DiCarlo & Cooper

15

Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Literature Review

Kristen DiCarlo | Lori Cooper

Effective classroom assessment techniques are directly linked to course objectives and proposed outcomes. Results within for-

mative and summative assessments have been studied in the online learning environment as educators seek to meet objectives

with respect to student success in the non-traditional setting. Online classroom assessment techniques should reflect pedago-

gy, while measuring the application of new knowledge and learning objectives set forth by the curriculum. The purpose of this

literature review is to present the goals, findings, limitations, and recommendations associated with various studies regarding

classroom assessments techniques and their effectiveness in the online classroom. The question posed is whether or not class-

room assessment techniques in the online classroom can be effective. Included herein is a literature review of existing studies

to provide insight on the effectiveness of classroom assessment techniques in the online environment.

Classroom assessment techniques reflect peda- use of summative and formative assessments, elec-
gogy, measure the application of both new knowl- tronic portfolios, or live interviews, a consensus of
edge and course objectives, as well as identify these studies implies that classroom assessments as-
learning outcomes. Results within summative and sisted in course objectives being achieved through
formative assessments have been measured in the instructional methods. This review contends that
online learning environment as educators seek to while heavily weighted on summative and forma-
meet objectives with respect to student success in tive assessments, other classroom assessments were
the non-traditional setting. The purpose of review- effective in the online setting and an accumulation
ing this research is to present the goals, findings, of these methods have proved that modality is not an
limitations, and recommendations associated with issue for accomplishing course outcomes through
studies regarding classroom assessment techniques assessment techniques. Effective assessments have
and their effectiveness when implemented in the demonstrated that learning has occurred (Robles &
online setting. Classroom assessment techniques in Braathen, 2002).
the online environment are effective in measuring
course outcomes. Included herein is a literature re- GOALS
view of existing studies, which offer insight into a The use of classroom assessment techniques was
variety of online classroom assessment techniques. an innovative way for faculty to engage students in
online learning. In a study conducted by Armellini
EXISTING RESEARCH and Aiyegbayo (2010), the goal was to uncover new
Goals, findings, and limitations within the pro- online learning designs through the utilization of
ceeding studies, including the writers’ supplemented classroom assessment techniques. Pedagogically,
recommendations, demonstrate that classroom as- learning objectives were the focus, and Armellini
sessment techniques in the online setting are effec- and Aiyegbayo (2010) intended to stimulate debate
tive for measuring and achieving course outcomes. on relevant theoretical frameworks by reporting em-
The review of existing studies has established that pirical research and technological developments for
educators who use classroom assessment techniques both educational and technological purposes. Ar-
have aided students in meeting course objectives in mellini and Aiyegbayo (2010) moved beyond meta-
the non-traditional environment. Whether through data in order to find reusable learning content and

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Journal of Instructional Research  |  Volume 3 (2014) 16

searchable electronic libraries to support the learn- ideologies guide the planning, design, organization
ing objectives presented in the online classroom. of instruction, the nature of formative assessment,
The focus of the study was on Carpe Diem, a Latin the type of materials developed, and the manage-
term meaning “seize the day,” which is a learning ment of online activities (Pereira et al., 2009).
design program permitting academic course teams Within other existing research, Van Gog,
to seize two days to pedagogically design and em- Sluijsmans, Joosten-ten Brinke, and Prins (2010)
bed appropriate online formative assessments into proposed how to assess participants in complex
their courses (Armellini & Aiyegbayo, 2010). The domains by using formative assessment in the on-
study also addressed the use of technology in the line environment. This described a method that
design of formative assessments and the level of was based on assessment theories and prominent
student and instructor engagement within the de- instructional design for supporting learning in the
livery of the course. online setting (Van Gog et al., 2010). The main
Lawton et al. (2012) researched how to develop idea of this study consisted of formative assess-
evidence-based methodology with the goal of pro- ment tasks that focused on professional situations.
viding formative assessment and useful feedback For each professional situation, three levels of situ-
during online learning. There was the use of online ational complexity were defined, and within each
informational and social networks within instruc- of these three levels, tasks were offered that dif-
tional design to assess student expertise in specific fered in the degree of support offered to students
subject matters. Small changes lead to a cumulative (Van Gog et al., 2010). According to Van Gog et al.
impact on learning in the online environment. Two (2010), this environment supported new profession-
versions of an online course derived from identi- als in the online learning environment by provid-
cal resources that integrated formative assessments ing insight to repertoire of behavior in professional
were compared, which allowed instructors to pro- situations and the quality of that behavior in re-
vide feedback to students during the learning pro- gards to the assessed criteria. This simultaneously
cess (Lawton et al., 2012). Focused video resources helped students develop insight into the standards
were utilized to anchor the formative assessments that their own behavior should eventually match
within the instructional design process. The course (Van Gog et al., 2010).
utilized a freely available learning management Vonderwell and Boboc (2013) proposed the
system (LMS). use of formative assessment techniques to improve
Additionally, Pereira et al. (2009) intended to an instructor’s understanding of online students’
develop pedagogical strategies for online under- needs. The formative assessment technique used
graduate courses that promoted student learning by Vonderwell and Boboc (2013) was online jour-
and success by analyzing student online submis- naling to track student progress. The goal was to
sion competencies in the form of electronic port- tie online journaling to the other course assign-
folios. This was a classroom assessment technique ments, which meant that there would be a coupling
due to how students were assessed in a summative of formative and summative assessments. Proper
manner through their assignment submissions. modeling and gradual implementation of online
Pereira et al. (2009) decided to implement a fully journaling before students could fully engage in
virtual innovative teaching and learning methodol- the learning opportunity was another focus of the
ogy. The pedagogical model adopted by the study study (Vonderwell & Boboc, 2013). When online
was strongly controlled by the valuing of students’ journaling was completed in teams, assigning roles
communal and social integration, the personalized helped increase reflective critical thinking and stu-
monitoring of learning, and the respect for various dent responsibility. Classroom assessment tech-
life experiences (Pereira et al., 2009). This peda- niques included a reflection paper (used toward the
gogical model was based on four cornerstones; end of a lesson), a one-minute paper (used during
these included student-centered learning, flexibil- a lesson), role play by assigning students different
ity, interaction, and digital inclusion, which were tasks within group work, hook questions construct-
aligned with the key competences required for ed by students based off the readings to engage in
learners in the knowledge-based society in which conversation on a topic objective, and frequent stu-
they live according to Pereira et al. (2009). These dent check ins.

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DiCarlo & Cooper 17

In the final study, Beebe, Vonderwell, and Bob- course development; however, it had limited volun-
oc (2010) investigated faculty perceptions from tary use by the participants as Lawton et al. (2012)
seven different higher education institutions with indicated. The study demonstrated that formative
respect to online classroom assessments that used assessments make significant positive differenc-
interviews with combinations of open-ended ques- es in the learning outcomes of students in online
tions. The purpose was to explore if face-to-face courses (Lawton et al., 2012). Students learned
delivery formats for assessments could be mim- more information overall with more positive at-
icked effectively in the online modality. Assess- titudes toward the course content and their future
ment for and about learning were the main focus learning. In this model, learning had less depen-
of this phenomenological approach. The key issues dence on initial knowledge. The capabilities of the
analyzed in this study were online assessment, dis- LMS supported course development but showed
tinguishing barriers, and identifying effective as- limited spontaneous use by students during the
sessment methods. It was “important to understand study (Lawton et al., 2012).
current faculty practices of assessment as well as There were more findings that exhibited an im-
the factors that influence assessment in order to in- provement in using alternative assessment strate-
crease the quality of teaching and learning in the gies; nevertheless, there was an unclear pattern in
online environment” (Beebe et al., 2010, p.2). the examined student submissions (Pereira et al.,
2009). Pereira et al. (2009) noted that the study in-
FINDINGS dicated the submission delivery could also be used
Findings indicated that online formative assess- in other assessment strategies. The study demon-
ments were successful as long as the instructor was strated that formative classroom assessments and
involved and active (Armellini & Aiyegbayo, 2010). design methods that stress crucial concepts made
The instructors collaborated with students to ensure significant positive differences in learning out-
successful execution of the formative assessments. comes in online courses (Pereira et al., 2009). This
This study incorporated innovative ways to assess was a straightforward implementation format and
online learners, including its successful collabora- a clear means of measuring effectiveness accord-
tive design, as noted by Armellini and Aiyegbayo ing to Pereira et al. (2009). Each electronic portfolio
(2010). Focusing on learning objectives encouraged was able to accommodate the types of competencies
an organizational reform in the educational system measured in the formative assessments (Pereira et
as well as within the course itself to better the learn- al., 2009). There was diversity concerning the types
ing experience for online students (Armellini & Ai- of competences being assessed in each electronic
yegbayo, 2010). Cognitive mapping was the main portfolio, but Pereira et al. (2009) contend that de-
concept Armellini and Aiyegbayo (2010) used. The scriptive characterization helped to rectify this.
findings suggested that Carpe Diem was a powerful The Van Gog et al. (2010) study allowed par-
and effective team-based procedure to “foster peda- ticipants to review their scores and evaluate self-
gogical change and innovation in learning design knowledge of skill level. The research demonstrat-
and assessment practices” (Armellini & Aiyegbayo, ed that online assessments could help to improve
2010, p. 922). The online activities designed during students’ perspectives regarding the online class-
Carpe Diem were successfully used primarily for room (Van Gog et al., 2010). The formative as-
learning and formative assessment, with exception sessments in this online learning environment had
to some summative assessments. Web 2.0 tools were positive results. Students indicated that the assess-
employed to enable collaborative online learning ments focused on relevant situations, instructor be-
and were prominent in the new designs (Armellini havior was effective, and that this could contribute
& Aiyegbayo, 2010). The instructor’s moderation to further professional development of beginning
skills were essential to engaging students and capi- instructors (Van Gog et al., 2010). The study com-
talizing on the benefits of formative assessments in pleted by Van Gog et al. (2010) presented a division
the online classroom as determined by Armellini in complexity levels that was positively evaluated,
and Aiyegbayo (2010). and the students recognized the difference be-
There were other results that demonstrated the tween tasks encompassing analysis and observa-
collaborative capabilities of the LMS supported tion, which might seem similar at first glance. The

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Journal of Instructional Research  |  Volume 3 (2014) 18

students appreciated instructor feedback options and objectives. Not only did students need to be
embedded within the formative assessments (Van heavily involved and proactive, it was necessary for
Gog et al., 2010). instructors to provide timely materials and visual
This next study resulted in reconstructing stu- cues that contributed to better course outcomes
dent and instructor roles by adapting formative through classroom assessments (Beebe et al., 2010).
assessments to individual student needs, which
improved formative assessment in student learn- LIMITATIONS
ing (Vonderwell & Boboc, 2013). Vonderwell and Several limitations surfaced within the Armel-
Boboc (2013) suggested instructor accountability lini and Aiyegbayo (2010) study. These limitations
and using a reflective, pro-active approach in the consisted of the number of instructors available
formative assessment techniques that online in- to participate in the research study, the amount
structors utilized to recognize student progress. of disciplines in the research, and the absence of
Journal entries, whether completed individually primary data from the participants (Armellini &
or in pairs, were a way for students to reflect on Aiyegbayo, 2010). As far as classroom assessment
what they learned from the formative assessments techniques in the online setting, Armellini and
put forth by the instructor. An integral part of the Aiyegbayo (2010) used a Carpe Diem approach
planning process related to the use of the compre- with instructors, which left room for improvement
hensive range of assessment strategies (Vonderwell in how the online assessments were implemented
& Boboc, 2013). Generating an assessment plan for and evaluated. If more instructors were utilized
the duration of the entire online class helped in- and interviewed, then the study would have pro-
structors to map out their pedagogical strategies vided greater comprehensive interpretation of the
and materials. Therefore, student engagement and intended purpose. In addition, data from the stu-
overall online activity were enhanced according to dents were not previously collected because the in-
Vonderwell and Boboc (2013). In this study, the au- structors cited input from students in Carpe Diem
thors were aware of students’ connectivity options, interviews to show how the students accepted the
so there was no digital divide by asking students to new designs. Direct student data collected during
use technological tools that were not readily avail- and at the end of the studied courses would have
able to them (Vonderwell & Boboc, 2013). “provided a more complete understanding of the
In the final reviewed study, five major themes changes in learning design and how they affected
developed as a result of the research of Beebe et the students’ learning and assessment experience”
al. (2010), including time management, student (Armellini & Aiyegbayo, 2010, p. 933).
responsibility and initiative, structure of online Lawton et al. (2012) also had limitations in
medium, complexity of content, and informal as- their work, including lack of using the provided
sessment. Time management alluded to students tools, a significant number of participants who did
preferring immediate feedback and in turn placing not complete the study, and functional issues with
emphasis on communication. Without student en- the LMS. Within these LMS issues, there were
gagement, instructors believed they did not have a technological and operational restrictions (Lawton
clear picture of students’ needs, and therefore, em- et al., 2012). Lawton et al. (2012) only had partici-
phasized the importance of students taking charge pants from one type of profession and content area,
of their inquiries and education (Beebe et al., 2010). which allowed little room for generalization. Ar-
The earlier materials and objectives were posted eas for further research were mining the data cre-
the quicker faculty could identify areas of opportu- ated by students’ online activities and integrating
nity. Providing visual cues to match online course feedback with reliable tasks that incorporated the
materials assisted in clarification of class expecta- weekly objectives (Lawton et al., 2012).
tions. The less complex the course content, then Limitations within the study conducted by
the easier the assessment could be mimicked in the Pereira et al. (2009) involved technological issues,
online setting (Beebe et al., 2010). Students were unclear submissions for some students, and opera-
found to perform better on informal assessments tional functionality. Pereira et al. (2009) were not
when they took a proactive approach to their own clear in prompting the students how to complete
education to gain clarification on course materials competencies within their electronic portfolios. In

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DiCarlo & Cooper 19

addition, electronic portfolios submitted under dif- tion and high frequency of feedback in such learn-
ferent content areas made it difficult to determine ing settings were associated with an increasing and
the effectiveness of the study (Pereira et al., 2009). emerging partnership between instructors and stu-
It may have been more effective to hone in on one or dents (Beebe et al., 2010).
two contents using multiple beta online classrooms.
Additionally, performing certain tasks includ- RECOMMENDATIONS
ing different levels of difficulty as indicated by Areas of opportunity exist within any research
Van Gog et al. (2010) contributed to limitations. study. Collectively, these studies leave room for ar-
Van Gog et al. (2010) based their work on teacher eas of opportunity in instructional design and tech-
education and further research in other fields is re- nology systems. Funding and time also seem to be
quired to determine accuracy. The students liked the root of certain shortcomings in the existing re-
the idea of the formative assessments, but they search of online classroom assessment techniques.
were overwhelmed by the amount of assessments The authors recommend that alternative classroom
that were utilized by the instructor. In addition, the assessments online be explored. The bulk of the re-
students felt there were too many questions to be search the writers reviewed was weighted heavily
answered within each individual assessment (Van on summative and formative assessments. While
Gog et al., 2010). these are excellent measures for student learning
Vonderwell and Boboc (2013) noted limita- and course outcomes, it does not capture all forms
tions that included LMS difficulties, interdepen- of learning styles or advancements made in tech-
dent technical considerations, planning processes, nology. Future research should include specific
and operational uses. Vonderwell and Boboc (2013) media in the classroom, so assessments encompass
were unclear on the success rates of the forma- methods that are aligned with all students’ needs.
tive assessments and considered creating student Immediate feedback to students while they are in a
groups for the journaling process but wanted to shy class allows the students to understand their mis-
away from relying on peer input. Student pairing takes and gain new and accurate information prior
should take into account the frequency and com- to leaving the class or earning a poor grade. An
plexity of the online journal entries as indicated additional recommendation would be more empha-
by Vonderwell and Boboc (2013). Technical con- sis on self-assessment and peer review. In order for
siderations and instructional design were inter- assessments to be effective, it must be an ongoing
dependent, which means that the online learning process that is not just active but also authentic
platform should have accommodated the nature of (Robles & Braathen, 2002).
the class and its requirements for student success
(Vonderwell & Boboc, 2013). CONCLUSION
It was necessary for additional reflection and Classroom assessment techniques reflect ped-
more qualitative assessment as opposed to quanti- agogy and measure the application of both new
tative assessment to measure student growth that knowledge and course objectives in the identifi-
caused limitations according to Beebe et al. (2010). cation of learning outcomes. The above review of
There was also a need to construct an appropri- existing studies has established that educators who
ate pedagogy of learning and assessment within use classroom assessment techniques are aiding
the environment of the online classroom (Beebe et students in meeting course objectives in the non-
al., 2010). According to Beebe et al. (2010), there traditional online environment. This review of ex-
should not be a mechanistic transfer from one en- isting research has demonstrated how classroom
vironment to the other without due consideration of assessments techniques are effective when imple-
the intended purpose and outcome. Both instruc- mented in the online setting. Lingering questions
tors and students must be informed about the ef- regarding whether classroom assessment tech-
fective implementation of assessment strategies in niques in the online classroom are effective is no
the online setting (Beebe et al., 2010). This also re- longer assumed but substantiated throughout exist-
quired further research regarding the essential shift ing research. This can contribute formative assess-
in the perception of roles in the assessment process ment ideas to faculty and administration in online
(Beebe et al., 2010). The increased individualiza- learning institutions.

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Journal of Instructional Research  |  Volume 3 (2014) 20

References Author Biographies

Armellini, A., & Aiyegbayo, O. (2010). Learning design and assess- Kristen DiCarlo has worked in higher educa-
ment with e-tivities. British Journal of Educational Technol- tion for over seven years and is an Assistant Profes-
ogy, 41(6), 922-935. sor in the College of Arts and Sciences and the Ken
Blanchard College of Business. She thinks that in-
Beebe, R., Vonderwell, S., & Boboc, M. (2010). Emerging patterns
novative teaching styles can assist in students’ aca-
in transferring assessment practices from f2f to online envi-
demic successes despite modality. Kristen earned
ronments. Electronic Journal of E-Learning, 8(1), 1-12.
her Master’s degrees in the areas of Secondary Ed-
Lawton, D., Vye, N., Bransford, J., Sanders, E., Richey, M., ucation and Business Administration. She is cur-
French, D., & Stephens, R. (2012). Online learning based on rently earning her Ph.D. in General Psychology and
essential concepts and formative assessment. Journal of is on track to graduate in December of 2014. Her
Engineering Education, 101(2), 244-287. professional and research interests include instruc-
tional design, learning assessments, and historical
Pereira, A., Oliveira, I., Tinoca, L., Amante, L., Relvas, M., Pinto,
conceptions of psychology.
M., & Moreira, D. (2009). Evaluating continuous assessment
quality in competence-based education online: The case
Lori Cooper has worked in higher education
of the e-folio. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-
for over eleven years and is an Assistant Professor
Learning, 2.
for the College of Arts and Sciences. She holds a
Robles, M., & Braathen, S. (2002). Online assessment techniques. Bachelor of Arts in Psychology, a Master’s of Busi-
Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 44(1), 39-49. ness Administration, and a Master’s of Science in
Psychology. She is currently pursuing a Doctoral
Van Gog, T., Sluijsmans, D. A., Joosten-ten Brinke, D., & Prins,
degree in General Psychology at GCU. Her pro-
F. J. (2010). Formative assessment in an online learning en-
fessional interests include student achievement,
vironment to support flexible on-the-job learning in complex
professional development, research, and academic
professional domains. Educational Technology Research and
integrity. She is a huge proponent of media in the
Development, 58(3), 311-324.
classroom to support various learning styles. Lori
Vonderwell, S., & Boboc, M. (2013). Promoting formative assess- has a passion for studying autism and spectrum dis-
ment in online teaching and learning. Techtrends: Linking orders, in both children and adults, and currently is
Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 57(4), 22-27. considering topics aligning with these interests for
dissertation ideas.

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