Ebook Minimising Patent Infringement Risk

Minimisingrisk
Minimising riskof
of
PATENT INFRINGEMENT
PATENT INFRINGEMENT
2015
First edition
2015
Bindu Sharma
Anita Kalia
Meenakshy Suresh
Minimising risk
of
PATENT INFRINGEMENT
i
Authors
Bindu Sharma
Founder & CEO
Origiin IP Solutions LLP
Anita Kalia
COO & Patent Attorney
Meenakshy Suresh
BBA-LLB (4th Year)
Symbiosis Law School, Pune
ii
Minimising Patent Infringement Risk
1st Edition: December 2015
Copyright © 2015 Origiin IP Solutions LLP
All rights reserved.
This content may be downloaded, shared and utilised with appropriate

attribution to the authors by the reader. Such use should strictly be for non-
commercial purposes only. All moral rights remain with the authors of the
book and any violation of the paternity or integrity rights will render the
infringer liable under Indian Copyright Act, 1957.
Published by:

#35, First Main
Vysya Bank Colony
BTM IInd Stage
Bangalore, PIN 560076
Karnataka, INDIA
Email ID: info@origiin.com
Website: www.origiin.com
Cover photo courtesy: freeimages.com/Jakub Sopicki
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This page is left blank intentionally
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Table of contents
1 Introduction……………………………………………...… 1-4
2 Rights of a Patent Holder………………………………... 5-8
3 What is patent infringement…………………………...… 9-25
4 Certain acts not to be considered as patent
infringement……………………………………………….. 26-33
5 Why to bother about infringement? ………………..…... 34-38
6 What is FTO (Freedom-To-Operate) search? ……...… 39-48
7 Scope of FTO Analysis……..………………….………… 49-51
8 Burden of proof in suits for infringement……………… 52-54
9 Relief in suits for infringement…………………...……… 55-58
10 About Origiin………………………………………………. 59-63
v
Minimising patent infringement risk Introduction to Patents
Chapter 1
Introduction to Patents
Patent is one of the most important

forms of Intellectual Property (IP).
It is a set of exclusive rights
granted by the Government to an
inventor or its assignee for a
limited period of time in exchange
for a public disclosure of the
invention. The term of a patent is typically 20 years from the date
of priority1, meaning that the patent holder has right to prevent all
third parties from making, using selling, offering for sale and even
importing the patented product or the product made by using
patented process in the jurisdiction, where there is patent
protection. “Patent Infringement” in simple words means intrusion
or encroachment upon the patent rights of patent holder or
patentee, where the patent is valid and legally enforceable in a
given jurisdiction.
It is very important to understand that patent rights are territorial

and a patent granted in a specific jurisdiction is valid and
1
It is also called as priority date which is the date of filing of the first
patent application.
1|Page
enforceable only in that jurisdiction. For example, a US patent is

valid and enforceable only in the US. Use of such a patent in the
jurisdictions, other than US, may not infringe patent rights of the
patent holder. Most of the times, the inventions are complex and
working of a single patented invention might require usage of
additional patents. However, opinion of an experienced attorney is
very important in such sensitive matters because there may be
several pending patent applications for which patent is not yet
granted. Additionally, there may be international applications that
might enter national phase at later point of time and calculating
term of a patent in case of PCT national phase application might be
different from ordinary applications.
Let’s take up an example. Suppose there is a company “X” working

in the area of display screen for electronic devices and has several
patents related to this subject matter in India. Application of its
patents might be substantially wide that may include mobile
phones, television, laptop etc. By having patents for multiple
features of display screen, the company ‘X’ is not free to
manufacture the products like mobile phone, television, laptop
because there are several components in these devices for which
the third parties might have patents in India. In other words, we
can say that the company “X” may or may not have “Freedom To
Operate” in the territory of India and manufacturing or launching
the product without assessing existing patents might infringe
patent rights of third party (ies).
2|Page
In November 2012, Apple Inc. was ordered to pay US$368.2

million in damages to a company called VirnetX, a small internet
security software and technology company, for infringing four
patents (U.S. Patent Nos. 6,502,135, 7,418,504, 7,921,211 and
7,490,151) used in its FaceTime™ video calling service. VirnetX
patented the technology for secure communications including 4G
LTE security and its patent portfolio included 20 US and 26
international patents and over 100 pending applications, out of
which four patents related to its FaceTime™ video calling service.
However, Apple argued that it was using different technologies in
its FaceTime™ services and tried to invalidate Virnetx patents and
denied any infringement. This is in fact an excellent case to
understand the need of due diligence before product launch,
strength of protection and enforcement of patent as a tool to obtain
competitive edge in market as well as use it for revenue generation.
Therefore, if you are planning to develop and launch a new

product, it is extremely important for you to first of all identify the
territories where the product is going to be manufactured,
marketed and sold. Apart from this, extracting and analysing the
legally valid patents in those territories that might claim the
features of your product, followed by assessment of likelihood of
such patents for patent infringement by you, is an essential step
that saves you from huge trouble later on. Failure to do this, might
lead to a patent dispute, affecting your business and reputation in
the market.
3|Page
Patent litigation can be an extremely expensive and a risky affair

and hence prevention is always better than cure and since it is
possible to assess chances of patent infringement, it is worth doing
this exercise in advance, right at the stage of starting the new
project. However, in extreme scenarios, there may be "essential
patents" that cannot be avoided for developing certain types of
products or for meeting certain technical standards. In such cases,
one has to proceed very carefully and strategically by exploring
option of seeking permission to use such essential patents from the
patent holder (s) or bypassing the patent claims or even waiting for
expiration of such patents, as the case may be.
In this book, we will discuss the importance in assessing patent

infringement risk, precaution to be taken, how to do it and some
related critical issues.
4|Page
Minimising patent infringement risk Rights of a patent holder
Chapter 2
Rights of a patent holder
Before we proceed further, it is

necessary to understand the
kind of rights extended to a
patent holder upon the grant of
a patent so that we can
understand patent
infringement in a better manner. A patent is granted to
a new product or process, which is inventive and has
industrial application and the subject matter does not
fall under category of non-patentable inventions.
Rights of a patent holder or patentee, according to

Section 48 of the Patents Act, 1970 are as below:
(1) Where the subject matter of the patent is

a product, the patentee has exclusive right to
prevent third parties, without his consent, from
acts of:
5|Page
a. Making;
b. Using;
c. Offering for sale;
d. Selling; or
e. Importing that product to India
for the abovementioned purposes.
(2) Where the subject matter of the patent is
a process or method, the patentee has
exclusive right to prevent third parties, who do
not have his consent, from the act of:
a. Using that process;
b. Offering for sale;
c. Selling; or
d. Importing a product obtained
directly by that process to India for the
abovementioned purposes.
Violation of any of these rights is called as “Patent

Infringement”. As mentioned before, where the subject
matter of the patent is a product, infringement takes
place when someone makes, uses, offers for sale, sells or
imports the patented product in India without the
6|Page
consent of patentee and where the subject matter of the

patent is a process, the infringement takes place when
someone uses that process, offers for sale, sells or
imports the product obtained directly by that process to
India.
Therefore, it is evident that patent does not give any

positive rights but a set of negative rights to the
patentee over his invention. Whether a patentee is free
to use his own invention may be limited by legislation,
regulations or by the existence of other patents in a
specific jurisdiction. Patentee has no right to make, use,
sell or import the product, for which he has a patent but
has exclusive right to prevent third parties from
making, using, selling, offering for sale and importing
the patented products, if the patented invention relates
to that product.
In simpler terms, patent does not give the patent

holder rights to sell, make or use anything. It only gives
him or her rights to prevent others from infringing
upon the granted rights. However, if the patent is for a
process, patentee has exclusive right to prevent third
7|Page
parties to make, use, sell, offer for sale or import any

product made using the patented process, meaning that
the patentee can only prevent third parties from using
or exploiting the invention, even if such third party
develops the same invention independently.
8|Page
Minimising patent infringement risk What is Patent infringement?
Chapter 3
What is Patent infringement?
As mentioned before,
patents are exclusive rights
granted to a patent holder
to prevent third parties
from making, using,
selling, offer for sale and
importing a product or a product manufactured by a
patented process. When these rights of the patent
holder or the claims in the patent are violated by a third
party, without the consent or license of the patent
holder, such third party is said to have infringed the
patent rights of patent holder. While doing a patent
infringement risk analysis, it is necessary to understand
the types of patent infringement to ensure that the
invention is not likely to infringe any of the existing
patent rights.
9|Page
In a patent specification, “Claims” define scope of the

legal protection extended to the invention. Therefore, in
case of infringement analysis, careful analysis of claims
is extremely critical. Claims are usually very crisp and a
precise language is used to write them. Each and every
word of the claim shall be very carefully understood and
interpreted. In case of patent infringement, extent of
infringement is directly proportional to the extent of
infringed subject matter claimed in the patent.
Interpretation of claims can never be done in isolation
but shall always be done with respect to the patent
specification disclosed by the patent holder.
Though there are various types of claims, there are two

main types of claims i.e. independent claims and
dependent claims. Independent claim is usually the first
claim and rest of them are the claims that are
dependent upon the independent claim, and hence,
called as dependent claim. The dependent claim cannot
be infringed without infringement of the independent
claim. For example, if independent claim of the patent
relates to a product and dependent claims primarily
10 | P a g e
claim the process to make the product, infringement of

patent cannot restrict to infringement of process
without infringing the independent claim that claims
the product itself. Please note that though most of the
patents have one independent claim, a patent
specification may have more than one independent
claim as well.
Types of patent infringement
Patent infringement can be broadly divided into two

types:
Infringement
Direct Indirect
Doctrine of
Literal Induced Contributory
equivalence
11 | P a g e
i) Direct Infringement
 Literal Infringement
 Doctrine of Equivalence
ii) Indirect Infringement
 Induced Infringement
 Contributory Infringement
1. Direct Infringement
Direct patent infringement is the most apparent and

common type of patent infringement. Most of the
patent infringement cases involve direct patent
infringement. Generally speaking, direct patent
infringement means the marketing, sale, or commercial
use of an exact patented item or invention that
performs substantially the identical function. Direct
infringement may be literal or non-literal.
a) Literal Infringement
Literal infringement, as the name suggests, occurs when

each and every component claimed in patent
specification has been used in alleged infringing
product/device or process. Accused product or process
12 | P a g e
falls directly within the scope of patent claims. In case

of direct infringement, comparison of the alleged
infringing product features with the claims of the patent
could be the first step to know the extent of patent
infringement. The landmark case of patent
infringement is Polaroid Corp v. Eastman Kodak Co.
where patent infringement by Eastman Kodak of
Polaroid’s “Instant camera technology” was a case of
literal infringement.
In case of literal infringement, all the elements of the

patent claim must be proven to have been infringed.
This was established in Lemelson v. United States1
when the Federal Circuit Court held that it was “well
settled that each element of a claim is material and
essential, and that in order for a court to find
infringement, the plaintiff must show the presence of
every element or its substantial equivalent in the
accused device”.
1
752 F.2d 1538
13 | P a g e
Accordingly, in Larami Corporation v. Alan Amron

and Talk to Me Products, Inc.2, the court applied
this principle. This case is related to Larami’s
patented toy water guns with the brand name ‘SUPER
SOAKERS’. For this product, defendant had obtained a
declaration that the product is not infringing Amron’s
United States Patent No. 4,239,129 (hereinafter “the
‘129 patent”). During the proceedings, one of the claims
was considered by the court for infringement under
literal infringement. According the patent claim, the toy
must contain a tank inside the housing of the gun,
which contained the water3. Larami’s guns did not have
the tank inside the gun but was detachable and situated
outside the body of the toy. Housing of the tank was one
of the important features of the product. Here, this
element of the claim was missing even though the other
elements were all valid. Therefore, the Court held that
there was no literal infringement of the claim.
2
27 USPQ2d 1280 (E.D. Pa 1993)
3
”toy comprising an elongated housing [case] having a chamber therein
for a liquid [tank],” – Claim 1, ‘129 Patent
14 | P a g e
In India, however, this rule is not exactly followed. The

Indian Courts look into not just the literal sense of the
claims but apply the doctrine of pith and substance.
That is, the overall sense of the claims is analysed and
it is not limited to the exact wordings of the patent
claims. Madras High Court in TVS Motor Company
Limited Vs. Bajaj Auto Limited held:
“In construing an allegation of infringement, what is to

be seen is whether the alleged infringement has taken
the substance of the invention ignoring the fact as to
omission of certain parts or addition of certain parts.”
b) Non-literal infringement [Doctrine of

equivalence]
In case of non-literal infringement, patent infringement

is not literally directed to what is claimed in the patent
specification but the infringing device or process may be
similar or equivalent to the claimed invention. For
example, if the patented process uses ethanol and the
infringer is using butanol to avoid infringement of
patent, it will be still considered as infringement under
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doctrine of equivalence because both ethanol and

butanol belongs to the same family of alcohols and both
forms of alcohols might perform the same function to
obtain similar or same results. In such a case, even if
there is no literal infringement, a claim may be
infringed under the doctrine of equivalents, if some
other element of the accused device or process:
 performs substantially the same function,

 in substantially the same way,
 to achieve substantially the same result
(Triple Identity Test).
The goal of the doctrine of equivalents is to provide

patent owners with added and fair protection for their
patents. The doctrine was established in the case of
Graver Tank & Manufacturing Co. v. Linde Air
Products Co.4 where Linde sued Graver for infringing
their patented welding process. Linde’s technology used
Calcium and Magnesium whereas Graver used Calcium
and Manganese. Manganese and Magnesium are two
elements with substantially similar properties and
4
339 U.S. 605 (1950)
16 | P a g e
hence mere replacement of Manganese with

Magnesium to achieve the same result might infringe
patent rights. The Supreme Court held that it was an
infringement under doctrine of equivalence and
declared that Graver’s product was a result of an
obvious alternative to the materials used in the granted
patent which anyone working in the field could have
deciphered.
In another Australian case, Beecham Group Limited V.

Bristol Laboratories Pty. Limited5 where the
defendants were sued for patent infringement for using
obvious substitutions to the ingredients of the patented
product. The plaintiffs6 had a patent on a novel type of
semi-synthetic penicillin, known as Ampicillin and on
certain processes for its production. The defendant
entered the market with “new” product, Hetacillin with
the same starting material used in manufacture of
Ampicillin, 6-APA. The plaintiff was able to prove that
Hetacillin, upon entering the human body had same
properties and it functioned in the manner similar to
5
1967 (16) R.P.C. 406 (12)
6
A party that initiates the lawsuit
17 | P a g e
Ampicillin. The court held that the defendant was

actually infringing patent rights of the plaintiff by
marketing, advertising, selling and offering for sale the
product to the public (it was manufactured outside the
country and hence out of jurisdiction of the Court),
which was an evident variation of the patented drug.
An Indian case, where a reference to the doctrine of

equivalence was made is Raj Prakash v. Mangat Ram
Choudhary7 . Here, the plaintiffs had patent over a film
strip viewer, marketed mainly as a toy for children. It
was later found that the defendants were also
manufacturing and selling a toy which functioned in the
same method. The defendants plead that the film strip
viewers manufactured and sold by them were different
from that of the patented one sold by the plaintiffs. The
plaintiff’s case was that the defendants were
manufacturing and selling similar products which
functioned in the same manner to that of theirs. The
court on observing the viewers found that they were
7
AIR 1978 Del 1
18 | P a g e
both similar and concluded that the defendant’s product

was a pirated version of the patented viewer.
However, the recent Indian case of Ravi Kamal Bali v.

Kala Tech8 is where the doctrine was adopted into the
Indian legal system. Here, it was alleged that the
defendants infringed a patent on a tamper proof
lock/seal for containers. The defence was that the
product differed in material particulars from the
patented product but the Court found the changes to be
inconsequential and thereby applied the doctrine.
2. Indirect Infringement
Indirect infringement, as evident from the name,
happens when infringement does happen but the direct
infringement is facilitated by someone else. This means
that even though it is indirect infringement, it cannot
exist in the absence of direct infringement. In case of
indirect infringement, third party might actively induce,
encourage or materially contribute to the infringing
activity. Such third party might be direct infringer. For
any business, especially, service provides, vendors,
8
2008 (110) Bom.L.R.2167
19 | P a g e
importers/exporter, it is important to understand

indirect infringement because even though they must be
making and suppling the product as per specifications
of the client, there is a likelihood of indirect
infringement. Appropriate and timely due diligence at
initial phase is very helpful.
Indirect patent infringement is of two types, induced

and contributory.
a) Induced Infringement
In case of Induced infringement, one actively and

knowingly induces the other person to infringe a patent
by encouraging, assisting, aiding, inducing him/her to
do so. A potential inducer of infringement is aware of
existence of the patent as well as intend for their actions
to result in a third party infringing that patent. It is
interesting to note that patent infringement by
inducement can also include licensing/assigning an
invention for which there has been a patent. Patent
infringement by inducement typically means that the
inducer willingly and knowingly aided in the
20 | P a g e
infringement but may or may not have specifically

intended to violate a patent infringement.
Let’s understand indirect infringement with help of a

case law, SEB S.A. v. Montgomery Ward & Co. Inc 9.
Here, SEB, a French company specializing in cooking
appliances sued defendants Montgomaery Ward,
Global-Tech Appliances Inc., and Pentalpha
Enterprises Ltd for infringing their patent on a deep
fryer, which has an outer shell that was less expensive
compared to the others in the market. Pentalpha, a
Hong Kong based Company, bought SEB’s deep fryers,
copied every aspect of it except certain aesthetic
features. Pentalpha had even appointed an attorney to
analyse the patent infringement risks of their patent but
did not communicate the fact that their product was
copied from SEB. They then sold these products in the
U.S. but later became aware of litigation between SEB
and Sunbeam (a company which sold Pentalpha’s
infringing products in the U.S.) and also about the other
patents owned by SEB. Pentalpha still continued the
9
594 F.3d 1360 (Fed. Cir. 2010)
21 | P a g e
infringing act and in the Court argued that they had no

actual knowledge of the patent for a portion of the time
it was selling the accused deep fryers to third parties.
However, the very fact that they copied their device
from a SEB product shows “deliberate indifference” on
their part. So basically, ignorance of the existence of
patent is not a defence when proper care has not been
taken to see if such patents exist.
In 2015, a question of induced infringement was

remanded back to the Federal Circuit court by the U.S.
Supreme Court. The case in question was Akamai
Technologies, Inc. v. Limelight Networks, Inc.10 where
the Court held that induced infringement cannot be said
to have occurred without the existence of a single direct
infringer. Akamai had sued Limelight for infringing
their patent on web development stating that the
defendants had copied all the steps in the patent except
one, a “tagging” step, which Limelight had asked the
customers themselves to do. The Federal Circuit court
had earlier said that the act constituted infringement
10
Fed. Cir. Aug. 13, 2015
22 | P a g e
because all but one steps are done by Limelight and it

knowingly induced its customers to do the missing step.
However, on remand, the Court reversed its decision on
the grounds that Limelight only suggested the missing
step and was not responsible for the actions of its
customers. The infringers must have directed or
controlled a third party to infringe the patent for it to be
considered as an induced infringement.
b) Contributory Infringement
Contributory infringement happens when there is an

intentional participation or assistance by one party in
an act of infringement to the other party making them
vicariously liable for the acts of the infringer.
Contributory infringement is a type of indirect
infringement, where a person or corporation is held
liable for infringement even if they have not actively
participated in infringing activities. Therefore, it
happens when a party sells a product which they know
is used in the infringing product. In usual cases, this
product will have no commercial standing out of its use
in the infringing product.
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Contributory infringement is triggered when a seller

provides a part or component that, while not itself
infringing any patent, has a particular use as part of
some other machine or composition that is covered by a
patent. Contributory patent infringement is very similar
to induced patent infringement, the basic difference
between the two involving the specific intent.
In Bristol Myers case11, Faulding, a pharmaceutical

company distributed Anzatax, a drug for breast and
ovarian cancer. The product information guide, which
contained administration and dosage specifications,
mentioned the use of the active ingredient of the drug,
Taxol. It was ultimately held by the Federal Courts that
Faulding, by supplying a drug containing Taxol and
mentioning it in their product guide had infringed
Myers patent. Here, the company hadn’t directly
infringed the patent of another company. But the mere
fact that they mentioned a patented ingredient as guide,
was enough to constitute contributory infringement
11
Bristol-Myers Squibb Co v FH Faulding (2000) 46 IPR 533
24 | P a g e
because by following the direction in the information

guide, a doctor would infringe Myers patents.
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Minimising patent infringement risk
Certain acts not to be considered as infringement
Chapter 4
Certain acts not to be considered as

infringement
A patent is said to be
infringed when the exclusive
rights granted to the patent
holder by the sovereign is
utilized by a third,
unauthorized party. That is,
if a party, without the consent of the patent holder
manufactures, sells, imports, markets or offers to sell a
patented product, it is said to be an infringement. The
Indian Patent Act does not define or lay down acts that
amount to infringement. However, it clearly lays down
certain acts which will not result in infringement. Such
acts are as follows:
“Any act of making, constructing, using, selling
or importing a patented invention solely for
uses reasonably related to the development and
submission of information required under any
26 | P a g e
law for the time being in force, in India, or in a

country other than India, that regulates the
manufacture, construction, use, sale or import
of any product1”.
That is, once the patent specifications are made

available to public by publication, third parties are
permitted to use such information to conduct
experiments for the purposes of doing further
developments on the patent. This provision is more or
less applicable to drug manufacturers who can make
use of this provision to conduct extensive research on a
patented product. This will enable them to produce and
market their new product at the expiry of the original
patent.
Section 107A of Indian Patents Act includes one such

exception called as Bolar Exemption. It was introduced
in the year 2002 following India’s accession to the
TRIPS agreement which provides for exemptions to the
rights provided to patentees2.
1
Section 107A(a), Patents Act, 1970
2
Article 30, Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
27 | P a g e
The name ‘Bolar’ comes from the celebrated case of

Roche Products v. Bolar Pharmaceutical3 in the United
States. Roche and Bolar were tied up in an infringement
suit, the result of which was a change of legislation in
the United States. Roche had a patent over the drug
Flurazepam which is a benzodiazepine similar to
Valium. In order to manufacture the product, Valium,
the active ingredient of which was patented by Roche,
was to be available in the market as soon as the patent
expired, Bolar started experimenting on the patented
product a year before the patent was to expire. They
then submitted their work to the FDA (The Food and
Drug Administration) for approval. Roche initiated an
infringement suit against Bolar for experimenting on
their patented product. Bolar, however, argued that
they had no commercial intentions with respect to the
drug prior to the expiry of Roche’s patent. The Trial
Court decided in favour of Bolar but on appeal the
Appellate Court reversed the judgement stating that
Bolar’s experimentation was for commercial
3
733 F.2d 858 (Fed. Cir. 1984)
28 | P a g e
exploitation of the drug and not for “amusement, to

satisfy idle curiosity, or for philosophical inquiry”4.
Bolar was not to be subdued and argued that the long
terms required for FDA approvals would give Roche
unfair advantage of indirectly extended patent. This
finally lead to the U.S. Congress passing an Act which
recognised Bolar’s concerns and allowed them to
experiment with patented products so as to apply for
FDA approval well before the expiry date of patent.
Bolar Provision is a great relief to generic drug makers

and the government to make sure that their drugs get to
the market as soon as the original patent expires. It also
acts as a check on the monopoly a drug maker acquires
on being granted a patent. Bolar provision, therefore,
balances the two very important aspects of business
monopolies and public welfare.
4
Id. Page 2, III. B. (available at http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-
of-management/15-628j-patents-copyrights-and-the-law-of-intellectual-
property-spring-2013/readings/MIT15_628JS13_read35.pdf)
29 | P a g e
Another defence for patent infringement is given under

Section 107A (b) of Indian Patents Act, which reads
thus:
“Importation of patented products by any
person from a person, who is duly authorized
under the law to produce and sell or distribute
the product, shall not be considered as an
infringement of patent rights”5.
It is not considered as infringement if a patented

product is imported into a country by a party from
another, who is authorised to do such act. Therefore,
the original patent holder need not be made aware of
such importation and the products thus imported, will
be considered as non-counterfeit. This provision is
known as Parallel imports, which is sometimes referred
to as “grey market” imports and usually occurs when
products have different prices in different markets. For
example, a certain brand may sell their mobile phones
at $100 in one country but sell the same at $50 in
another country due to manufacturing costs, competitor
5 Section 107A(b), Patents Act, 1970
30 | P a g e
pricing, market regulations etc., in such occasions

parallel importation is not an unusual occurrence.
One more important point to be mentioned here is that

Parallel Importation cannot be challenged in the WTO
(World Trade Organisation) dispute settlement system
as it has been mentioned in the TRIPS Agreement6.
Tokyo High Court, in March, 1995 decided on a case7

which dealt with parallel importation. A German
company, BBS Kraftfahrzeug Technik A.G. (hereinafter
“BBS”) held patents for certain automobile caps made
of aluminium. They were purchased in Germany by a
Japanese company which then exported them to Japan
to another company which sold these goods. The two
companies were under the same management. The
goods were sold at a lower price in Japan by the
Japanese company when compared to the pricing of
BBS dealerships. A patent infringement suit was filed,
6
Article 6, Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
7
B. Jap Auto Products, K. K. and Another v. BBS Kraftfahrzeug Technik
A.G., 1995(o)No.1988
31 | P a g e
which on first instance was decided in favour of BBS.

On appeal, the High Court held that BBS did not have
any rights on the product since the rights were
exhausted when the goods were sold to a legal
purchaser, the Japanese company in Germany who
exported the products.
This had created a furore in Japan since parallel

importation of patented products was considered
infringement before in the country.
Patents are a very strong tool for companies to establish

themselves in the market. A granted patent provides the
patent holder with the authority to prevent any
unauthorised third party from manufacturing, selling,
offering to sale, import or export their product. This has
the capability to bring about a very compelling
monopoly in the market. While sovereigns have to allow
such monopolies to exist, their prime function remains
as public welfare. That is, the monopoly must not engulf
the market in such a way that the patent holder gains
benefits even after the expiry of the patent. It should
also not lead to a stage where the patented product
32 | P a g e
doesn’t reach the public or is unaffordable to the

majority mass. That is the basis for the two provisions
under Section 107A of the Patents Act which legalise
certain acts, which otherwise would have been
considered to be an infringement of patent rights.
The provisions aim at further development of a patent

and providing the best priced goods to the public. The
Bolar provision has made numerous advances in the
pharmaceutical field. Drug makers and the Government
are allowed to conduct research on patented drugs,
which can result in huge advances to the medical field.
Parallel importation allows the possibility of lesser
priced, non-counterfeit goods in the market. It needn’t
always be advantageous or beneficial to the companies,
but the bigger picture certainly appears favourable to
the public with these provisions in place.
33 | P a g e
Minimising patent infringement risk Why to bother about infringement?
Chapter 5
Why to bother about infringement?
Patent filing is increasing

globally as well as in India as
indicated by the data provided
in the annual reports of Indian
Patent Office1. In the year
2008-2009, 36,812 patent
applications were filed in Indian Patent Office, which is
5% higher as compared to the year 2007-2008.
According to World Patent Report 2008 Edition of
WIPO2, approximately 6.1 million patents were in force
worldwide in 2006. Patent filings grew by 9 percent
worldwide in 2013. Therefore, while competing in a
global market, one cannot ignore the existing patents in
that particular country or jurisdiction and under such
circumstances, assessment of chances of patent
infringement becomes a key to enter any new market.
1
http://ipindia.gov.in/main_text1.htm
2
http://www.wipo.int/ipstats/en/statistics/patents/wipo_pub_931.html#a41
34 | P a g e
Additionally, the information regarding relevant

existing patents is important to avoid future litigation
or disputes as well.
Two companies, namely, Anant Electronics and

Futuristic Concepts Media Ltd were using “Digital
Transmission System” technology to manufacture VCDs
using MPEG 1 coding audio compression/expansion
system in India. Philips had a patent protection (Patent
no 175971) on this technology in India, of which these
two companies were unaware. Therefore, these two
companies were infringing the patent granted to
Philips. Delhi High Court ordered both the companies
to stop manufacturing the VCDs that infringed Philip’s
“digital transmission system” patent. Had they done
infringement risk analysis before manufacturing and
launching the product, they would have saved huge time
and money lost in the litigation. Therefore, using
technology protected by another company can drive one
out of business and prior risk assessment is essential to
prevent such disputes.
35 | P a g e
This big vulnerability of using another’s patented

technology was further demonstrated in the celebrated
case of Polaroid v. Kodak3 which has been discussed in
the later section of this book.
In another recent case in the year 2014, The Delhi High

Court banned imports and sales of Xiaomi mobile
devices in India as the company's devices sold in India
were found to infringe on a number of
telecommunications-related patents (regarding 3G,
EDGE and AMR) that belonged to Ericsson. The Delhi
High Court imposed the ban on Xiaomi and its local
partner, e-commerce firm Flipkart. Ericsson had also
sued Intex Technologies India, Micromax Infomatics
Ltd. and Gionee Communication Equipment Co. Ltd.
for their telecommunications patents. The Courts
granted interim remedies to Ericsson in all the suits and
the companies were asked to pay royalties for using the
patented technologies, which ensured high profits for
Ericsson.
3
Polaroid Corp. v. Eastman Kodak Co. (DC Mass) 16 USPQ2d 1481
36 | P a g e
Recently, in January, 2015 the Delhi High Court

granted temporary injunction against Cipla for
infringing Novartis’s patent on ‘Onbrez’, a drug for
pulmonary patients. Cipla had launched low cost,
locally made product, which they argued was necessary
for public good and welfare since Novartis did not
provide enough of the drug in the country at affordable
costs. The validity of the patent was in question before
the Courts (Cipla had filed for revocation of Novartis's
patents) when Cipla had started manufacturing the
drug. The Court disagreed with the defendant’s
contentions that their production of the cheaper drug
was for public welfare, pointing out that they had not
even applied for a compulsory license, which would
have been a more favourable route, in contrast with
blatant infringement of existing patents, had
affordability and product reach were their intentions.
The ban on producing its drug was a great setback to
Cipla at that point of time. On May, 2015, Cipla had
offered to pay Novartis a reasonable amount as royalty
so as to be able to continue manufacturing their
product. No further comments have been received from
37 | P a g e
either of the companies in this regard amidst

speculations that Novartis may give distribution rights
of the drug to Cipla. It is a misconception that if one has
been granted a patent for a product or design of the
product, it is safe to make, use and sell the patented
product and there is no risk of infringement if the
product is meant for public welfare. Initial due diligence
is needed in both circumstances, whether you have or
don’t have a patent.
38 | P a g e
What is “Freedom To Operate” search?
Chapter 6
What is “Freedom To Operate”

search?
"Freedom To Operate",
abbreviated as "FTO", also
termed as “clearance search” is a
kind of patent search that is
performed to determine whether
or not a particular action, such as
manufacturing, testing or commercialising a product
can be done by a company without infringing valid
intellectual property rights of others. Or in other words,
whether such company is “Free To Operate” without
any risk of patent infringement or not. Broadly defined,
FTO means the ability to proceed with the research,
development and/or commercial production, marketing
39 | P a g e
or use of a new product or process with a minimal risk

of infringing the unlicensed IP rights of others1.
The process of performing FTO analysis starts with

the careful identification, separation and
classification of the invention or the process into its
basic components. Listing out conventionally used
nomenclature is very critical in FTO searches, as it
helps to formulate right kinds of key words, without
which, the search will not pull the relevant patent
documents. In the next step, using various search
strategies, relevant patents are pulled and listed out.
Claims of such patents are then mapped with the
product features and at the end, claims are
interpreted and opinion on patent infringement is
formulated as per national laws of the given
jurisdiction.
It is critical to clarify that when an FTO analysis is

conducted, it only reduces or minimises the risk of
1
Anonymous. 2004. Freedom to Operate. WIPO Magazine, September–October,
Issue 5
40 | P a g e
infringement of an existing patent. It is not a

guarantee or representation of complete or
unconditional freedom to operate but is only
assessment or likelihood of infringement risk. FTO is
therefore a careful observation of existing patents in
the field of the new invention, in the given
jurisdiction, within a certain time limit, which gives
an estimation of infringement liability. An FTO
research usually divides existing third-party
intellectual property into three classes:
1. Patents that have a high likelihood of being

infringed and therefore require a license from
patent holder; or
2. Patents that may be infringed, depending
upon how claims are interpreted; or
3. Patents that are clearly outside the field of
the product and require no license.
Despite the fact that most companies have employed

analysts, researchers and attorneys to avoid patent
infringement, the incident rate of patent infringement is
still on the rise.
41 | P a g e
A very famous case which has become important to

reiterate the significance of a thorough FTO search is
that of Polaroid Vs Kodak2 wherein, Eastman Kodak on
12th October 1990 was held liable for infringing the 7
patents belonging to Polaroid on instant camera
technology. This is probably the most painful case-law
in the history of IPR. Kodak had to pay US$
909,457,567 to Polaroid and also had to withdraw all
the instant cameras and films it had sold previously
from the market thereby having to compensate the
customers, which almost bankrupted the photography
giant of that time. Kodak was also forced to shut down
its US$ 1.5 billion manufacturing plant, lay off 700
workers and spent nearly US$ 500 million buying back
the 16 million cameras it had sold between 1976 and
1985. US$ 873 million damages were paid to Polaroid,
at the end of a prolonged 14-year litigation process,
which finally ended in 1990. Unfortunately, Kodak was
out of instant picture business for 15 years.
2
Polaroid Corp. v. Eastman Kodak Co. (DC Mass) 16 USPQ2d 1481
42 | P a g e
When a case for patent infringement comes before the

Courts, one of the factors that is considered by the
judges is whether the infringer had conducted a risk
analysis or FTO search in advance or not.
Wilful/deliberate infringement plays a vital role in
determining the kind of damages that the Court decides
to pay to the patent holder. If a detailed FTO has been
conducted, the damages may be reduced by the court 3.
However, simply obtaining an opinion of counsel is not
sufficient to protect the infringer. Additionally, in order
to recover damages, the patentee must prove wilful
infringement by clear and convincing evidence.
According to Polaroid, no skilled attorney would have

advised Kodak that the patents in suit were invalid or
not likely to be infringed by Kodak's instant film and
cameras. Kodak then stated that, as it developed its
integral instant photography system, it repeatedly
obtained validity and infringement opinions from
Francis T. Carr, an expert in patent clearance. Mr. Carr
reviewed over 250 Polaroid and non-Polaroid patents
43 | P a g e
(containing literally hundreds of claims) and rendered

countless oral and 67 written opinions on the entire
range of products Kodak developed as part of its instant
photography program. In the end, it was held by the
Court that Kodak's infringement of Polaroid patents
was not wilful or deliberate.
On April 22, 2005 Medtronic, the world’s largest

medical technology company, paid US$1.35 billion to
settle a patent lawsuit. Medtronic was alleged to have
infringed the rights of a Los Angeles based spine
surgeon, who had patents on his spinal implant
inventions, which helped in speedy recovery for
patients. Interestingly, it was Medtronic which had
originally sued the doctor for interfering with their
business by marketing the inventions to their
competitor, which was against a previous licensing
agreement entered between the parties. The doctor
countersued, claiming that the company breached the
agreement by not using the licence and denying him
royalties which led to the infringement of his rights.
44 | P a g e
In patent infringement case between U.S.

pharmaceutical company Merck Sharp and Dohme
Corp. and Indian Glenmark Pharmaceuticals Ltd.,
Merck had alleged that Glenmark infringed its patent
rights. According to Merck, the main ingredient in
Glenmark’s drug could not be manufactured without an
active molecule, which is invented and patented by the
company. Glenmark had contended that since it was
using the patented product in combination with another
salt there was sufficient distinction of its product from
the one patented. This was denied by the Delhi High
Court and Glenmark was permanently barred from
selling, manufacturing, advertising, exporting or
distributing its drug. Interestingly, about 3 months
before this case, in January 2015, Glenmark was also
barred from manufacturing another drug which was
patented by Symed Labs. Needless to say, both the
litigations resulted in heavy losses for the Indian
company.
45 | P a g e
As evident from the Kodak v. Polaroid and Bajaj/TVS

Motor Company litigations4, the losses related to patent
infringement do not necessarily result only from
damages granted by courts. In the Bajaj case, Bajaj sued
TVS for using its patented “internal combustion engine
working on four stroke principle” which was an act of
infringement. TVS contented that two spark plugs in the
TVS engine was an addition to a patent held by Honda
in the U.S. which had expired earlier and pleaded that
the patent granted to Bajaj be revoked. The Court
ordered temporary injunction against the sale of TVS’s
motorbike called ‘Flame’, which used the said patented
technology. The court opined that even though the
company had done improvements upon Bajaj’s engine,
it could still only be considered as improvements on a
patented product and not as a new product. TVS had
raised objections only in 2007 when Bajaj had started
selling motorbikes with their new engine as early as in
2003.
4
Bajaj Auto Ltd v. TVS Motor Company Ltd (2008) ILLJ 726 Mad
46 | P a g e
A single bench of Madras High Court granted interim

jurisdiction to plaintiffs, which was reversed by a
division bench of the same court. The Supreme Court
allowed TVS to sell their motorbike but was ordered to
keep track of its international and domestic sale and
asked the Madras High Court to appoint a receiver for
the same. The loss suffered by TVS during the period
when the interlocutory order of the Madras High Court
was prevalent only reiterate the fact that a thorough and
early FTO must be done by businesses before
diversifying into new markets or using new
technologies. Even with proper FTO and patent
infringement assessment and the assessment can only
be considered as a mitigating rather than a preventive
measure.
Since patent rights are specific to the jurisdiction, an

FTO analysis should be restricted to the country or
region where a company wants to operate. FTO study
serves as an effective risk assessment tool for assessing
commercialization of a given product at a given time,
and in a given jurisdiction. In addition to this, the
47 | P a g e
search shall be restricted to nearly 22-24 years prior to

the present patent application because FTO analysis is
restricted only to legally valid and enforceable patents.
As life of patent is 20 years from date of filing and in
case of PCT-national phase application, it is 20 years
from the date of filing international application,
analysing patents within 22-24 years restriction is
recommended. As you know, the patent application is
published only after the expiry of 18 months from the
date of filing and is not searchable before that. So, it is a
good idea to repeat the process of FTO search after 8-10
months or so.
48 | P a g e
Minimising patent infringement risk Scope of FTO Analysis
Chapter 7
Scope of FTO Analysis
FTO search is limited only to

the patents and not to the
non-patent publication or
other literature, as there is no
legal protection obtained over
the publications. For FTO,
assessment of not only issued patents, but also of the
pending patent applications is necessary to make sure
that the proposed product or process does not infringe
any valid patent or patent applications of third
party(ies). However, when the patent applications are
taken into consideration to perform FTO, it is essential
to keep track of such applications as they may or may
not be granted and also they may be amended as a
result of examination by the examiners. Such
prosecution history plays a vital role in preparing the
report.
49 | P a g e
FTO search is limited only to the patents in force

because expired patents are in public domain and there
is no question of infringing them. FTO requires in-
depth analysis of patent claims, as the claims are the
only part of a patent to get legal protection and are
assessed to check validity or legal status of patent(s).
FTO opinion provides risk assessment relating to
infringement of granted patents and potential
infringement of pending patent applications.
For example, if a company wants to launch a new

product in UK, the company shall perform FTO search
on in-force patents or unexpired patents (also on the
pending patent applications) in UK region to ensure
that the company is not infringing patent rights of any
third party. FTO analysis has to focus on the patent
claims and the report must include the legal status of
the identified relevant patents and pending patent
applications.
Systematic FTO search and analysis prior to product

launch is therefore a way of minimising (but not
eliminating) the risk of infringing third party IP rights.
50 | P a g e
It may also facilitate the identification of business

partners and attract investors to support business
development plans. A well-executed FTO can also open
up business opportunities, as illustrated by the Indian
pharmaceutical company Ranbaxy in the United States.
Ranbaxy wanted to launch one of their products in the
United States but on an FTO search came across
another company Apotex holding a patent to the
product. However, on a detailed FTO it became clear
that even though the process was same, the patent
specification of Apotex did not include the word “acetic
acid” despite using it in their process. This variation was
proven not to be under the doctrine of equivalence and
Ranbaxy introduced their product in the new market
successfully.
51 | P a g e
Minimising patent infringement risk Burden of proof
Chapter 8
Burden of proof in case of suits

concerning infringement
Burden of proof is the

obligation on one party in a
dispute to offer sufficient
evidence to the Court so as to
corroborate their contentions.
Generally, in civil cases, the
burden of proof is on the plaintiff and the plaintiff shall
prove by means of evidence that his rights have been
violated. Sometimes in exceptional cases, the burden of
proof shifts from plaintiff to the defendant, a party that
is required to answer the complaint of a plaintiff or
pursuer in a civil lawsuit before a court. In patent
litigation, if the patent in question is on a product, the
burden of proof is on the plaintiff and if it is on a
process, the burden shift to the defendant mostly
because a plaintiff cannot look at the similarity in the
52 | P a g e
end product and conclude whether the same process

has been used.
According to Section 104A of the Indian Patents Act,

1970 [Burden of proof in case of suits concerning
infringement], when a law-suit is filed by the plaintiff
for infringement of his patent rights, the defendant
shall defend himself and prove that he is not infringing
the rights of the plaintiff. Common practice is that
defendant contests validity of the claims and tries to
revoke the patent so that patent fails to be in force and
he can escape the infringement charges.
The term “Revocation” is generally used for the act of

recall or annulment or reversal of grant of patent. When
a patent is revoked, it ceases to be in force from the date
of revocation. There is close similarity between post-
grant opposition and revocation of a patent as both can
take place only after grant of a patent based on certain
grounds of opposition. End result of both is same i.e.,
the patent ceases to be in force or is amended. However,
the difference between post-grant opposition and
revocation is that post-grant opposition can take place
53 | P a g e
within 1 year from the grant of patent but revocation

takes place after expiry of 1 year from the date of grant
of patent till the time the patent is in force. Revocation
can be done by the Appellate board on a petition of any
person interested1 or on petition of Central Government
or on a counter-claim in a suit for infringement of the
patent by the High Court.
1
An interested person is one who has a direct, present and tangible
commercial interest which is injured or affected by the continuance of the
granted patent.
54 | P a g e
Minimising patent infringement risk Relief in suits for infringement
Chapter 9
Relief in suits for infringement
When patent infringement

happens, the patentee may sue
the infringer or defendant to get
relief in the appropriate court.
Relief is a remedy which a Court
of Justice may afford in relation
to some actual or apprehended
wrong or injury (In this section, it means infringement
of patent rights). The reliefs which a court may grant in
any suit for infringement according to Section 108
[Reliefs in suit for infringement] include:
a) Injunction, which is a Court’s order to refrain a

person from infringing the patent rights by using
the process or product of the patent owner.
b) At the option of the plaintiff, either damages
[award of money] or an account of profits. An
account of profits is a type of equitable remedy
55 | P a g e
most commonly used in cases of infringement. It

is an action taken against a defendant to recover
the profits obtained by him as a result of
infringement and it acts as a check on unjust
enrichment.
While conducting an ‘Account of Profits’, the plaintiff is
treated as if they were conducting the business of the
defendant, and made those profits which were
attributable to the defendant's wrongful actions. The
Court may also order that the goods which are found to
be infringing and materials and implements, the
predominant use of which is in the creation of
infringing goods shall be seized, forfeited or destroyed,
as the Court deems fit under the circumstances of the
case without payment of any compensation1.
A division bench of the Delhi High Court in Franz

Xaver Huemer vs. New Yash Engineers2 held that a
temporary injunction cannot be granted in favour of a
party who has registered a patent in India but did not
1
Section 108, Indian Patents Act
2
AIR 1997 Delhi 79
56 | P a g e
use it. On the same lines, the same Court in yet another
case of Sandeep Jaidka vs Mukesh Mittal & Anr.3 in
2014 ruled that no interim injunction could be granted
against the defendant who was alleged to have infringed
the patent of the plaintiff for a “4D Movie Experience”.
Since the plaintiff hadn’t commercially exploited his
patent and the defendant (even though had copied the
patented system) had put in huge capital to produce his
system, the balance of convenience was in favour of the
defendants.
When companies enter new

markets with new products it is
important for them to launch
the latest technologies or
products. However, it is even
more important to make sure
that their products do not
infringe any existing patent(s) in the given jurisdiction.
Patent litigations can be tiresome, both finance wise
and time wise and hence precaution in the form of FTO
3
CS(OS) No.1900/2010 Delhi High Court
57 | P a g e
analysis is better than looking for a cure to the

litigations. A proper FTO analysis can not only alleviate
the chances of having to go through patent infringement
litigation, but it might also open up new business
prospects.
58 | P a g e
Minimising patent infringement risk About Origiin
About Origiin
Origiin is a value driven company

that offers services and solutions
in the area of Intellectual
Property Rights. Our prime areas
of focus are Patent, Copyright, Trademark, Design and
Contract law. We provide complete IP solutions to the
innovation and research based companies by assisting
them with identification, analysis, protection,
management and exploitation of IP in an effective
manner. With a team of skilled patent agents and
attorneys we have so far provided quality services to
more than 250 companies from diverse areas of
technology.
Mission
 Be recognized and respected as one

of the premier IPR organizations
with strong values in terms of
transparency, honesty and
59 | P a g e
authenticity.
 Enable clients to realize long term value and
benefits from IP by identifying, securing, exploiting
and managing it in best possible and cost-effective
manner.
 Make the industry and academia aware about the
legal provisions and concepts of IPR in a simplified
manner thereby enabling them to secure, exploit
and manage it.
Values
Origiin is a diverse group of

professionals with a common set
of core values. Transparency,
honesty, responsiveness to our
client’s needs and requirements
are the basic tenets on which Origiin is founded. We
consider these as extremely critical components for long
term successful business relationships. We are committed
to serve our clients by providing cost-effective, timely and
high-quality services.
60 | P a g e
Our services
Origiin is a value driven company

that offers services and solutions
in the area of Intellectual Property
Rights. Our prime areas of focus
are Patent, Copyright, Trademark, Design and Contract
law. We provide complete IP solutions to the innovation
and research based companies by assisting them with
identification, analysis, protection, management and
exploitation of IP in an effective manner. With a team of
skilled patent agents and attorneys we have so far
provided quality services to more than 250 companies
from diverse areas of technology.
Our main areas of services are:

1. Patent
2. Patent Search and Analytics
3. IP Management
4. IP Monetization
5. Spaark and New Product Development
6. Patent alerts
7. Trademark
61 | P a g e
8. Copyright
9. Design
Our other publications
1. All you want to know about patents
About the book: The objective of

this book is to present an insight to
different aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (IPR). The book is a
compilation of various articles
published by Origiin IP Solutions LLP
and aims to provide a clear understanding of
importance of patent search, considerations before
filing for a patent, process of patenting, position of
software related inventions, career in IPR etc.
How to order: Goto www.origiin.com to download

your free copy
62 | P a g e
2. Handbook on Intellectual Property Rights
About the book:
The Handbook provides a brief

introduction to various types of
Intellectual Property Rights.
How to order: Goto www.origiin.com
to download your free copy.
3. Dictionary on Indian Patent Law
About the book:
The dictionary has been designed in a

unique manner explaining legal
meaning of the key terms with
reference to relevant sections and rules,
illustrations, case-laws wherever
applicable.
How to order: Goto www.flipkart.com or

www.infibeam.com to order online.
63 | P a g e
ABOUT THE BOOK
Minimising risk
The objective of this book ofreaders to comprehend the ways to
is to allow
reduce patent infringement risks in today’s competitive backdrop.
PATENT INFRINGEMENT
Freedom to Operate or FTO search is the most effective manner to
reduce patent infringement risks and is to be compulsorily done by
2015
everybody willing to launch a new product in the market.
The book, through examples and case laws, aims to provide a clear
understanding of the importance of patents, rights of patent holders,
types of patent infringements, the devastating effects of patent
infringement litigations and ways to alleviate the chances of being faced
with such litigations. Special care has been made to make the book
simple and straightforward so as to be of use to beginners and
professionals alike. We hope our efforts have been beneficial to you.
Cover photo courtesy: freeimages.com/Jakub Sopicki
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Patent is one of the most important

It is very important to understand that patent rights are territorial

enforceable only in that jurisdiction. For example, a US patent is

Let’s take up an example. Suppose there is a company “X” working

In November 2012, Apple Inc. was ordered to pay US$368.2

Therefore, if you are planning to develop and launch a new

Patent litigation can be an extremely expensive and a risky affair

In this book, we will discuss the importance in assessing patent

Rights of a patent holder

Before we proceed further, it is

Rights of a patent holder or patentee, according to

(1) Where the subject matter of the patent is

Violation of any of these rights is called as “Patent

consent of patentee and where the subject matter of the

Therefore, it is evident that patent does not give any

In simpler terms, patent does not give the patent

parties to make, use, sell, offer for sale or import any

What is Patent infringement?

In a patent specification, “Claims” define scope of the

Though there are various types of claims, there are two

claim the process to make the product, infringement of

Types of patent infringement

Patent infringement can be broadly divided into two

Direct patent infringement is the most apparent and

Literal infringement, as the name suggests, occurs when

falls directly within the scope of patent claims. In case

In case of literal infringement, all the elements of the

Accordingly, in Larami Corporation v. Alan Amron

In India, however, this rule is not exactly followed. The

“In construing an allegation of infringement, what is to

b) Non-literal infringement [Doctrine of

In case of non-literal infringement, patent infringement

doctrine of equivalence because both ethanol and

 performs substantially the same function,

The goal of the doctrine of equivalents is to provide

hence mere replacement of Manganese with

In another Australian case, Beecham Group Limited V.

Ampicillin. The court held that the defendant was

An Indian case, where a reference to the doctrine of

both similar and concluded that the defendant’s product

However, the recent Indian case of Ravi Kamal Bali v.

importers/exporter, it is important to understand

Indirect patent infringement is of two types, induced

In case of Induced infringement, one actively and

infringement but may or may not have specifically

Let’s understand indirect infringement with help of a

infringing act and in the Court argued that they had no

In 2015, a question of induced infringement was

because all but one steps are done by Limelight and it

Contributory infringement happens when there is an