.

In side by side tests at Washington D.C. (See Table 9-3) on chemically treated effluent,
mixed (tri) media filters did show slightly better effluent quality performance than dual
media filters. However there was no evidence to demonstrate that this was due to
intermixing rather: than just to the fine, high specific gravity garnet present at the
bottom of the filters.

9.5.4 Specific Media Designs

Table 9-5 lists typical characteristics for several specific media configurations which have
been used in normal design of wastewater filters. All provide initial filtration through coarse
media either by upflow filtration or by downflow filtration using dual, tri or deep, uniform,
media. Configurations using fine single media and hence requiring special cleaning
provisions, are not included. Typical application conditions (floe strength, solids load) are
shown for each design. The dual-media design_s for the most part employ depths ranging
from 30 to 36 inches. To allow for level variations due to uneven backwashing, sand depths
are· set at 12 to 15 inches even though .only the top few inches significantly affect removals.
Minimum depths for the anthracite are 15Jo18 inches. Greater depths may be necessary
where solids loads are heavy.

In tri-media designs the overall depths and the minimum depths of anthracite and of the
combined finer media are in the same range as in dual media designs.

The single media configurations employ depths of 60 inches or more. In downflow filtration
this great depth is intended to improve efficiency, while in upflow units it has an additional
purpose of adding weight to restrain the bed from uplift due to differential pressures during
operation. Where uplift exceeds the submerged weight of the media it will either fluidize the
bed or lift it in a "piston" effect (small diameter filters).

9-29
 TABLE 9-5

TYPICAL MEDIA DESIGNS FOR FILTERS

Coal Sand Gamet

Typical
Media Unif. Unif. Unif. Application
Design Dia. Depth Coeff. Dia. Depth Coeff. Dia. Depth Coeff. Conditions Reference
mm in mm -in- mm in
Sitlgle 1-2 60 1.2 A 13
Single 2-3 72 1.11 A 48
\0
I
IN
Dual 0.9 36 < 1.6 0.35 12 < 1.85 B 29
0
Dual 1.84 15 < 1.1 0.55 15 < 1.1 A 7
Tri 1.0-1.1 17 1.6-1.8 0.42-0.48 9 1.3-1.5 0.21-0.23 4 1.5-1.8 B 25
Tri 1.2-1.3 30 0.8-0.9 12 0.4-0.8 6 c 13

NOTES: A = Heavy Loadings, Strong Floe.

B =Moderate Loadings, Weaker Floe.
C = Moderate Loadings, Strong Floe.
Some of the theoretical advantage of upflow coarse-to-fine filtration is lost because min-
imum grain sizes must be coarse enough to avoid excessive uplift.

Additional resistance to uplift is provided in many upflow designs by placing a restraining

grid on top of the media. The spacing between bars of the g.rid must be large enough to pre-
vent upward bed movement during filtration. Although these two requirements appear con-
tradictory, arching of the grains takes place between the bars, allowing a reasonably large
spacing, in the range of 100 to 150 times the diameter of the smallest grain size in the beds.

9.5.5 Selection of Media

Pilot testing is indispensable to provide the information necessary for meaningful com-
parison of different media designs or to assure the effluent quality performance of any
media design selected. Without pilot testing, the designer should select a media which, on
the basis of experience with similar influents, may be expected to provide good solids re-
moval with low head loss buildup. In general, any such media would include an ample depth
of coarse media followed by fine media in the size ranges indicated for dual media con-
figurations in Table 9-5.

Pilot testing to guide media selection should define headloss development vs time for each
media design, under all test conditions. Suggested ranges for test conditions are given in
Section 9.9. If one media design clearly gives lower head buildup at all times and under all
test conditions it may be selected directiy provided its backwash requirements are not ex-
traordinary. If different media provide essentially the same headloss development over the
range of test conditions, selection may be based on other factors. Where different media ap-
pear significantly better under different conditions, selection should be based on cost com-
parison of the alternative designs each at its most favorable rate, terminal headloss and run
length, determined as indicated in Section 9.4. Significant differences in backwash flows
should be taken into account.

9.6 Filter Control Systems

Major filter functions requiring monitoring and I or control are:

l. Head Loss

2. Effluent quality

3. Initiation of backwash where automatic

4. Flow rate through the filters

5. Backwash sequence, rate and duration.

An important tool in performance control is the automatic turbidimeter which can contin-
uously monitor the filter feed and product. This allows the operator to anti.cipate difficulties

9-31
from changes in feed quality, and rapidly remedy process failures. In addition, these devices
allow the operator to rapidly evaluate the effects of changes in process variables and pro-
vide a continuous record of plant performance. All turbidimeters operate on the pinciple of
measurement of scattered or transmitted light. A variety of commercial instruments are
available.

Filter installations should be equipped with appropriate loss of head and flow indicators. In-
dividual filters should have multiple taps for pressure readings if full scale experimental
testing is desired.

Provisions for automatic or remote initiation of backwash by timers or based on headless

or turbidity monitoring may be justified to reduce the need for operating attention.

Three types of flow control systems are used for filters:

I. Effluent rate control

2. Influent flow splitting

3. Variable declining rat.e control.

Features of these systems and of automatic backwash systems are described below.

9.6. l Effluent Rate Control

This system, common in traditional water treatment plant designs, maintains a set flow for
each filter by throttling ihe effluent (see Figure 9-1 ). The throttle valve may be controlled
directly by mechanical linkage to a venturi controller or indirectly by a set point controller
linked to ·a pneumatic or hydraulic valve operator. The direct acting system is unsuitable if
flows to individual filters must vary over the day. The indirect system is complex and both
may be troublesome in maintenance. The system is also wasteful of head since available
head not needed in a clean filter is lost in the controller. In addition, control valves may
produce high frequency surges in the filter bed with accompanying loss of efficiency ( 10).

9.6.2 Influent Flow Splitting

In this system flow is evenly divided among filters in a splitter box located at or above the
level of the top of the filter boxes (see Figure 9-8a). The boxes themselves are made deep so
that the water level in them can build up to provide the maximum operating head needed
when the filter bed is dirty. A weir on the filter outlet maintains a constant back pressure or
minimum water level to prevent accidental dewatering of the bed.

Advantages of influent flow splitting include:

l. Rate controllers with attendant maintenance and surging problems are eliminated.

9-32
 Flow Splitting Tank

Filter Cell Filter Cell Filter Cell Filter Cell ·

No.1 No. 2 No.3 No. 4
Inlet Ellluent
Valve Overflow L.::==::.<t/> Inlet
Open Open Chamber
Open Open
~:: .._.-. ~ Clearwell

If ..J)~
Wash Trough
t ~-::~

Backwash
Outlet
Valve

A. INFLUENT
.. . FLOW SPLITTING
, . ..
(Courtesy of Permutit, Inc.)

INFLUENT VALVE OR GATE

TO EACH FILTER

_ _ H.!_6!:!_ WAT~ LEV_!L_ -i]·. -~

AVAILABL
HEAD LOSS
_ _ _ _ 1. ~0!_W~T_!!t L~E ~
H
;9
·~

CLEAR
WELL
MEDIA

ORIFICE PLATE OR
Sl:IQ.RT VENTURI FOR
.. ATE INDICATION
ONLY.

B. VARIABLE DECLINING RATE FILTRATION (I)

FIGURE 9-8
FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS

9-33
 2. Flow variations are distributed to filters automatically.

3. Head loss may be read directly from water levels in filter boxes.

4. Only a single master flow meter is needed.

5. Changes in filter rate are gradual because of time required for head to build up in
filter boxes.

Disadvantages· are:

1: The head not needed for filter operation is lost in the drop between the splitter and
the filters.

2. Capital cost of filter box construction is increased by the greater depth.

9.6.3 Declining Rate Filtration

This system requires multiple filters. All operate under the same head but at different flow
rates depending on the degree of clogging. Under constant head the output from a single fil-
ter declines as the run progresses. The filter selected to be backwashed is always the one
which has been on line the longest and is most clogged. Total output from all filters is con-
trolled by varying the head applied. Figure 9-8b shows a variable declining rate filter.

The head on the filters may be controlled by varying either the upstream or downstream
water level ( 10) ( 49). With downstream water level control, an equalizing chamber must be
provided to limit the rate of change of head and hence of flow, when filters are taken off line
or restored to service. It is common to apply maximum design loadings to the filters as a
group and to limit maximum rates on individual clean filters to from 20 percent to 40 per-
cent above these design loadings.

Advantages cited for declining rate filtration ( 10) (49) include better effluent quality,
absence of surges, and significantly lower total head requirements. Less head is needed
because:

1. There is no loss due to throttling or due to free fall after flow splitting.

2. As rate declines turbulent head losses (underdrains, valves, etc.) reduce rapidly (in
proportion to second power of flow) making head available to overcome resistance
of clogged filter (proportional to flow).

For proper operating control, flow rates should be measured individually for each declining
rate filter. Only single indicators are needed for inlet and outlet levels on head loss, since
these are the same for all filters.

The chief disadvantage of this method of flow control is the need for a large .volume of

9-34
wate"r storage upstream of the filter.

9.6.4 Backwash Control

Programmed backwash systems are widely used in current designs. Such systems consist of
interlocked controllers and timers programmed to open and close valves, make or break
siphons, start and stop pumps and blowers and limit backwash flows to control the rate, du-
ration and sequence of activities during backwash. Even where backwash is manually in-
itiated, the rest of the control system may be entireJy automatic.

Proprietary systems, with various features are available from different manufacturers. One
such system, designed to operate with only a single control valve is shown in Figure 9-9.

9. 7 Filter Cleaning Systems

9.7. l Upflow Washing

Accumulated solids are removed from filters by a rapid upflow of washwater. The waste
flow is then recycled to some prior treatment unit, usually primary settling. Washwater
sources may include filter influent, filter effluent or effluent from subsequent treatment
units. Storage of washwater supply may be needed if rates required exceed the flow avail-
able. Recycled spent washwater flows should be equalized by storagt: so they do not disrupt
prior treatment processes. Backwash rates for most effective cleaning vary with media size
and density.

Baumann and Cleasby {l) recommend providing upflow wash capacity adequate to fluidize
the 90 percent finer size of each media component at the warmest expected water tempera-
ture. Figures 9-10 and 9-11 may be used to determine minimum upflow velocities or wash
rates to fluidize coal, sand, and garnet media of various sizes. Rates should be variable to
compensate for changes in temperature, viscosity, and hence bed expansion. Maximum hy-
drodynamic shear and most efficient cleaning have been shown to occur when the porosity
of the expanded media is about 0.7 (1). To reach this porosity in the surface layers of a
non-uniform sand (effective size = 0.4, uniformity coefficient = l.47) requires almost 50
percent expansion (7). Because of its higher unexpanded porosity coal requires only 20 to 25
percent expansion to reach a porosity of 0.7 in the surface layers. In practice the backwash
rates generally used in filter designs, range up to 20 gpm/ sq ft,· and do not provide more
than 15 to 30 percent expansion except for very fine media (50). This means that higher
backwash durations (5 to lO or at the extreme 15 minutes) and somewhat higher washwater
consumption are required than at rates which would provide the most efficient washing.

Whatever wash rate and duration are expected, design of piping, valves, pumps and storage
tanks should provide extra capacity of at least 25 percent.

Methods are available for predicting expansion of sand beds accurately (51 ), but have not
yet been satisfactorily extended to other media components. Expansion of multi-component
media can be rapidly obtained, however, from backwash tests in pilot columns.

9-35
 BACKWASH WATER

ANTHRACITE

SAND

ROTO-SCOUR
UNDERDRAIN

FIGURE 9-9
AUTOMATIC GRAVITY FILTER, SINGLE COMPARTMENT
(Courtesv~ J::codyne Corp.)
 60

o. 12
50
0.10
40
"' 0.08 ~
.s--
...... 30 ~
>E 0.06 E
0.
C>

20
0.04 COAL p = 1.7 0
p = 1.73 -<>-
0.02 SILICA ·SAND p = 2.65 0 10
GARNET SAND p = 4.13 6
O.OL-~_L_~---L~~L--~-1...-~-L~~'---~-L-~-L~~'------'
0. 25 0. 5 0. 75 1 1.5 2 2.5
MEAN SIEVE SIZE, mm

FIGURE 9-10

MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION VELOCITY, Vmf,

TO ACHIEVE 10 PERCENT BED EXPANSION
AT 2soc (I).

9-37
 G>
.!!
1.0
-.
0.04 0
.~
c
G>
u

~ 0.03 ~
V'I
..... 0
u
E ~
> >
0.02 0.5 w
.....
::>
...J
0
VI
cc
0.01 <(

0 ..._~~~~~~--'-~~~~~~-'-~~~~~~__.~~~ 0
0 10 20 30
TEMP, °C
FIGURE 9-11
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON Vmf FOR
SAND AND COAL AND ON ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY
OF WATER (1)

9-38
Several manufacturers offer coarse media filter systems with wash rates too low to fully
fluidize the bed. Auxiliary air scouring is provided, but its long term effectiveness in main-
taining the media in good condition has not been proven. Studies at Iowa State University
(52) indicate that air scour and simultaneous upflow washing at full fluidization can free a
dirty filter bed of mud balls which accumulate during multiple cycles using air scour follow-
ed by washing. Further work will study effectiveness of air scour and simultaneous upflow
washing at less than full fluidization.

9.7.2 Underdrains

Underdrains should distribute washwater as uniformly as possible over the area of the filter.
Excessive variation in washwater rate results in uneven and ineffective cleaning. Moreover,
the accompanying excessive jet action can lead to lateral displacement of gravel and clog-
ging of the underdrains with filter media.

In general, underdrain systems developed for water filtration may also be used in waste-
water applications. One of the first systems employed in water filtration consists of several
layers of graded gravel surrounding manifold piping positioned on the filter floor. Orifices
in the manifold piping provide preliminary distribution of the washwater as shown in Figure
9-12a. The final distribution is accomplished as the water r:ioves upward through the gravel.
Fair and Geyer (44) provide rules of thumb for sizing lateral header systems and a basis for
hydraulic analysis.

Several commercial systems are available which employ patented false bottom distributors
in place of the manifold. The gravel is then placed on top of the false bottom. Leopold
Block andWheeler Filter Bottom systems are illustrated in Figure 9- l 2b and c. A system
manufactured by Dravo (Figure 9-l 2e) distributes both air during airwash and washwater
during normal backwash.

Table 9-6 shows the standard gravel design used in water filtration together with a modified
design suggested by Baylis (45) for use with higher backwash rates.

9-39
 A. HEADER LATERALS
(COURTESY OF THE AWWA)

5/12" DIA. DISPERSION OllllFICES

A"PlllOX. 45 PEA SO· FT. 5/e• DIA·CONTlllOL Oltll'"ICES
APPROX, l PElll ao. ,T.

COM>fNSATING LATElllAL
(aECONDAlllYlU·I SQ:INS.

RED LATElllAL(PllllMA"Yl---.--....-
10·5 SO IN.

B. LEOPOLD BLOCK SYSTEM

(CourtHy F. 8. Leopold Co.)

-._.,
• ~- I
CLEMWteE

........

l'LUME AREA• I, 5 rl'ILTER AREA1

· (SO IN l UO nl j

....~"'-··_·..___ _ _ ___, "

t..' UCOllWPIHO
IMXIMUlll

FIGURE 9-12
UNDERDRAINS

9-40
C. WHEELER FILTER BOTTOM
(Courtesy of BIF)

O. SUBFILL-LESS STRAINERS
(Courtesy of Eco dyne Corp.)

FIGURE 9-12 (Continued)

9-41
 CLEAR
RAW WATER
WATER FILTERING

FILTER BED
STABILIZING
LAYER

FINE
SUPPORTING
MEDIUM LAYER
SUPPORTING
LAYER

COARSE
SUPPORTING.
LAYER

- M-BLOCKS
CLEAR WATER
a
WASHWATER --
CONDUITS COVER
PLATES

FILTRATE WATER IN

E. DRAVO M - BLOCK SYSTEM

(COURTESY OF DRAVO CORP. )

FIGURE 9- 12 (continued)

9-42
 TABLE 9-6

FILTER GRAVEL DESIGN

Standard Baylis

Depth Size Depth Size

in. in. ID. ID.

2-1/2 1112 to 1/8 5 l to 2

3-l/2 l /8 to l I 4 2 l I 2 to l
3-1I2 l I 4 to l I 2 2 l I 4 to l I 2
2 l I 2 to 314 4 l I 8 to l I 4
4 3! 4 to 1-1I2 2 l I 4 to l I 2
6 1-1I2 to 3-1I2 2 l I 2 to l
4 l to 2

Baylis found that with the standard design the upper layers of gravel could fluidize under
high backwash rates (above 20 gpm/ sq ft), and proposed placing a final layer of heavy
gravel over the finer gravel to prevent this fluidization. A 3-inch layer of coarse ( l mm) gar-
net or iimenite above the gravel has also been suggested to overcome this problem (8).

Some systems eliminate the gravel layers entirely by using nozzles or porous plates. Advan-
tages and disadvantages of these systems are discussed elsewhere ( l) (8). One system, mam1-
factured by Graver Water Conditioning Co., utilizes a cast concrete false bottom with plas-
tic or metal strainers on about 12-inch centers as shown in Figure 9-12d.

9.7.3 Washwater Troughs

Except for small units, filters are commonly equipped with washwater troughs spaced on
about 6-ft centers. Hydraulic design of these devices is discussed in Fair and Geyer (44).

Troughs are installed with the aim of aiding uniform distribution of washwater and avoid-
ing dead spots which may retard the removal of dislodged solids from the filter box.

9.7.4 . Auxiliary Cleaning

The function of auxiliary cleaning by air scour or surface wash is to loosen accumulated de-
posits from the filter media. The slimes and organic particulates encountered in wastewater
filtration cannot be completely loosened by normal backwash flow.

Typical surface wash equipment consists of either fixed or rotating pipe distributors fitted
with nozzles which are placed about 1 to 2 inches above the top of the bed. While the sur-
face wash is on, the backwash expansion is set at a lower rate than after the surface wash is
terminated. Surface washwater is supplied at 50 to 100 psi at rates approximating 1 to 3 gal/
min/ sq ft of bed.

9-43
With the widespread use of media permitting deeper floe penetration, the ability of the
above type of surface wash to clean mid-an9 lower portions of the bed has been questioned.
Wash jets positioned at lower levels in the bed may help to alleviate this problem.

Air scour systems have been increasingly used in an attempt to reduce wa~hwater require-
-ments and to effect cleaning of the deeper portions of the bed. Some concern has been ex-
pressed concerning loss of finer lighter media particles when air washing is used (8). Where
this is a problem, air scour should be applied separately from the backwash, with liquid in
the filter box drawn down below the washwater overflow level so that no overflow occurs
during air wash. Allowance must be made for 6 to 9 inches of water level rise due to air lift
(7). Although some of the lighter media may remain on the surface of the water and sub-
sequently be lost, the rate of such loss should generally be negligible.

To prevent air scour from disrupting gravel placement, air is usually injected through a grid
above the under-drain gravel. It may go directly into the underdrains where no gravel is
used.

9.7.5 Backwash Sequence

The cleaning cycle time (total downtime during one cleaning operation) includes time for
valve openings and closings, time for drainage of inflow from the filter and time for the ac-
tual upflow washing and auxiliary cleaning. Unless influent in the filter box is to be wasted,
drainage time should be calculated ar normal filter rates. Valve openings and closings to
start and stop backwash and air scour should be gradual to keep from upsetting the media
gradation and structure.

A typical sequence for backwash with auxiliary surface wash is:

-1. Shut influent and permit water level to drain down to top of the washwater troughs
or other washwater control weir.

2. Apply surface wash for l to 3 minutes.

3. Apply upflow wash ·and surface wash together 5 to IO minutes as needed to flush
out solids.

4. Shut off auxiliary wash and apply backwash alone for I to 2 minutes at rate
needed to classify the bed.

5. Return bed to service.

A typical sequence for cleaning using upflow wash and air scour is:

· 1. Stop influent and lower the water level to a few inches above bed.

2. Apply air alone at 2 to 5 cfm/ sq ft for 3 to IO minutes.

9-44
 3. Apply water backwash at 2 to 5 gpm/sq ft with air on until water1s within one foot
of wash water trough.

4. Shut air off.

5. Continue water backwash at normal rate for usual period of time.

6. Apply backwash for I to 2 minutes at a rate required to insure hydraulic classifica-

tion of the filter media.

7. Return bed to service.

9.8 Filter Structures and General Arrangement

A typical wastewater filter consists of a tank or filter box containing an underdrain system,
media and sufficient overall depth to contain media during backwash. In gravity units, the
overall depth must also provide for operating submergence and freeboard. Influent, ef-
fluent, washwater and waste connections are provided. In addition, all wastewater filters
should have provisions for auxiliary cleaning.

Underdrains are designed to properly distribute the washwater during cleaning (see Section
9.7). During normal operation, underdrains-collect filter 'effluent (downflow operation) or
distribute influent (upflow operation). Washwater. troughs and filter inlets (downflow) or
effluent launders (upflow) are located in the submerged zone above the media.

The recommendations for general arrangement and special structural features of concrete
filters presented in Water Treatment Plant Design (53) are fully applicable to wastewater
treatment applications.

For .gravity filters of concrete construction, filter boxes are usually arranged in rows along
one or two sides of a common pipe gallery, narrow side toward the gallery. This maximizes
common wall construction and minimizes piping runs. Gravity filters may be of concrete or
steel shell construction. Concrete units are generally square or rectangular and steel units
circular. Sizes of gravity concrete units are limited to about 1000 sq ft (8); steel units are
generally smaller.

For filters using influent flow splitting (see Section 9.6) multiple filter boxes have been con-
structed as compartments in a single round or square tank (concrete or steel) with common
influent and waste piping located. above the center of the tank and common washwater and
effluent piping around the outsi<:le ba~e:

Steel shell package pressure filters are cylindrical units with either horizontal or vertical
axes. To minimize piping runs horizontal units are usually placed in rows with common pip-
ing along the ends. Vertical units are arranged in either rows or clusters. Horizontal pres-
sure units are less restricted in size than the vertical pressure units and hence are normally
used for plant capacities above l to 1.5 mgd (8). Where pressure units are used it is essential

9-45
that manholes be provided for interior access b.oth above the bed and below the under-
drains. Pressure filters should also be provided with a means for hydraulic removal of all
the filter media, and with sight glasses for observation of the bed.

In municipal water filtration plant designs it is common to totally enclose the pipe gallery
and to locate controls in an enclosed superstructure above the gallery and overlooking the
filters. In northern climates the: filters themselves are usually included under the super-
structure.

Wastewater effluent temperatures are generally somewhat higher than the local natural wa-
ters, so in a given locality there is less justification for housing wastewater filters than water
filters. Piping and valves need to be protected ·in climates where freezing occurs either by
housing or by insulation and heating. Controls need housing or weather protected enc!_o-
sures in any climate. Local controls for each filter should be placed in a location from which
the backwashing filter can be observed.

9.9 Pilot Studies

Specific pilot study objectives may include:

l. Comparing performance of different media designs in a given application.

2 .. Establishing relations between flow rate, headloss and run length for a particular
media and application.

3. Establishing limiting headlosses and rates to assure required effluent quality and
no deterioration due to breakthrough.

4. Characterizing wastewater variability in terms of performance variations with a

specific media.

5. Studying effects of variations in chemical coagulation, flocculation, biological pro-

cesses or other pretreatment.

In all cases the variation of influent and effluent quality and headless buildup with time
should be noted. Studies aimed at media. selection may be limited to variations of size and
depth for a particular configuration or may involve parallel operation of quite different
media configurations.

Media selection tests should cover the range of operating conditions which may occur in the
ac'tual design: typ{caily flow rates"'ot at least 6 'to 8 gpm/sq ft.,headlosses to 30 ft (uriless-a-···
lower limit is imposed by constraints) and runs to at least 24-hr (if headless or break-
through do not limit). Effects of influent quality variations are revealed by conducting
long-term tests on the same influent. It is important however to include influent quality con-
ditions representative of__ the entire range expected in operation.

9-46
Studies to select filter rates and terminal headlosses for a particular media will generally in-
clude more rates and cover a somewhat wider range than a study involving media selection.
Also extra effort should be given to including critical influent conditions (e.g. solids load-
ings and floe .strength).

Studies aimed at characterizing the filterability of a waste (see Section 9.1) would generally
be run at a low rate (2 to 4 gpm/ sq ft) using a media expected to give high effluent quality
but without excessive surface filtration. Changes in quality and headloss with elevation in
the bed should be observed. The widest possible range of influent conditions should be in-
cluded.

Studies to test pretreatment generally would employ a specific media and a single filter rate,
but would attempt to vary influent conditions by adjustment of pretreatment.

In judging what are critical influent conditions, variations in operating records of existing
pretreatment facilities should be thoroughly studied. Where facilities do not exist, records
for similar treatment at other locations should be considered.

Where existing biological pretreatment is inconsistent, with frequent periods of upset, it

would be prudent to determine arid eliminate the causes of these upsets rather than count on
filtration as a cure-all for resulting problems (33).

Standard methods for conducting filtration pilot studies have not been established. The fol-
lowing is a list of typical equipment and practices.

l. Multiple filter tubes of transparent material with a minimum diameter of 4 to 6 in.

are utilized.

2. The tubes are fitted for either gravity or pressure operation.

3. A false bottom underdrain is utilized with either a gravel covered plate or strainer
backwash system.

4. Flow to filter units is set by a combination of pos1t1ve displacement metering

pumps, weirs, control valves, etc. Declining rate control or influent flow splitting
may be used where important to test for design.

5. Sample taps are provided above and below the media, as well as at other locations
within the bed. Tap locations are generally located near the top of each type of
media used. If the effects of media depth variations are to be studied, however,
taps should be located at 3 to 4 in. intervals down the column. As an alternative,
parallel multiple columns of different lengths may be used.

Additional details of pilot filters are given in various references on filtration studies (7) (54)
(55).

9-47
Pilot studies as outlined above cannot adequately determine effects of cleaning system de-
sign parameters. Cleaning of the filter bed is difficult to simulate in pilot scale because of
the small surface area of the beds utilized. The small area makes it impossible to study sur-
face wash and air scour. Results of water backwash may not be representative because of
the wall effect.

Information on cleaning performance can be obtained only in long term studies using large
pilot installations with filtering areas of 4 sq ft or more. Because such studies are expensive,
it may be desirable to design cleaning systems based upon experience from other studies
(50) (51) (52).

9.10 Special Designs

9.10. l Radial Flow Filters

Some recently developed filters employ horizontal radial flow through media contained in
the anular space between concentric vertical cylinders. The inner cylinder acts as distributor
and draw off points are distributed around the periphery of the outer cylinder which forms
the filter vessel.

In the Simater unit (Figure 9-13) developed in England and marketed in the U.S. by Dravo,
the sand media is continuously moved downward, drawn off, washed in a separate tank and
returned to the top of the bed. A filter developed by Hydromation Corporation (Figure
9-14) has a batch external wash to clean its synthetic resin media.

A Simater filter was tested on biologically treated wastewater at the Essex River Authority
in England. The unit was run in parallel with two upflow units (23). Media size for the Sim-
ater filter was 0.5 to 1.0 mm, comparable to one of the upflow filters but much finer than
the other. Rates were not stated for the radial flow unit but were apparently in the same
range as for the upflow units-4 to 6 gpm/ sq ft. All the filters gave SS reductions of 60 to
80 percent and effluent SS concentrations below 10 mg/ l.

The Simater showed marked tolerance for short slugs at high influent sol~ds. Prolonged op-
eration at high concentration resulted in clogging of the outlet screens, but this could be pre-
vented by using higher rates of media washing.

9.10.2 Travelling Backwash Filter

Hardinge Corporation furnishes a fine media (0.48 mm sand), multi-compartmented filter

in which each compartment (8-in width) can be backwashed without stopping filtration in
the remainder of the filter. (See Figure 9-15). Backwash rates are similar to those for other
filters (up to 15 gpm/sq ft), but the backwash time for individual compartments is as low as
45 seconds. Hence, each compartment can be backwashed every l to 2 hours without ex-
cessive washwater use.

Each compartment has its own underdrain section. Media ts supported on I-in. porous

9-48
 HEAD TANK (OPT)

FEED
AIRLIFT TUBE

fSLUDGEI
FILTER INLET

rIG RE 9-13
SIMATI R JILTER
AI R (Courtt.:-.\ of Dr.tH' Corp.)

9-49
 FIGURE 9-14
HYDROMATION IN-DEPTH FILTER

9-50
'°
I
!JI

A. Influent line . F. Effluent and backwash ports. K. Wo shwoter hood. P. Mechanism drive motor.
8. Influent ports. G. Effluent channel. l. Woshwoter pump assembly. Q. Backwash support retaining springs.

c. Influent channel. H. Effluent discharge line. M. Woshwoter discharge pipe. R. Pressure control springs.
D. Compartmented filter bed. I. Backwash valve . N. Washwater trough . S. Control instrumentation .
E. Sectionalized under-drain . J . Bockwosh purnp assembly . 0. Woshwoter discharge. T. Traveling backwash mechanism .

FIGURE 9-15
HARDINGE AUTOMATIC BACKWASH FILTER
(Courtesy Koppers Co., Inc.)
plates over the underdrain. Flow from the underdrain sections discharges through individual
ports to a common effluent channel.

The travelling backwash consists of a rolling bridge carrying two pumps and equipped with
a hood extending over the length of a single compartment. The backwash pump draws wa-
ter from the effluent chamber and discharges it into the underdrain section for the com-
partment where the bridge is stationed. The wash water pump withdraws backwash flow
from the hood positioned over the compartment and discharges it to waste. Initiation of a
backwash cycle is controlled either by timer or by headloss sensors.

Lynam (56) reported 68 percent removal of SS in uncoagulated activated sludge effluent by

Hardinge filters at an SS loading of 0.5 lb/ sq ft/ day and 11.5 inches headloss. At 4.4 inches
of headloss the removal at 0.4 lb/ sq ft/ day was 75 percent. At 11.5 in. headloss the max-
imum hydraulic loading was 6.0 gpm/ sq ft compared with 2.5 gpm/ sq ft at 4.4 in. In the
same study, coagulation with alum did not improve performance.

9.10.3 Filter with On-Line Surface Scouring

Hydro-Clear Corporation offers a fully automatic, shallow bed, fine-media sand filter for
tertiary wastewater treatment. The media consists of IO inches of 0.45 mm sand with a uni-
formity coefficient of 1.5 supported on a wire mesh above the underdrain system. This filter
combines air mixing of the water above the bed with air surging upward through the bed to
prolong run length. Influent flow splitting controls the flow to parallel units.

Typically, a filter run consists of a preset number of filter cycles. Each cycle begins by filter-
ing ~econdary effluent until a preset headloss is developed. Air mixing is then started in the
liquid above the bed to resuspend the solids collected on the media surface. After additional
headloss buildup, air trapped in the vented underdrain system is forced upwa~d through the
bed for a short period. Solids removed by the air are resuspended by the air mixing, and the
cycle begins again. After the predetermined number of cycles, the filter is backwashed, en-
ding the run.

Data from Clark County, Ohio, indicate an average filtrate SS concentration of 4.8 mg/ l
using effluent from a 0.2 mgd contact stabilization plant at l.2 gpm/sq ft (57).

9.11 Slow Sand Filters

Slow sand filters consist of a layer of sand supported on graded gravel with an underdrain
system but no backwash system. The depth of the sand layer ranges up to 42 inches, and the
effective size is 0.25 to 0.35 mm with a uniformity coefficient of 2 to 3 (53). Secondary
effluent is applied, generally at a rate of about 3 gph/sq ft (8), and the filter is used until the
wastewater rises to the top of the filter wall. The filter is then removed from service,
drained, permitted to dry and then cleaned by manually removing the filtered solids.

Truesdale and Birkbeck (58} report only 60 percent SS removal for slow sand filters and a
cleaning frequency of once or twice per month. Rapid clogging of slow sand filters has been

9-52
observed (59). Slow sand filters require.large land areas and therefore, are not normally em-
ployed for large installations. Sand that is lost during cleaning must eventually be replaced.

Filters of the same construction, operated intermittently, have been used as combined phys-
ical-biological treatment for secondary effluent polishing. Intermittent operation permits
aerobic digestion of solids reducing somewhat the required frequency of maintenance. Area
requirements are still quite large, however, and generally limit applications to small
plants. The fact that maintenance is only required on an intermittent basis makes this type
of filter a viable process for upgrading existing lagoons which cannot meet effluent stan-
dards. Further discussion of this application can be found in the U.S. EPA manual, Up-
grading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants and elsewhere ( 60).

9-53
9. 12 References

I.· Baumann, R.E., and Cleasby, J. L., Design of Filters for Advanced Wastewater Treat-
ment, Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa (October
1973).

2. Tchobanoglous, G. and Eliassen R., Filtration of Treated Sewage Efj1uent. JSED,

ASCE, 96, 243 (April 1970).

3. Ives, Kenneth J. and Sholji, Ihsan, Research on Variables Affecting Filtration. J our.
SEO, ASCE, 91, 1 (Aug. 1965).

4. Hsiung, Kou-ying and Cleasby, J. L., Prediction of Filter Perfo,rmance. Jour. SED,
ASCE, 91, 1 (June, 1965).

5. Ives, Kenneth J., Filtration: The Significance of Theory. Journal of The Institution of
Water Engineers. 25, 13 (Feb. 1971).

6. Tchobanoglous, G., Filtration Techniques in Tertiary Treatment. Journal WPCF, 42,

4, 604 (April, 1970).

7. Baumann, E. R., Design of Filters for Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Presented at

the Technology Transfer Design Seminar sponsored by the U.S. EPA, at Syracuse,
N.Y. (May 31, June 1, 2, 1972).

8. Culp, R. L., and Culp, G. L., Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Van Nos-
trand-Reinhold Co., New York (1971 ).

9. Baumann, E. R., and Oulman, C.S., Sand and Diatomite Filtration Practice. Water
Quality Improvement by Physical and Chemical Processes, University of Texas Press,
Austin, Texas (1970).

10. Hudson, H. E. Jr., Declining Rate Filtration. Journal A WWA, 51, 1455 (Nov., 1959).

I I. Convery, J. J., Solids Removal Processes. Nutrient Removal and Advanced Waste
Treatment Symposium. Presented by Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration, Cincinnati, Ohio (April 29-30, 1969).

12. Naylor, A. E., Evans, S. C., and Dunscombe, K. M., Recent Developments on the Ra-
pid Sand Filters at Luton. Water Poll. Control Jour. (Brit.) 66, 309 (1967).

13. Zenz, D. R., Weingarden, M. J., and Bogusch, E. D., Hanover Park Experimental
Bay Project (March 8, 1972).

14. Zenz, D. R., Lue-Hing, C., and Obayashi, A., Preliminary Report on Hanover Park

9-54
 Bay Project. U.S. EPA Grant #WPRD 92-01-68 (R2) (November, 1972).

15. University of Michigan short course, January 25-26, 1973. Reported by Thomas Hoo-
gerhyde, Michigan Department of Health.

16. Private Communication with J. Wiley Finney, Jr., Treatment results Hite Creek Ter-
tiary Plant, Louisville, Kentucky (April, 1973).

17. Ventura, California. East Side STP Test Report, Technical Bulletin, Dravo Corp., Wa-
ter and waste Treatment Division, Pittsburgh, Pa.

18. Wood, R., Smith, W. S. and Murray, J. K., An Investigation Into Upward Flow
Filtration, Water Pollution Control (British) 67: 421-426. (1968).

19. Private communication with H. M. Mueller, Jr., Neptune ·Microfloc (April, 1973).

20. Ripley, P. G., and Lamb, G. L., Filtration of Effluent from a Biological-Chemical
System. Water and Sewage Works, 12, 67 (February, 1973).

21. Performance Data Contained in Hydroclear Corporation Catalogue, A van Lake,

Ohio, as tested by the Clark County Utilities Department, Springfield, Ohio (May,
1969).

22. Isaac, P. C. G. and Hibberd, R. L., The Use of Microstrainers and Sand Filters for
Tertiary Treatment, Water Research, Pergamon Press, 6, p. 465-474.

23. Guiver, K. and Huntingdon, R., A Scheme for Providing Industrial Water Supplies by
the Re-Use of Sewage Effluent, Water Pollution Control Journal, 70, 1, p. 75, 1971.

24. Michaelson, A. P., Under the Solids Limit at Ashton-Under-Lyne, Water Pollution
Control (Brit.), p. 533 (1971 ).

25. U.S. EPA Blue Plains Pilot Plant, Washington, D.C. Contract No. 6801-0161,
Monthly Reports ( 1972).

26. U.S. EPA Internal Monthly Reports, Piscataway, Md. (March-September, 1973).

27. U.S. EPA Internal Monthly Reports. Ely, Minn. (April-December, 1973).

28. Study of Upflow Filter for Tertiary Treatment. U.S. EPA Project No. 17030 DMA
(August, 1972).

29. Oliva, J. A., Department of Public Works, Nassau County, New York, Personal
Communication (March, 1973).

30. U.S. EPA, Advanced Wastewater Treatment As Practiced At South Tahoe. Project

9-55
 17010 ELQ (WPRD 52-01-67) (August, 1971).

31. Villiers, R. V ., Berg, E. L., Brunner, C. N. and Masse, A. N ., Municipal Wastewater

Treatment By Physical and Chemical Methods. Water and Sewage Works, R-62
(1971).

32. Bishop, D. F., O'Farrell, T. P., and Stamberg, J. B., Physical Chemical Treatment of
Municipal Wastewater. Presented before the 43rd Annual Meeting, WPCF, Boston,
Mass. (Oct., 1970)

33. Kreiss!, J. F., Granular Media Filtration of Wastewater: An Assessment, Presented at

Seminar Filtration of Water and Wastewater, Ann Arbor, Mich. (Jan., 1973).

34. Kreiss!, J. F., U.S. EPA NERC, Cincinnati, Ohio, Personal Communication.

35. Baumann, E. R. and Huang, J. C. Granular Filters for Tertiary Wastewater Treat-
m'ent. Accepted for publication, Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation.
(Iowa State University, ERi 72051, Preprint) (February, 1972).

36. Cleasby, J. L. and Baumann, E. R. Selection of Sand Filtration Rates. JA WWA 54,
579 (May, 1962).

37. Misaka, Yasunao, et. al., Filtration of Activated Sludge Secondary Effluent Through
Sand and Anthracite-Sand Beds. The University of Wisconsin Water Resources Center
(1969).

38. O'Melia, C. R. and Stumm, W., Theory of Water Filtration. Jour. AWWA, 59, 1393,
(Nov. 1967).

39. Parker, D. S. et. al., Floe Breakup in Turbulent Flocculation Processes. J. San. Eng.
Div. ASCE 98, SAl, 79-99 (Feb. 1972).

40. Oakley, H. R. and Cripps, T. British Practice in the Tertiary Treatment of Waste-
water. JWPCF, 41, 36 (Jan. 1969).

41. Diaper, E.W. J. and Ives, J. J., Filtration Through Size-Graded Media. Jour. SEO,
ASCE, 91, 89 (June, 1965).

42. Tebbutt, T.H.Y., An Investigation Into Tertiary Treatment By Rapid Filtration, Wa-
ter Research (Brit.), Pergamon Press, 5, p. 81 ( 1971 ).

43. Nebolsine, R., Poushine, I. and Fan, C. Y ., Ultra High Rate Filtration of Activated
Sludge Plant Effluent, U.S. EPA Environmental Protection Technology Series,
EPA-R2-73-222 (April, 1973).

44. Fair, G., and Geyer, J., Water Supply and Waste Water Disposal, Chapter 24, John

9-56
 Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1954).

45. Water Quality and Treatment. American Water Works Association, Inc.,
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York {1971).

46. Camp, T. R., Discussion of Anthracite Sand Filters. (Walter R. Conley), Jour.
AWWA, 53, 1478 (Dec. 1961).

47. Culp, G. L. and Conley, W. R., High Rate Sedimentation and Filtration. Water Qual-
ity Improvement by Physical and Chemical Processes. University of Texas Press, Aus-
tin, Texas ( 1970).

48. Dravo Corporation, Effluent Polishing With Deep-Bed Filtration. Technical Bulletin,
7/WWT19.

49. Cleasby, J. L., Filter Rate Control Without Rate Controllers. Jour. AWWA, 61, 4,
181-185 (April, 1969).

50. Cleasby, J. L., Filtration. Chapter 4 in Physicochemical Processes for Water Quality
Control, Weber, W. J., Jr., Editor, Wiley-lnterscience, New York, (1972).

51. Amirtharajah, A. and Cleasby, J. L., Predicting Expansion of Filters During Back-
washing. Jour. A WWA, 64, l, 52-59 (Jan. 1972).

52. Cleasby, J. L., et. al., Optimum Bachwash of Granular Filters. Engineering Research
Institute, Iowa State University, September 1973. (Presented at WPCF Conference
Cleveland, Ohio (Oct. 1973).

53. Water Treatment Plant Design .. American Water Works Association, Inc., New York
(1969).

54. Kreissl, J. F., and Robeck, G. G., Multi-Media Filtration: Principles and Pilot Ex-
periments, Bulletin No. 57, School of Engineering and Architecture, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas (1967).

55. Summary Report, Advanced Waste Treatment. WP-20-AWTR-19, U.S. Dept. of the
Interior, FWPCA ( 1968).

56. Lynam, B., Ettelt, G., and McAloon, T. J., Tertiary Treatment at Metro Chicago by
Means of Rapid Sand Filters and Microstrainers, Jour. WPCF, 41, 247 (Feb. 1969).

57. Rogers, E., Clark County Utilities Department, Springfield, Ohio, Personal Commu-
nication (May, 1972).

9-57
. 58. Truesdale, G. A. and Birk beck, A. E., Tertiary Treatment Processes for Sewage
Works Effluents. Water Poll. Control Jour. (Brit.) 66, 371 (1967).

59. New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, A Study of Small,
Complete Mixing. Extended Aeration Activated Sludge Plants in Massachusetts,
(1961).

60. Marshall, G. R., and Middlebrooks, E. J., Intermittent Sand Filtration To Upgrade
Existing Wastewater Treatment Facilities, Utah Water Research Laboratory, PRJEW
115-2 Utah State University, Logan, Utah (February 1974).

9-58
 CHAPTER 10

COST ESTIMATES

10. l Introduction

The cost curves included in this chapter are based on: l) actual installations, 2) projections
from pilot studies and other literature, and 3) manufacturers' information. In general, larg-
er capacity units show economy in both capital and operating costs. Since the added econo-
my of scale for plants greater than l 00 mgd size is small, unit figures for this flow (or the
total area required at this flow) can be applied to larger plants. Costs for plants smaller
than l mgd vary too widely to permit effective use of general curves.

Cost calculations were based on an EPA-STP Index of 175 (July 1972 for U.S. Average).
The procedure for adjustment of costs to another cost index is outlined in Section 10.5.

10.2 Curve Content

The curves shown include all equipment and controls necessary for a working unit process.
Construction is assumed to include excavation and backfill in good soil on a level site. In
general cost curves do not include:

l. Buildings
2. Land
3. Pumping between processes
4. Sludge disposal
5. Yard piping
6. Special site conditions requiring pile foundations, rock excavation, etc.
7. Chemical feed equipment (given as separate curve)
8. Automated control (except as noted)
9. Engineering, Legal and Fiscal Costs.

10.3 Operation and Maintenance Costs

These are presented as curves or as a percentage of total capital costs and include normal
repairs expected during operation of units, but not breakdowns resulting from mis-
application or overloading. Chemical costs are not included in operating costs of chemical
feed systems, and should be allowed for separately based on actual cost and dosage. O&M
costs include power for normal operation but do not include external power costs for pump-
ing between units.

EPA Regulations, Title 40, Chapter l, Part 35, Appendix A (Federal Register, 38, No. 174,
September, 1973), specify the useful life of various structures and equipment items to be ap-
plied in cost-effectiveness analysis. The regulations also specify use of 7 percent annual in-
terest in cost comparisons. In general, structural items have lives of 30 to 50 years, process
equipment 15 to 30 years, auxiliary equipment 10 to 15 years and electrical equipment 8 to
10 years. More specific information than given in the regulations may, in some cases, be ob-
tained from product manufacturers.

10-1
10.4, Freight

Costs include freight allowances for equipment based on typical distances in the mid-west
and eastern parts of the country. For western installations costs may be up to 2 percent
higher due to extra shipping costs.

10.5 How to Use Cost Curves

I. Select capacity of unit(s) based on plant design capacity plus desired standby
capacity in unit(s).

2. Enter curve with capacity of unit(s) and read total cost.

3. Correct unit cost to current local cost index. EPA publishes current treatment
plant construction cost indices for 20 cities in the U.S. The current cost index
should be corrected for time and geographic location. After selecting the proj-
ected cost index use the following equation to compute corrected costs:

Corrected Total Cost = Current Cost Index] x [Total Cost]

($1000) [ 175 ($1000)

4. The costs arrived at in Step 3 should be modified for the following items wherever
appli1cable:.

a. Special instrumentation for auiomation or computer control

b. Special site preparation such a~ pile foundation, rock excavation, housing and
landscaping

c. Architectural requirements

10.6 Curve Description

The curves are primarily intended for preliminary cost comparisons between processes at
any flow or equipment size in the range covered. For actual designs a detailed specific cost
analysis should be made. Further data on costs for suspended solids removal processes are
available (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6).

I0.6.1 Flocculators-Flash Mixers

Figure IO- I presents capital and O&M cost estimates for flocculators and flash mixers.

10-2
 I I I I I!
II
I I I! i I'
t--t-+-+-r-t--+-HK-+-t++-t-++H-Ho""-" • ~' I I I I
0.8 M. FLOCCULATORS I I
100
~~ ~

8
7
6-
- -
~-

5
+ LU
0 4 0
0 z
0
3
ct
z .
'*'.. LU _.
(/)

' I
CAPITAL_ COST F~OC~UL~TORS ~ C(
0 "'
ll.I
2 I ' z (!)

0
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ct 0
...J . I
,.11
I
11 /I· ~ 0
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.......
!
i!
a a:
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.... ct "'
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0 z (/)
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5
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1+i± ' t ,1·*'·+Hi-l--+-+-+--+-1-+--+--+-<e--++-;-+++++++>+<-'-+++4+1>--++-''1-+-t+H++t++t+t+++Hin+t+++H

~
ct "'0

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4 ~
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a:
'.
Q.. rl-·
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3 .CAP.ITAL COST 0
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FL A S H M I X E RS

10 100
CAPACITY MGO .

. FIGURE
. ----
10-1. ---- - - . --· ~ ~ .

FLOCCULATO RS-Fl:-~SkLMIXERS __ _
'COSTS ADJUSTED TO EPA-STP INDEX 175'

10-3
Capital costs ($1000) and O&M costs(¢/ 1000 gal) are given for units in plants of I to 30
mgd capacity. Capital costs of both types of units include concrete tanks, floor slabs and
walls. Not included in the capital costs are buildings or covers, land, chemical-feed equip-
ment, pumps, and external piping. No instr~mentation is included in the estimated costs.

Flash mixer costs are for fully installed vertical shaft, turbine units with stainless steel
shafts, stainless steel blades or paddles, gear motors, walkways and supports.

Flocculator costs cover fully-installed horizontal or vertical shaft units with circular or rec-
tangular tank configurations and side water depths of 8 to 12 ft. No special corrosion pro-
tection is included except for normally painted items. Flocculator equipment includes gear
motors, walkways and supports.

Prices are based on single unit installations; for duplicate installations, use cost for two
units, each sized for 50 percent or more of total flow depending on desired standby capacity.

O&M costs for flash mixers were assumed to be 5 percent of the capital costs per year.
O&M costs for flocculators were assumed to be 3 percent of the capital costs per year.
O&M costs include manpower for operation and normal maintenance but do not include
chemicals, power, etc.

10.6 .2 Chemical Feed System

Figure 10-2 presents estimates of capital and O&M costs for chemical feed systems.

Capital costs ($1000) are given for alum or iron, lime, and polymer feed systems in plants of
1 to 100 mgd capacity. O&M costs(¢/ 1000 gal) are given for alum, iron, and polymer feed
systems. O&M costs for lime feed systems (not shown) have been reported to be greater
than O&M costs for feeding the other chemicals (6) (7) (8). The systems were sized to feed
typical rates applied for phosphorus removal.

Dosages, weight basis and stored form of chemicals were assumed as follows:

Chemical Dosage Weight Basis Storage Form

mg!_l

Alum 200 Al2(S04)3 • 14 H20 50 % soln. (on wt. basis)

Iron Salts 100 FeCh • 6 H20 25 % Soln. (on wt. basis)
Lime 300 Ca(OH)2 Dry Hydrated Lime
Ca (OH)2
-Polymer Dry material Dry material

l0-4
 ,. " . '.,
II I I I I
.
tt'' ttttt1 10
1000

.•
---

:
I LEGEND CAPJTAL COST '

0
0
eO!:
-·- 0 ALUM -
~00 •9 /I
09' 19'0N-I 00 rt19/ I
. w
' (.)
0
8 LIME - 300 mt/ I
I I z
c(
30-
c:J POLYMER -1.0 fflg/ I z fl)
- ' w ~

..--
.~-·

Q .... c
z
"'
(!)
...J 0
...J I
- c(
0
c(
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i
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i
20 ·. o.a M.CFOR ALUM 1RoN OR POLYMER>
J . . ' !

- J

-- ~

lQ -0.1
l
2 3 4 5 6. 7 8 9 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 '''
10 100

CAPACITY MGD

,FIGURE 10-2·
CHEMICAL FEED SYSTFMS·
COSTS ADJ(JSTED TO EPA-STP INDEX 175

10-5
For different chemical dosages calculate cost based on an equivalent plant flow calculated
as follows:

flow Jl
equival~nt plant flow:=. [design x [expected dosage ].
dosage used to
develop cost curve

Each system includes: l) a minimum of two volumetric or gravimetric automatic propor-

tioning feeders sized to provide 50 percent excess feed capacity; 2) pumps to deliver chem-
ical feed solutions to the process; and 3) 30-days bulk storage. Prices cover installed equip-
ment suitably corrosion-protected for the intended chemical service. Not included in capital
costs are buildings (except for dry chemical storage space), land, sludge disposal and ex-
ternal piping.

O&M costs include manpower for operation and normal maintenance, and power costs for
pumping, but do not include chemical costs.

10.6.3 Sedimentation Basins

Figure I0-3 presents estimates of capital and O&M costs for sedimentation basins.

Capital costs ($1000) and O&M costs ($1000/yr) are given for installations requiring total
basin surface areas of 1000 to 100,000 sq ft_. Costs are based upon installations using two or
more units.

Included in capital costs are inlet appurtenances and sludge-collecting mechanisms circuh.1r
or rectangular tanks (steel or concrete), skimmers, scrapers, supports and walkways, and
sludge draw-off, all completely installed. Curves are applicable for end-feed, center-feed or
peripheral-feed designs for primary or secondary treatment applications.

O&M costs include manpower for operation and normal maintenance but do not include
chemical or pumping costs.

Not included in capital costs are land, buildings, covers, chemical feed equipment, pump-
ing, sludge pumping and disposal and external yard piping. Instrumentation is limited to
automatic sludge blowdown valves and lines.

10:6 .4 Solids Contact

Figure 10.4 presents estimates of capital and O&M costs for solids-contact units.

Capital costs ($1000) and O&M costs ($1000/ yr) are given for installations requiring total
basin surface area of IOOQ to 100,000 sq ft. A minimum of two operating units was used to
estimate costs.

10-6
 "

1000- -100
9 '
8
lLJ
7
(.)
6
z
0 6 <(
0 z

-
0 4
lLJ
3
CAPITAL COST I ,, '~
.... o=
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o=
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I.
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9
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Cl.
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6

5
~ 0.... a - M.-
....
(.) ~
4 ~
w
3
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0

10- 2 3 4 6 67891 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 I 1.0

10 100
:;S:URFACE AREA 1000 SQ. FT.

FIGURE 10-3
SEDIMENTATION
COSTS ADJUSTED TO EPA-STP INDEX 175

10-7
 10000 1000
9
8
t
6

0 5
·o '
0 4

""
..J
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c ~

....
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1000 -
....
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9
8
-

0 7
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6

3
CAPITAL, COST
-'
2

100 . -·10 ~

2 3 4 2 3 4 5 6 7 • 9100

SURFACE AREA, I 000 SQ. FT.

FIGURE 10-4
SOLIDS CONT ACT
COSTS A nnJSTED TO EPA-5TP TN DEX l7S

10-8
Included in the capital costs are concrete or steel tanks and slabs, turbine recirculators,
sludge scrapers, skimmers, inlet and outlet distributors, supports and walkways, sludge
drawoff, internal baffles, piping and accessories, all fully installed. Prices are applicable for
upflow-type solids-contact units with integral flash mixing and flocculating provisions.

O& M costs include manpower for operation, turbine mixer power, and normal mainte-
nance but do not include chemical or pumping power costs.

Not included in capital costs are buildings, land, chemical-feed equipment, external pump-
ing, sludge disposal and external yard piping. No flow, turbidity, conductivity, or other as-
sociated instrumentation is included.

10.6.5 Flotation

Figure 10-5 presents estimates of capital and O&M costs for dissolved-air flotation pro-
cesses.

Capital costs ($1000) and O&M costs ($1000/ yr) are given for installations requiring total
basin surface areas of 300 to 50,000 sq ft.

Included in the capital cost are all tanks and internals, air-pressurizing equipment, rec-
ycle-pumping equiprnent, operating valves and piping, all fully installed. No special corro-
sion protection is included except for normally-painted items.

Assumed O&M costs were 3 percent of capital costs including manpower for operation and
normal maintenance, power for normal pumping and air pressurization, but not including
chemicals.

Not included in capital costs are buildings, land, chemical feed equipment, sludge disposal
and external yard piping. Instrumentation is limited to pressure-sensing controls for normal
operation of the units.

10.6.6 Settling Tubes and Wire Septums

Figure 10-6 presents estimates of capital costs for tube settlers and wire septums.

Capital :costs are given as $1000 for total required screen areas of I 0 to 2000 sq ft. The esti-
mated operating labor requirement is 0.5 man-hrs/ day mgd.

O&M costs for tube settlers can be estimated at 2 man-hr per basin per week. O&M costs
for wire septums can be estimated at l man-hr per basin per day.

Included in the capital costs of tube settlers are plastic tubes with 60° inclination and 21 in.
·deep plus steel supports and additional effluent collector weirs. Wire septum costs include
stainless steel wires, all fully installed.

10-9
 20.000
.. ..
200

.
0 100
~ '
0
·o •
1
I la.I
0 0
6
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5 ct
4
I z
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a - - I-
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ct la.I
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a=
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.... 1000
, ~ 0
fl) 9
10 0
0
0
0
•
.,
z
0'*°
•
5
'
·CAPITAL COST
-I-
-- ct
4 a=
w
Q..
5
0

100 1.0
I 4 567891 2 4 567891 2 5 4 1
0.3 1.0 10.0 15. 0

SURFACE AREA, 1000 SQ. FT.

FIGURE 10-5·
FLOTATION
COSTS ADJUSTED TO EPA-STP INDEX 175

10-10
 10,000
•
•.,
•
I
..
4 . SETTLING TUBES '~

·(CIRCULAR BASINS)
I .

2
0
0
0
,. , "'
* 1000 - ';

••., I ~
~
I

• WIRE SEPTUMS
'~

•
4

I -
~ 2
SETTLING TUBES·
"'
0
u ~- --
. (,~ECTANGUL.AR 'BASIN S)

;
~ "'
100 '
••
., "
...
-"
•
I

10
'I 6 1 a 9 :1 2 3 4 567891 2 3 4 56789.

o.~ 1.0 10 100

INSTALLED AREA, 1000 SQ. FT.

FIGURE 10-6
WIRE SEPTUMS AND SETTLING fUBES
COSTS AUJU:SlED TO EPA-STP INDEX 175

10-11
Prices for wire septums are applicable to circular or rectangular designs. Prices for tube set-
tlers are given separately for circular and rectangular tank designs. No special corrosion pro-
tection is included except for normally-painted items.

Not included in capital costs are buildings, tanks, cleaning devices (air grids), sludge dis-
posal and external yard piping.

10.6.7 Wedge-Wire Screens

Figure I0-7 presents estimates of capital costs for wedge-wire screens. O&M costs are cal-
culated as described below.

Capital costs are given as $1000 for total required screen areas of l 0 to 2000 sq ft. The esti-
mated operating labor requirements is 0.5 man-hrs/ day I mgd.

Included in the capital cost are screens and screen supports. All screens are stainless steel
construction, but supports, baffles and distributors are steel. Rotating screens include mo-
tor drives. Prices are applicable for rotating screens and stationary screens. No special cor-
rosion protection is included except for normally-painted items.

Not included in capital costs are land, buildings, pumping, sludge handling and external
yard piping.

10.6.8 M icroscreens

Figure 10-8 presents estimates of capital and O&M costs for microscreen equipment.

Capital costs ($1000) and O&M costs ($1000/ yr) are given for installations requiring total
screen areas of 100 to 10,000 sq ft. One unit for 1 to 2 mgd flow, two units for 3 to 4 mgd,
and three units for flows of more than 5 mgd were used to estimate costs.

Included in the capital costs are tanks, drums, screens, backwash equipment, drive motors
and all accessories for automatic operation, all fully installed. Prices are applicable for con-
crete or steel tank construction. No special corrosion protection is included except for nor-
mally-painted items.

O&M costs include operation, normal maintenance, and power for rotation and for
spray-water pumping, but do not include chemicals or external pumping power costs.

Not included in capital costs are buildings, land, pumping (except spray system), sludge dis-
posal and external yard piping. Instrumentation is limited to automatic valves and time
cycle or pressure sensing backwash control suitably panel-mounted.

10-12
 1000,'""'" '
9
B
7
6

...
...
, -
s

2
0
0
0
w
~100-
9
B
Q -,
7
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la.I 6
I ROTATl~G
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6
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t- ·~

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z s I
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t- ST ATIONARY
2
Cl)
0
(.)

_, I

'
C( 10
9
t- 8
Q. 7 ,.... ~
C( ,....
6
(.)
5
-
'
4

3
-
2

'

1.0
2 3 4 667891 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 1-
10 100 1000 2000

SCREEN AREA,SQ.FT.
FiGURE i0-7
WEDGE WIRE SCREENS: ROTATING AND.STATIONARY
COSTS ADJUSTED TO EPA-STP INDEX 175

10-13
 .
s

L,j

, ,"
aooo· 100
0 9 I
~

0 8
0 7
w
6
, 0
~
&
z
<(
0 4 u:
z <(
w CAPITAL COST w
_J ,. t- w
ii
_J 8
z >
c:(
t-
-
<(
a::
en 2 2 w
z 0
CL
z 0
c:(
t- ~
0
en i..QSM 0
0 100 10 z
0
'*
9
0 8

_J
7 -~

t-
<(
c:( 6 " u:
t- 5
w
Q.
Q. 4
0
c:(
(.)
8

2
,_

IO-
I 2 3 4 567891 2 3 4 567891

0.1 1.0 10
SCREEN AREA, 1000 SQ. FT.

FIGURE 10-8
_M.ICROSCE.EENS
COSTS ADJUSTED TO Ei>A-STP INDEX 175

10-14
 '.
4

3 300

0 ~

0 10,000
0 •• LU
0
7 z
- <(
11
z a:
0 LU <(
_._.
LU 4 0 8 M. ..... LU
z >-
<(
- 100
-
<(
a:
..... ~ LU
Q.
en 0
z
-- z<(
2
0
0
..... z 0
en 0
, ~
8
~

1000 .....
•• <(
_. 7
a:
LU
<(
..... 6 c APITAL
..
cosT· a.
5
...
--·--·· 0
a.
<( 4
0
ll

100 1.0
2 ll 4 56789 2 ll 4 !11789
1.0 10
SURFACE ARE A, 1000 SQ. FT.

·FIGURE 10-9
MEDIA FILTERS
COSTS ADJUS.TED ro
EPA-STP INDEX 175

10-15
 10.6.9 Media Filters

Figure 10-9 presents estimates of capital and O&M costs for filtration equipment.

Capital costs ($1000) and O&M costs ($1000/ yr) are given for filter installations with total
required surface areas of 200 to 10,000 sq ft. A minimum of three operating units and filter
bed depths of 4 to 6 ft. with sand and/ or coal media were used to estimate costs.

Included in the capital cost are filter tanks, internals, media, operating valves and piping
and automatic backwash controls, all fully installed. The curve shown is an average curve
for upflow or downflow, gravity or pressure (up to 60 psig) designs of either concrete or
steel construction. Pressure filters are usually less expensive than gravity units below 3 to 6
mgd, but are considerably more expensive at larger flows.

10. 7 References

1. Smith, R., Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment of Wastewater, lour.

WPCF Vol. 41, pg. 1546 (1968).

2. Smith, R., and McMichael, W. F., Cost and Performance Estimates for Tertiary
Wastewater Treating Processes, USDI, FWPCA Report No. TWRC-9 (June 1969).

3. Evans, D. R., and Wilson, J. C., Actual Capital and Operating Costs for Advanced
Waste Treatment, paper presented at WPCF 43rd Annual Conference, Boston, Mass.
(Oct. 1970).

4. Black & Veatch Engineers, Estimating Costs and Manpower Requirements for Con-
ventional Wastewater Treatment Facilities, prepared for U.S. EPA, Project No. 17090
DAN (Oct. 1971).

5. Lynam, B., Ettelt, G., and McAloon, T., Tertiary Treatment at Metro Chicago by
Means of Rapid Sand Filtration and Microstrainers, lour. WPCF, Vol. 41 pg. 247
(Feb. 1969).

6. Inder Jit Kumar, Clesceri, N. L. Phosphorus Removal from Wastewaters: A Cost

Analysis, Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 120, pg. 82 (March, 1973)

7. Culp, R. L., and Culp, G. L., Advanced Wastewater Treatment, Van Nostrand Rein-
hold Company, New York (1971).

8. U.S. EPA, Advanced Wastewater Treatment As Practical At South Tahoe, Proj. No.
171010 ELQ08/71(August1971).

9. Sewage Treatment Plant Design, ASCE Manual of Practice 36 (WPCF M.O.P. 8),
New York (1972).

U.S EPA Headquarters Library

Mail code 3404T
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460 10-16
202-566-0556
10. Diaper, E. J .; Personal Communication, Crane.Company, Cochrane Division, King of
Prussia, Pa. (Nov. 1972).

11. Ginaven, M. E., Personal Communication, The Bauer Bros. Co., Springfield, Ohio
(April, 1973).

12. Carpenter, D. A., Personal Communication, Komline-Sanderson Engineering Corp.

Peapack, N.J. (April, 1973).

13. Johnson, R., Personal Communication, EIMCO, Envirotech Corp., Salt Lake City,
Utah (April, 1973).

14. Dvorin, R., Personal Communication, Graver Water Conditioning Company, Union,
N.J. (April, 1973).

15. Diaper, E.W.J. Tertiary Treatment by Micro-Straining, Water and Sewage Works,
Vol ... 116, pg. 202 (June 1969).

16. Eilers Richard, G., Condensed one page cost estimates for wastewater treatment U.S.
EPA, NERC, Cincinnati, Ohio (Nov. 1970).

17. Graham, A., Personal Communication, Neptune Microfloc, Inc., Corvallis, Oregon
(April, 1973).

10-17