Mwedc Lab

DESCRIPTION OF MICROWAVE BENCH
Introduction:
Electrical measurements encountered in the microwave region of

the electromagnetic spectrum are discussed through microwave
measurement techniques. This measurement technique is vastly different
from that of the more conventional techniques. The methods are based on
the wave character of high frequency currents rather than on the low
frequency technique of direct determination of current or voltage. For
example, the measurement of power flow in a system specifies the product
of the electric and magnetic fields .Where as the measurement of
impedance determines their ratio .Thus these two measurements indirectly
describe the distribution of the electric field and magnetic fields in the
system and provides its complete description .This is ,in fact ,the approach
to most of the measurements carried out in the micro wave region of the
spectrum.
Microwave Bench:
The micro wave test bench incorporates a range of instruments
capable of allowing all types of measurements that are usually required
for a microwave engineer .The bench is capable of being assembled or
disassembled in a number of ways to suit individual experiments .A
general block diagram of the test bench comprising its different units and
ancillaries are shown bellow.
Crystal Measuring
Power D I
S e n
u t s
p e t
MW Variable Frequency Slotted
p Isolator c Component r
O
l A m It uu
sy t e so nm
c
Department of ECE MLRIT 1 t t LABORATORYo
MWE & DC de
r
i e e l en
l n r a rt
l u t
Department of ECE MLRIT 2 MWE & DC LABORATORY
1. Klystron Power Supply:
Klystron Power Supply generates voltages required for driving the
reflex Klystron tube like 2k25 .It is stable, regulated and short circuit
protected power supply. It has built on facility of square wave and
saw tooth generators for amplitude and frequency modulation. The beam
voltage ranges from 200V to 450V with maximum beam current.50mA.
The provision is given to vary repeller voltage continuously from
-270V DC to -10V.
2. Gunn Power Supply:
Gunn Power Supply comprises of an electronically regulated power
supply and a square wave generator designed to operate the Gunn
oscillator and PIN Modulator. The Supply Voltage ranges from 0 to 12V
with a maximum current, 1A.
Reflex Klystron Oscillator:

At high frequencies , the performance of a conventional vacuum
tube is impaired due to transit time effects, lead inductance and inter-
electrode capacitance. Klystron is a microwave vacuum tube employing
velocity modulation and transit time in achieving its normal operation.
The reflex type known as reflex klystron, has been the most used source
of microwave power in laboratory (fig.1).It consists of an electron gun
producing collimated electron beam. The electron beam is accelerated
towards the reflector (repellor) by a dc voltage V0, while passing through
the positive resonator grids. The velocity of the electrons in the beam will
be
2eVo
v0 =
m
e = electron charge
m = mass of the electron
Fig: 1 Reflex Klystron Tube
The repeller, which is placed at a short distance from the resonator grids, is kept at
negative potential with respect to cathode. And consequently it retards and
finally reflects the electrons which then turn back through the resonator
grids.
Basic Theory of Operation:
To understand the operation of this device, assume that the
resonator cavity is oscillating slightly, causing an AC potential, say
V1sinωt in addition to Vo, to appear across the cavity grids. These initial
oscillations could be cause by any small disturbance in the electron beam.
In the presence of the RF field, the electrons which traverse towards the
repeller will acquire the velocity
2e(Vo  V 1sin wt )
V=
m
Thus we have a velocity modulated beam traveling towards the

repeller ,having velocities between
Vo√1+V1/Vo and Vo√1- V1/Vo, i.e electrons leaving the cavity during the positive half
cycle are accelerated while electrons leaving the cavity during negative
half cycle are decelerated. Obviously, the electrons traversing towards the

repeller with increased velocity, i.e. faster ones shall penetrate farther into
the region of the repeller field (called drift space) as compared to the
electrons traversing towards the repeller with decreased velocity, i.e.,
slower ones. But the faster electrons, leaving the cavity take longer time to
return to it and the faster electrons, therefore, catch up with slow ones. As
a result the resulting electrons group together in bunches. The bunching
action is shown in Fig.2.
Fig 2:Bunching of Electrons in reflex Klystron Oscillator

As the electron bunches re cross the cavity, they interact with the
voltage between the Cavity grids. If the bunches pass through the grids at
the time when the grid potential is such that the electrons are severally
decelerated, the decelerated electrons give up their energy and this energy
reinforces oscillations within the cavity. Hence under these conditions,
sustained oscillations are possible. The electrons having spent much of
their energy are then collected by the positive cavity wall near the
cathode. Thus, it is clear that in its normal operation the repeller electrode
does not carry any current and indeed this electrode can severely be
damaged by bombardment. To protect the repelled from such damage, the
repeller voltage VR is always applied before the accelerating voltage Vo.
Power Frequency Characteristics:

The cavities used in reflex klystrons do not have infinite Q, as such
each mode of operation will be spread over a narrow range of repeller
voltages. Fig.3 shows the variation of frequency and power output versus
repeller voltages along with mode number. . It should, however, be noted
that repeller voltage - mode number correspondence is valid only at the
center of mode (maximum power) of operation. That is, the repeller
voltage needed for the calculations should measured only at the peak(top )
of the mode. The variation in repeller voltage from the peak of the mode
causes change in transit time, as a result the bunch is either not properly
formed or starts de-bunching, thereby decreasing output power and also a
slight change in frequency observed.
Fig:3 Typical Mode Curves of Reflex Klystron

Fig 4: Cross Sectional View Of 2K25 Reflex Klystron
3.Gunn oscillator:
Gunn oscillator uti1izes Gunn diode which works on the principle that when a
DC voltage is applied across a sample of n - type Gallium Arsenide; the
current oscillates at .microwave frequencies. This does not need high
voltage as it is necessary for Klystrons and therefore solid state oscillators
are now finding wide applications. Normally, they are capable of
delivering 0.5 watt at 10GHz, but as the frequency of operation is
increased the microwave output power gets considerably reduced.
Gunn oscillators can also be' used as modulated microwave sources.
The modulation is generally provided by means of a PIN diode. PIN diode
is a device whose resistance varies with the bias applied to it. When
waveguide line is shunted with PIN diode and the diode is biased
positively, it presents a very high impedance thereby not affecting the line
appreciably. However, it is negatively biased, it offers a very low
impedance, almost short-circuit thereby reflecting the microwave power

incident on it. As impedance varies with bias, the signal is amplitude
modulated as the bias varies. Since heavy-power is reflected during the
negative biasing of PIN diode, so an isolator or an attenuator should
invariably be used to isolate PIN diode and avoid overloading of the latter.
Gunn oscillator can also be pulse –modulated, but it is accompanied by the
frequency modulation and frequency modulation is not good, so separate
PIN modulation is preferred.
4 .Isolator:
This un attenuated device permits un attenuated transmission in one direction
(forward direction) but provides very high attenuation in the reverse
direction {backward direction). This is generally used between the source
and rest of the set up to avoid overloading of the source due to reflected
power.

5. Variable Attenuator:
The device that attenuates the signal is termed as attenuator. Attenuators are
categorized into two categories namely, the fixed attenuators and variable
attenuators. The attenuator used in the microwave set is of variable type.
The variable attenuator consists of a strip of absorbing material which is
arranged in such a way that its profusion into the guide is adjustable.
Hence, the signal power to be fed to the microwave set up can be set at the
desired level.
6.Frequency Meter:
It is basically a cavity resonator. The method of measuring frequency is to use a
cavity where the size can be varied and it will resonate at a particular
frequency for given size. Cavity is attached to a guide having been excited
by a certain microwave source and is tuned to its resonant frequency. It
sucks up some signal from the guide to maintain its stored energy. Thus if
a power meter had been monitoring the signal
power at the resonating condition of the cavity it will indicate a sharp dip. The tuning
of the cavity is achieved by a micrometer screw and a curve of frequency
versus screw setting is provided. The screw setting at which the power
indication dip is noted and the frequency is read from the curve.
7.Slotted Section:
To sample the field with in a wave guide, a narrow longitudinal slot
with ends tapered to provide smoother impedance transformation and
thereby providing minimum mismatch, is milled on the top of broader
dimension of wave guide. Such section is known as slotted wave guide
section. The slot is generally so many wave lengths long to allow many
minima of standing wave pattern to be covered. The slot location is such
that its presence does not influence the field configurations to any great
degree. On this Section a probe inserted with in a holder, is mounted on a

movable carriage. The output is connected to detector and indicating
meter. For detector tuning a tuning plunger is provided instead of a stub.
8. Matched Load:
The microwave components which absorb all power falling on them
are matched loads. These consist of wave guide sections of definite length
having tapered resistive power absorbing materials. The matched loads are
essentially used to test components and circuits for maximum power
transfer.
9. Short Circuit Termination:
Wave guide short circuit terminations provide standard reflection at
any desired, precisely measurable positions. The basic idea behind it is to
provide short circuit by changing reactance of the terminations.
10. VSWR meter:
Direct-reading VSWR meter is a low-noise tuned amplifier
voltmeter calibrated in db and VSWR for use with square law detectors. A
typical SWR meter has a standard tuned frequency of 100-Hz, which is of
course adjustable over a range of about 5 to 10 per cent, for exact
matching in the source modulation frequency. Clearly the source of power
to be used while using SWR meter must be giving us a 1000-Hz square
wave modulated output. The band width facilitates single frequency
measurements by reducing noise while the widest setting accommodates a
sweep rate fast enough for oscilloscope presentation.
For precise attenuation measurements, a high accuracy 60 db attenuator is included
with an expand offset feature that allows any 2 db range to be expanded to
full scale for maximum resolution. Both crystal and bolometer may be
used in conjunction with the SWR meter. There is provision for high
(2,500-10,000 ohm) and low (50-200 ohm) impedance crystal inputs.

This instrument is the basic piece of equipment in microwave measuring techniques
and is used in measuring voltage peaks valleys, attenuation, gain and other
parameters determined by the ratio of two signals.
11.Crystal Detector:
The simplest and the most sensitive detecting element is a
microwave crystal. It is a nonlinear, non reciprocal device which rectifies
the received signal and produces a current proportional to the power input.
Since the current flowing through the crystal is proportional to the square
of voltage, the crystal is rejoined to as a square law detector. The square
law detection property of a crystal is valid at a low power levels (<10
mw). However, at high and medium power level (>10 mw), the crystal
gradually becomes a linear detector.
MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
A wave guide consists of a hollow metallic tube of a rectangular or

circular shape used to guide an electromagnetic wave. Wave guides are
used principally at frequencies in the microwave region. At frequency
range x band from 8 to 12 GHz, for example, standard rectangular wave
guide, RG - 52/U has an inner width, 0.4 in and an inner length, 0.9 in.
In wave guides the electric & magnetic fields are confined to the
space within the guides. Thus no power is lost through radiation, and even
the dielectric loss is negligible, since the guides are normally air filled.
However, there is some power loss as heat in the walls of the guides.
It is possible to propagate several modes of Electromagnetic waves
within a wave guide. A given wave-guide has a definite cutoff frequency
for each allowed mode and behaves as a high pass filter. The dominant
mode in rectangular wave guides is TE1O mode. It is advisable to choose
the dimensions of a guide in such a way that for a given input signal only
the energy of the dominant mode can be transmitted through the guide.
The cut off frequency for m,nth mode
2 2
c m n
fc =    
2  a  b
The corresponding cut off wave length,

2
λc = 2 2
m n
   
 a  b
Where c is velocity of light.

a is inner broader dimension of wave guide.
b is inner narrow dimension of wave guide & m, n indicate mode number.
The guide wave length, λg related to free space wave length & cut off wave
length is
1 1 1
 
0 2
g 2
c 2
Hybrid Tee(Magic Tee):

Wave guide junctions are used to split the line with proper consideration of the phase.
The junctions that are widely encountered in microwave techniques are E - plane,
H-Plane and Hybrid tees.
* An E-plane tee is designed by fastening a piece of a similar wave guide to the broader wall of a
wave guide section. The fastened wave guide, also known as series arm is parallel
to the plane of the electric field of the dominant TE10 mode in the main wave-guide.
* An H-plane tee is obtained by fastening the auxiliary wave guide perpendicular to the narrow
arm of the main wave guide section. The auxiliary arm, also known as shunt arn
should lie in the H - plane of the dominant TE10 mode in the main wave guide
*Hybrid tee is a combination of the E - plane tee and H plane tee. It has certain
characteristics listed below:
1) If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and port 2, the output
will be zero at E - arm and additive at H - arm.
2) If a wave is fed into H - arm, it will be divided equally between port 1 & port 2 of the
collinear arms and will not appear at E - arm.
3) If a wave is fed into E - arm, it will produce an output of equal magnitude and opposite phase
at port
- 1 and port 2. The output at H - arm is zero.
4) If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not appear in the other
collinear arm at port 2 or 1, because E - am1 causes a phase delay while the H - arm causes a
phase
advance.
The Scattering matrix of a Magic Tee is given as:
0 0 1 1
 1
1 0 0  1
[S] =
2 1  1 0 0
 
1 1 0 0

(a)
(b)
Fig. (a): Magic Tee
(b): Cut way rear view of a wave guide E-H Tee.
The hybrid tee can be used
1) In impedance bridges
2) As antenna duplexer
3) As Mixer
4) As modular, etc.
Directional Coupler (DC):
Directional coupler is a 4 port wave guide junction. It consists of a primary wave
guide and a secondary wave guide connects together through apertures.
These are uni directional devices. Directional couplers are required to

satisfy (1) reciprocity (2) conservation of energy (3) all ports matched
terminated.
The characteristics of a DC can be expressed in terms of its:
1. Coupling factor: The ratio, in dB, of the power incident and the power coupled
in auxiliary arm in forward direction.
 Pi 
C= 10 log 10   dB
 c
P
Where Pi = Incident power ;

Pc = Coupled Power
2) Directivity: The ratio expressed in decibels, of the power coupled in the forward
direction to the power coupled in the backward direction of the auxiliary
arm with un used terminals matched terminated.
D= 10log10( Pc/Pr) dB
Where Pr = Reverse Power ;

Pc = Coupled Power
3) Insertion loss: The Ratio, expressed in decibels, of the power incident to the
power transmitted in the main line of the coupler when auxiliary arms are
matched terminated.
I= 10 log 10 ( Pi / Pi1)
Where Pi1 = Received power at the transmitted port
4) Isolation: The ratio, expressed in decibels of the power incident in the main arm to
the backward power coupled in the auxiliary arm, with other ports
matched terminated.
L= 10log10 ( Pi/Pr) dB

For an ideal coupler D & I are infinite while C& L are Zero
Several types of directional couplers exist, such as a two hole directional

coupler, Schwinger directional coupler and Bethi - hole directional
coupler. Directional couplers are very good power samplers.
Circulator:
A circulator is a passive microwave component which allows complete
transmission from n to (n+ 1) port. Circulator can be constructed with the
help of magic tees & gyrator or directional coupler with phase shifter or
using ferrite material and so on.
A ferrite type circulator employs ferrite material at the center of the junction. This
ferrite post will be magnetized normal to the plane of the junction.
Electromagnetic wave, which propagates through the ferrite material
under goes phase change during its transverse. The phase change is
dependent upon the intensity of the magnetic bias and the length of the
ferrite rod. The bias & dimensions of the ferrite are so chosen, such that
the wave moves unidirectional from n to (n+ 1) port.
The characteristics of the circulator:
1) Insertion loss:
The ratio of power input at port n to the power detected at Port n+1

L= 10 log10( Pi/ Pr)
Where Pi = Incident power at port n
Pr = received power at port n+1
2) Isolation:
The ratio of power at port n to the power detected at port n-l.
I= 10 log10( Pi/ P3)

Where Pi = Incident power at port n
P3 = received power at port n-1
The scattering matrix of a three port circulator
0 0 1 
[S]= 1 0 0
0 1 0
Circulators can be used as (1) de coupling isolators (2) duplexers
FIRING OF THE REFLEX KLYSTRON:

To fire the klystron correctly, adopt the following procedure.
i) Set the cooling fan to blow air across the tube and turn on the filament voltage, and
then wait for a few minutes.
ii) Set the attenuator at a suitable level, say at 3db value.
iii) Apply the repeller voltage to its maximum value, say - 250V.
iv) Set the MOD switch of klystron power supply to CW position, Beam Voltage
control knob to fully anti clock wise and reflector voltage control knob to
fully clock wise and the meter switch to OFF position.
v) Rotate the knob of frequency meter at one side fully.
vi) ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan for the klystron tube.
vii) Put the meter switch to beam voltage position and rotate the beam voltage knob
clockwise slowly up to 300V meter reading , and observe beam current on
the meter by changing meter switch to Beam current position.
“The beam current should not increase more than 30 mA”
viii) Adjust the repeller voltage to have maximum power output (micro ammeter

current)
ix) If meter goes out of scale, increase attenuation to have suitable power level.
x) Also adjust the klystron mounting plunger for maximum power output and repeat
step (viii) if desired.
xi) For the best set-up, the attenuator. Must have maximum value corresponding to the
peak in the output meter.

1. REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:
To study the mode Characteristics of a Reflex klystron tube and to calculate
the electronic tuning range (ETR).
EQUIPMENT:
1. Regulated klystron power supply - 1 No
2. Reflex klystron with mount and cooling fan -1 No
3. Isolator -1 No
4. Variable attenuator -1 No
5. Frequency meter/wave meter -1 No
6. Waveguide detector mount with detector -1 No
7. VSWR meter or micro ammeter -1 No
8. Waveguide stands and accessories
BENCH SET-UP:
Klystron Reflex Frequency Detector Indicator

Power K Isolator Attenuator Meter Mount
s l
u y
p s
p t
l r Fig:1
PROCEDURE:
y o
n
Oscillator
(A) CARRIER WAVE OPERATOR
1) Assemble the equipment as shown in Fig.1 with VSWR meter as indicating meter.
2) Set the variable attenuator at the minimum position.
3) Set the MOD switch of klystron power supply to CW position, Beam Voltage
control knob to fully anti clock wise and reflector voltage control knob to
fully clock wise and the meter switch to OFF position.
4) Rotate the knob of frequency meter at one side fully.

5) ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan for the klystron tube.
6) Put the meter switch to beam voltage position and rotate the beam voltage knob
“ The beam current should not increase more than 30 mA”
7) Change the repeller voltage slowly and watch on the VSWR meter for maximum
deflection in the meter. If no deflection is obtained, change the range of
meter.
8) Tune the plunger of klystron mount for the maximum output.
9) Rotate the knob of frequency meter slowly and stop at that position, when there is
less output on meter. Read directly the frequency between two horizontal
line and vertical marker.
10) Change the repeller voltage and read the Power and frequency for each repeller
voltage and plot the graph between frequency and voltage, Power and
voltage.
(B) Mode Study on Oscilloscope:

1) Assemble the equipment as shown in Fig.1 with VSWR meter as indicating meter.
2) Set the variable attenuator at the minimum position.
3) Set the MOD switch of klystron power supply to FM-MOD/AM-Mod position, with
FM/AM amplitude knob and FM/AM frequency knob at mid position,
keep the Beam Voltage control knob to fully anti clock wise and
reflector voltage control knob to fully clock wise and the meter switch to
OFF position.
4) keep the time/div. scale of oscilloscope around 100 Hz frequency and Volt/Div. to
lower scale.
5) ON the klystron power supply and cooling fan for the klystron tube.
6) Put the meter switch to beam voltage position and rotate the beam voltage knob

“The beam current should not increase more than 30 mA”
7) Change the repeller voltage slowly and watch on the VSWR meter for maximum
deflection in the meter. If no deflection is obtained, change the range of
meter.
8) Tune the plunger of klystron mount for the maximum output.
9) Now remove the BMC cable from VSWR meter and connect it to CRO.
10) Keep amplitude knob of FM/AM modulator to maximum position.
11) Change the repeller voltage slowly and watch the amplitude of FM/AM
modulation on the Oscilloscope, Note the amplitude of output wave.
12) Draw the graph between output power and repeller voltage.
MODEL GRAPH:
Fig.2: Typical mode curves for a reflex

klystron

TABLE:
S.No Repeller CRO/VSWR meter Frequency meter

Vo reading reading
lta (in V/dB) (in Ghz)
ge
(inVolts)
 Calculate Electronic Tuning Range, i.e., the frequency band from one end of the
mode to Another , from the graph of VR vs frequency
The formula for electronic Tuning range is given as

dVR
ETR 
df
Note: As the repeller voltage increases mode number decreases and power increases.
Inference:
1. Mode charts for Reflex Klystron are drawn.
2. The Electronic tuning range for_______ mode is________

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. How bunching takes place in a reflex klystron?

2. Why efficiency of the klystrons is low? Write the expression for it
3. What is the effect of cavity gap on electron bunching?
4. How are the electrons in the reflected beam collected in a reflex klystron?
5. Is some beam focusing arrangement needed in anode-reflector space?
6. What do you mean by velocity and density modulations? How do these differ from
frequency and phase modulations?
7. Why is it necessary to cool the klystrons?
8. The two cavity Klystron uses what cavity as an output cavity?
9. What element of the reflex Klystron replaces the output cavity of a normal Klystron?
10. If the constant speed electrons in reflex klystrons remain in the repeller field for 1 ¾ cycle
what is the mode of operation?
2. GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
To study Gunn oscillator as a source of microwave power and hence to study
(a) V-I characteristics,
(b) Square wave modulation through PIN diode to calculate the modulation depth of
PIN modulator.
EQUIPMENT:
1.Gunn oscillator -1 No
2.Gunn oscillator power supply - 1 No
3.PIN diode modulator - 1 No
4. Ferrite isolator - 1 No
5.Frequency meter - 1 No
6.Attenuator - 1 No
7.Detector with tunable mount - 1 No
8. VSWR meter - 1 No
9. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope - 1 No
10.Coaxial to waveguide adapter - 1 No
11.Cables and accessories
BENCH SET-UP:
Indicating
m VSWR
Gunn
e m
P
t e
o
e t
w
r e
e
(CRO) r
r Detector
PIN Variable Frequency
Gunn Isolator m
S m A M
O o
us o t e
u
pc d t t
n
pi u e e
t
l l n r
yl a u
t a
Departmentaof ECE MLRIT 24 MWE & DC LABORATORY
o t
t
r o
o
r
r
PROCEDURE:
1. Set the equipment as shown in Fig. Taking due care for biasing PIN and Gunn
diodes.
2. Initially set variable attenuator for minimum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knobs for gunn power supply as below
Meter switch - OFF
Gunn bias Knob - Fully anti-clock wise
PIN bias Knob - Fully anti clock wise
PIN mod Frequency - Any position
4. Set the Gunn oscillator micrometer tuning screw at suitable frequency say 9 GHz.
Adjust attenuator for suitable power level.
5. Switch On the Gunn power supply.
(a)Voltage- Current Characteristics:
1. Turn the meter switch of Gunn Power supply to Voltage position.
2. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to various Voltages controlled by
Gunn bias knob through the panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias
voltage above 10 volts. Note the values in table 1.
3. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph sheet that must be as shown in
fig 5.1.
4. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to Maximum current.
NOTE: Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 8-
10 Seconds. Reading should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise,
due to excessive Heating, Gunn diode may burn.
Tabular Column:

Peak Voltage
S.no Voltage(in Volts) Current(in mA)
(from the graph)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(B) Square Wave Modulation:

1. Keep the Meter switch to volt position and rotate Gunn bias voltage slowly so that
panel meter of Gunn power supply reads 10 V.
2. Tune the PIN modulator bias voltage and frequency knob for maximum output on
the Oscilloscope.
3. Coincide the bottom of the square wave in oscilloscope to some reference level
and note the micrometer reading of variable attenuator.
4. Now with help of variable attenuator coincide the top of square wave to SAME
reference level and note down the micrometer reading.
5. Connect VSWR meter to detector mount and note down the dB reading in VSWR
meter for both the micrometer reading of the variable attenuator.
6. The difference of both db reading of VSWR meter gives the modulation depth of
PIN modulator.
CALCULATIONS:
Micrometer reading when bottom of square wave coincides with reference (m1) =
Corresponding reading of VSWR meter for m1 (P1) = Micrometer reading when top of
square wave coincides with same reference (m2) = Corresponding reading
of VSWR meter for m2 (P2) = Modulation depth of PIN modulator = (P2-
P1)

MODEL GRAPH:
Inferences:
The characteristics of Gunn diode are plotted and Modulation depth

for PIN modulator is calculated.
VIVA QUESTION:
1. What are various modes of Gunn diode?
2. What is a PIN diode and how does it work as amplitude modulator?
3. Why are Gunn diode devices classified as voltage controlled devices?
4. Compare and contrast Gunn diode oscillator with a reflex klystron Oscillator
5. Name some crystals from which Gunn diode may be manufactured.
6. Write the RWH criteria for negative resistance.
7. Write the criteria for classifying modes in gunn diode.
8. For LSA mode f*L > _____________ ?
9. For stable Amplification mode n0 * L = _________________________?
10. For delayed domain mode f* L lies between_______________________ ?

3. DIRECTIONAL COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:
To calculate the Isolation, coupling coefficients, and directivity,
.
EQUIPMENT:

3. Isolator -1 No
8. Matched Terminations - 3 No
9. Two hole Directional Coupler - 1 No
10. Slotted section - 1 No
BENCH SET-UP:
Matched Indicating
t m
e e
3 r t
Reflex Frequency m e
Slotted Directional i Mount
K Isolator Attenuator Meter r
l 1 S 2 Cn d
e oa
y e
c ut
s Fig: 1 t
t pi
t e
r
i lo
o
o en c
n r t
n
Oscillator o
r

PROCEDURE:
1) Assemble the set up as shown in fig. 1 by connecting mount detector initially instead of
Directional Coupler.
2) By taking care about Reflex klystron, energize reflex klystron to obtain maximum
power in the VSWR meter.
3) Adjust variable attenuator for reasonable power level say 30db. Record the power
level. This is power level at the output of the slotted section and hence it is the input
power, Pi to the Directional Coupler in the set up
4) Carefully remove the detector set up and insert the Directional Coupler as in the set up with port
3 terminated with matched load.
5) Determine power at port 2 in decibels by noting the change in the output level on the
indicating meter, Let it be P2.
6) Interchange the positions of the detector set up and matched load
and determine power in db by noting the change in output
power level(with reference to level in step 3) at port 3, Let
it be P3
7) Repeat steps 4 to 7 for port 2 and port 3 also.
8) Calculate the Coupling factor, Isolation and Directivity using the formulas:
Isolation i-j = 10 log 10 (Pj /Pi)
Coupling coefficient = 10 log (Pi/Pj)
Directivity =
Where Pi= power delivered from port i
Pj= power detected at jth arm
10 Calculate all the input and output powers at all the ports .
11) By using the standard scattering matrix of a Directional Coupler, verify the scattering
parameters theoretically and compare both practical and theoretical values.
12) Determine the frequency of the exciting wave using frequency meter.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Which dimension of the waveguide determines the frequency range?

2. What is the primary Purpose of directional coupler?
3. In which direction maximum directivity of a directional coupler should be?
4. State the applications of directional coupler?
5. Give the examples of non-reciprocal devices.
6. How the performance of a directional coupler can be determined?
7. The distance between two holes in a directional coupler is_________
8. What is the function of absorbent material in directional coupler?
9. What happens to reflected energy that enters a directional coupler that is
designed to sample incident energy?
10.What will happens in waveguide when an impedance mismatch occurs?

4. VSWR MEASUREMENT
AIM:
To determine the standing-wave ratio and reflection coefficient
EQUIPMENTS:
Klystron tube - 1No
Klystron power supply - 1No
Isolator - 1No
Frequency meter - 1No
Variable attenuator - 1No
Klystron mount - 1No
Waveguide stands
SWR meter - 1No
Slotted line - 1No
Tunable probe - 1No
Movable short/termination or any unknown load - 1No
BNC cables
S-S Tuner. -1No
THEORY:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line, may be
considered as the sum of two Traveling waves: the ‘incident wave’
propagates from generator and the ‘reflected wave’ propagates towards
the generator. The reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident wave
from a discontinuity on the line or from the load impedance. The
magnitude and phase of reflected wave depends upon amplitude and phase
of the reflecting impedance. The presence of two traveling waves gives
rise to standing wave along the line. The maximum field strength is found
where two waves are in phase and minimum where they are in opposite

phase. The distance between two successive minimum (or maximum) is
half the guided wave-length on the line. The ratio of electrical field
strength of reflected and incident wave is called reflection coefficient.
The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is defined as ratio
between maximum and minimum field strength along the line. Hence
VSWR is
Where and are respectively the amplitudes of the

incident and reflected electric field strengths. Standing wave ratio is
frequently expressed in decibels
.
Further, the ratio of the reflected to the incident electric field intensities is defined as
reflection coefficient, i.e.,
Where ZL is the load impedance and Z0 is the characteristic impedance.

Hence, VSWR can be expressed in terms of reflection coefficient as follows:
when E max = E min , i.e., there is no reflection [E R = 0], the resulting VSWR=1.00,
this is the requirement of a ‘matched circuit’. In other words, under given
ideal conditions, the VSWR of a matched load is 1.00. Under extreme
mismatch conditions, E min =0, i.e., total reflection, [E R = E I ], the

resulting VSWR =∞. However, in most of the cases, VSWR is greater
than 1.00. It is not rare to obtain VSWR as low as 1.02 in well-designed
set-up having matched components.
BENCH SET-UP:
VSWR
m
e
t
eS.S
Klystron Reflex Frequency Slotted r
Power K Isolator Attenuator Meter L T
s l
i u
u y n
p s n
e e
p t
Fig Matched r
l r
PROCEDURE:
y o T
n e
1. Equipments are set up as shown in Fig.
Oscillator r
m
2. Variable attenuator is kept at maximum position. i
n
3. Control knobs of VSWR meter are kept as below: a
Range db - 40 db/50 db t
i
Input switch - Impedance low o
n
Meter switch - Normal
Gain (Coarse-Fine) - Mid position approx.
4. The control knobs of Klystron power supply are kept as below:
Meter switch - ‘OFF’
Mode switch - ‘AM’
Beam voltage knob - Fully Anticlockwise
Reflector voltage knob - Fully clockwise
AM frequency & amplitude knob Mid position
5. Klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan are switched
ON.

6. Meter switch of Klystron power supply is switched to Beam voltage
position and beam voltage is set at 300 V.
7. Reflector voltage knob is rotated to get deflection in the VSWR meter.
8. Output is tuned by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and
frequency of AM
modulation.
9. The plunger of Klystron mount is tuned for maximum deflection. The
probe of the slotted waveguide can also be tuned for maximum deflection.
10. The db range switch, gain control knob of the VSWR meter can also
be adjusted along with the variable attenuator of the set up to get
deflection in the VSWR meter if found necessary.
11. If the probe is moved along the slotted line, the deflection will be
changing.
A) Measurement of Low and Medium VSWR (VSWR<10)

1. The probe is moved along the slotted line for maximum deflection in the VSWR
meter.
2. The gain control knob of the VSWR meter or the variable attenuator is adjusted until
the meter indicates 1.00 on normal SWR scale (0- ∞).
3. Keeping all control knobs as it is, the probe is adjusted for minimum position on the
SWR reading. The VSWR meter reading is recorded (SWR meter reading
at the minimum, when the maximum is set for 1.00, gives directly the
VSWR)
4. The above step is repeated by moving the probe along the slotted line in the same
direction for more number of minimum position and the corresponding
VSWR readings are recorded.

5. If the VSWR is between 3.20 and 10.00, the range db switch is changed to next
higher position and the VSWR reading is taken by the VSWR scale of
3.00 to 10.00.
6.This way the table 2.1 is completed for the unknown load at different frequencies by
repeating the above steps 1 to 5.

Table: Low and medium VSWR measurements
SI. No. VSWR (dB) Frequency (GHz)
1.
2.
3.
4.
B) Measurement of High VSWR:

1. Set the depth of SS tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain a
reading of 3 db of normal db scale.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained. i.e.
0 db on 0- 10 db scale. Note and record the probe position on slotted line.
Let it be d1.
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 and then move the probe right along with slotted line until
full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10 db normal db scale. Let it be d2.
6. Replace the SS tuner and terminator by movable short.
7. Measure the distance between two successive minimum positions twice this
distance is guide wavelength.
8. Compute SWR by following equation. SWR= λ g/ ∏ (d2-d1)
MODEL GRAPH:

5. MEASUREMENT OF SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF A MAGIC TEE
AIM:
(a) To calculate the Isolation and coupling coefficients ,
(b) To Verify scattering parameters of a magic tee
EQUIPMENT:

3. Isolator -1 No
6. Waveguide detector mounts with detector -1 No
8. Slotted Section -1 No
BENCH SET-UP:
Matched Indicating
t
3 m
e
r
e
m t
Reflex Frequency
DepartmentKofIsolator
ECE MLRITAttenuator 37 Slotted
MWE & DC LABORATORY
Magic Tee i Mount e
Meter
S n r
l d
e a
y e
c t
s
t i t
1 2
Fig:1
PROCEDURE:
1) Assemble the set up as shown in fig. 1by connecting mount detector initially instead
of Magic tee.
level. This is power level at the output of the slotted section and hence it is
the input power, Pi to the magic tee in the set up
4) Carefully remove the detector set up and insert the magic tee as in the set up with
port 3 and 4 terminated in matched loads.
indicating meter, Let it be P2 .
6) Interchange the positions of the detector set up and matched load and determine
power in db by noting the change in output power level(with reference to
level in step 3) at port 3, Let it be P3
power in db by noting the change in output power level (with reference to
level in step 3) at port 4, let it be P4
8) Repeat steps 4 to 7 for port 2, port 3 and port 4.
9) Calculate the Coupling factor, Isolation using the formulas:

10) Calculate all the input and output powers at all the ports .
11) By using the standard scattering matrix of a magic tee, verify the scattering
parameters.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is magic tee?
2. What is the magic in magic tee?
3. Magic tee is a combination of___________
a) 2 Eplane tees b) 2 H plane tees c) 1 E plane+ 1 Hplane d) None
4. If the power is applied at port 4 then the power is________________
8. Which field configurations is easy to produce in waveguide?
9. Write the applications of magic Tee.
10.Which term is used to identify various field configurations that can exist in a
waveguide.

6. MEASUREMENT OF SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF A CIRCULATOR
AIM:
a) To calculate the Isolation and coupling coefficients ,
b) To verify the scattering parameters of a Circulator.
EQUIPMENT:

3. Isolator -1 No
9. Circulator - 1 No
10. Slotted section - 1 No
BENCH SET-UP: Matched Indicating

t m
e e
r t
Reflex Frequency
3 m e
Slotted i Mount
K Isolator Attenuator Meter Circulator r
S n d
l
1 e 2 a
y e
c t
s t
t i
t e
r Fig:1 i o
o n c
o
n t
n
Oscillator o
r

PROCEDURE:
1) Assemble the set up as shown in fig. 1 by connecting mount detector initially instead of
Circulator.
level. This is power level at the output of the slotted section and hence it is the input
power, Pi to the Circulator in the set up
4) Carefully remove the detector set up and insert the circulator as in the set up with port
3terminated with matched load.
indicating meter, Let it be P2 .
power in db by noting the change in output power level(with reference to
level in step 3) at port 3, Let it be P3
7) Repeat steps 4 to 7 for port 2 and port 3 also.
8) Calculate the Coupling factor, Isolation using the formulas:
10) Calculate all the input and output powers at all the ports .
11) By using the standard scattering matrix of a circulator, verify the scattering parameters
theoretically and compare both practical and theoretical values.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is circulator?
2. What is the difference between circulator and Isolator?
3. What is the difference between circulator and Gyrator?
4. What is the difference between circulator and Magic Tee?
5. Which material is used in circulator to rotate EM wave?
6. If power is coupled to port 2 in circulator it appear at___________.
7. Circulator is also used as____
a) Isolator b) Gyrator c) both d) none
8. Circulator is a __________ device (reciprocal / non-reciprocal)
9. What are the applications of Circulator?
10. What is the use of Isolators in microwave generators?

7. ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
AIM:
To study the attenuator and to calculate the attenuation provided by
variable attenuator.
EQUIPMENT:
1.Regulated klystron power supply -1 No
2.Reflex klystron with mount and cooling fan -1 No
3.Isolator -1 No
4.Variable attenuator -2 No
5.Frequency meter. -1 No
6. Slotted Line section -1 No
7. Tunable probe -1 No
8.Waveguide detector mount with detector -1 No
9.V SWR meter or micro ammeter - 1 No
10. C.R.O - 1 No
BENCH SET-UP:
Klystron Reflex Frequency Slotted Indicator

Power K Isolator Variable Meter L
s l Attenuator i
u y n
p s e
p t
l r Detector
Attenuator Mount
y o
n
Oscillator
Detector VSWR
Mount meter
Setup 1 Setup 2
Fig:1

THEORY:
The attenuator is a two port bi-directional device which attenuates some power when
inserted into the transmission line.
* Attenuation A(dB)= 10 log [P1/P2]
Where P1 =Power absorbed by load without attenuator in the line.
P2 = Power absorbed by load with attenuator in the line.
PROCEDURE:
For Insertion loss/ Attenuation measurement
1. Assemble the equipment as shown in setup 1.
2. Fire the reflex klystron by considering all the proper conditions.
3. Tune the detector mount for maximum deflection on VSWR meter [detector
mount’s output should be connected to VSWR meter]
4. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator and
gain control knob of VSWR meter, Let it be P1.
5. Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing any
position of the setup. Place the test Variable attenuator to the slotted line and
detector mount to other port of test variable attenuator.
6. Keep the micrometer reading of test attenuator to Zero and record the reading of
VSWR meter let it be P2. Then the Insertion Loss of the test attenuator will be (P1-
P2) dB.
7. Now change the micrometer reading and record the VSWR meter reading in table.
Find out attenuation value for different position of micrometer reading and plot the
graph.

TABLE:
P1 =
Sl.No Micrometer reading VSWR meter reading Attenuation

P2 (dB) (P1-P2) dB
1.
2.
3.
4
5
6
7
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What do you mean by attenuation?
2. What is an attenuator?
3. How does attenuator differ from an isolator?
4. How does a ferrite attenuator differ from a carbon pad?
5. Why absolute measurement of attenuation is essential?
6. Which type of waveguide attenuation have relatively high accuracy and
greater versatility and why?

7. What are various types of attenuators present in waveguide systems?
8. What is Flap attenuator?
9. What is Vane attenuator?
10. What are the various uses of attenuator?

8. MICROWAVE FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
AIM:
To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular waveguide working
in TE10 mode
EQUIPMENTS:
Klystron tube -1 No
Klystron power supply -1 No
Klystron mounts -1 No
Isolator -1 No
Frequency meter -1 No
Variable attenuator -1 No
Slotted section waveguide -1 No
Tunable probe -1 No
VSWR meter -1 No
Waveguide stand
Movable short/matched termination. -1 No
THEORY:
For dominant TE10 mode in rectangular waveguide λ0, λg, and λc

are related as below:
where
λo is free space wavelength, λg is guide wavelength and
λc is cutoff wavelength
For TE10 mode, λc = 2a , where a is broad dimension of waveguide.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in Fig. 1.

2. Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:
Range db 50 db position
Input Switch Crystal low Impedance
Meter switch Normal position
Gain (Coarse & fine) Mid Position
4. Keep the control knobs of Klystron power supply as below:
Meter switch ‘Off’
Mod-switch AM
Beam Voltage knob fully anticlockwise
Reflector Voltage Fully clockwise
AM-Amplitude knob around fully clockwise
AM-Frequency knob Around Mid Position

5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron power supply, VSWR Meter and cooling fan.
6. Rotate the meter switch of power supply to beam voltage position and set beam
voltage at 300 V with help of beam voltage knob.
7. Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
supply.
9. Tune the plunger of Klystron mount for maximum deflection.
10. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
11. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
12. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWR scale and note down
the frequency directly from frequency meter.
13. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
14. Move probe along with the slotted line, the deflection in VSWR meter will vary.
Move the probe to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading; it is
necessary to increase the VSWR meter range db switch to higher position. Note
and record the probe position.
15. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.
16. Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance between two successive
minimum positions obtained as above.
17. Measure the waveguide inner broad dimension ‘a’ which will be around 2.286cm
for X-band.
18. Calculate the frequency by following equation:
19. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.

20. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.
21. Record the experimental results in a tabulated form as per format given below:

TABLE:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the function of frequency meter in microwave bench?
2. What is the technique for measuring the frequency?
3. What technique is used for measuring frequency accurately?

1. PCM GENERATION AND DETECTION
AIM:
To study the pulse code modulation and demodulation and to study the effect on the variation of the
amplitude of modulating signal.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Pulse code modulation and demodulation trainer kit

Dual trace oscilloscope –20M Hz
BNC probes
Patch cards
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
PCM also uses the sampling technique but it differs form the others in that it is a digital
process. That is instead of sending a pulse train capable of continuously varying
one of the parameters the PCM generator produced a series of numbers of digits
each one of the these digits almost always in binary code represents the
approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In PCM the total amplitude range which the signal may occupy is divided into number of
standard levels, the actual number of levels is power 2 by a process called
quartering the level actually sent at any sampling time is the nearest standard
level. the digit 7 is sent at the instant of time as a series of pulses corresponding
to number 7 since there are 16 levels 4 binary places are required the number
becomes 0111 and could be sent as OPPP where P= pulse and O no. of pulses.
Actually it is often sent as a binary back to front i.e. as 1110 or PPP0 to make
demodulation easier.
The signal is continuously sampled quantized coded and sent as each sample amplitude is
connected to the nearest standard amplitude and into the corresponding back to
front binary number provide soggiest quartering levels are used, the result
cannot be distinguished form that of analog transmission.
A signaling bit is generally added to each code group representing a quantized sample. Hence
each group of pulsed denoting a sample here called a word is expressed by
means of n+1 bits whiter 2n is the chosen number of standard levels.
PCM requires very complex encoding quartering circuitry. PCM requires a large bandwidth
compared to analog systems the main application of PCM is telegraphy the use
of PCM is broadband network of advanced countries is increasing by leaps and
bounders PCM also finds use in space communications.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Apply varying digital input
3. Calculate decimal number form the applied binary and it will be obtained by
observing LED’s
4. The demodulated output voltage is calculated theoretically by using the formula
v= 5 – (Decimal * 5/128)
5. Observe the demodulated output voltage in Multimeter.
TABULAR FORM:
S.NO. Applied DC Binary input Practical value

volta
ge
MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT: Thus the A/D and D/A are converted using PCM modulation and
demodulation systems
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the expression for transmission bandwidth in a PCM system?
2. What is the expression for quantization noise /error in PCM system?
3. What are the applications of PCM?
4. What are the advantages of the PCM?
5. What are the disadvantages of PCM?

2. DIFFERENTIAL PULSE CODE MODULATION
AIM:
To study differential Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation by sending variable frequency sine
wave and variable D.C. signal inputs.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Differential Pulse code modulation and demodulation trainer kit

Dual trace oscilloscope –20M Hz
BNC probes
Patch cards
THEORY:
PCM also uses the sampling technique but it differs form the others in that it is a digital
process. That is instead of sending a pulse train capable of continuously varying
one of the parameters the pcm generator produced a series of numbers of digits
each one of the these digits almost always in binary code represents the
approximate amplitude of the signal sample at that instant.
In PCM the total amplitude range which the signal may occupy is divided into number of
standard levels, the actual number of levels is power 2 by a process called
quartering the level actually sent at any sampling time is the nearest standard
level. The digit 7 is sent at the instant of time as a series of pulses corresponding
to number 7 since there are 16 levels 4 binary places are required the number
becomes 0111 and could be sent as OPPP where P= pulse and O no. Of pulses.
Actually it is often sent as a binary back to front i.e. as 1110 or PPP0 to make
demodulation easier.
The signal is continuously sampled quantized coded and sent as each sample amplitude is
connected to the nearest standard amplitude and into the corresponding back to

front binary number provide soggiest quartering levels are used, the result cannot
be distinguished form that of analog transmission.
A signaling bit is generally added to each code group representing a quantized sample. Hence
each group of pulsed denoting a sample here called a word is expressed by means
of n+1 bits whiter 2n is the chosen number of standard levels.
PCM requires very complex encoding quartering circuitry. PCM requires a large bandwidth
compared to analog systems the main application of PCM is telegraphy the use of
PCM is broadband network of advanced countries is increasing by leaps and
bounders PCM also finds use in space communications.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch 'ON' the experimental kit.

2. Apply the variable D.C. signal to the input terminals of DPCM Modulator.
3. Observe the sampling output on CRO.
4. Observe the output of DPCM on the second channel of CRO.
5. By adjusting the D.C. Voltage potentiometer we can get the DPCM output from
0000 0000 to 1111 1111.
6. Now, disconnect the D.C. voltage and apply AF oscillator output to the input of the
DPCM Modulator.
7. Observe the output of conditioning amplifier (Differential output) and DPCM
outputs in synchronization with the sampling signal.
8. During demodulation, connect DPCM output to the input of the Demodulation and
observe the output of DPCM Demodulations.

MODEL GRAPH:
RESULT: Hence observed differential pulse code modulation and demodulation
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define DPCM
2. How DPCM is generated
3. What is the draw back of DPCM
4. Compare DPCM with delta modulation 5. What is the application of DPCM
5. DPCM is which type of modulation.

3. DELTA MODULATION
AIM:
To study the delta Modulation and Demodulation process
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Delta Modulation and Demodulation Trainer kit.
CRO
BNC probes
Patch cards.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Delta modulation may be viewed, as a simplified form of DPCM is which two

level quietuses are used in conjunction with a fixed first order predictor. DPCM
is based on the explanation of signal correlation when base band signals are
sampled at Nyquist rate correlation between the adjacent samples can be further
increased by over sampling the signal at a rate much higher than the Nyquist
rate. The higher correlation between the sampler permit. One to use a simpler
quantising strategy for constructing the encoded signal. The very concept has led
to the development of delta modulation is a one bit variation of DPCM.
Applying the sampled version if the incoming message signal to a modulator
that involves a summer, quantised and an accumulator interconnected can
generate delta modulation.
The key to effective use of delta modulation is the proper choice of the step sizes
and the sampling rate. The parameters must be chosen in such a way that
staircase signal is close approximation of tactual analog waveform. Since they
signal has given fixed upper frequency, we know that the fastest rate at which it
can change however to account for the fastest possible in the signal the step size
or sampling frequency must be increased increasing the sampling frequency
results in the delta modulated waveforms that require a large bandwidth
increasing the step size increases the quantising error.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch ON the experimental board.

2. Connect Clock Signal to the Delta Modulator circuit.
3. Connect Modulating Signal to the Modulating signal input of the Delta
Modulator and observe the same on channel l of a Dual Trace
Oscilloscope.
4. Observe the Delta Modulator output on channel II of CRO.
5. Connect this Delta Modulator output to the demodulator. Also connect the
clock signal to the demodulator.
6. Observe the Demodulator output with and without RC filter on CRO.
MODEL GRAPHS:
RESULT:Hence studied and observed delta modulation and demodulation

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define D.M.
2. Explain the generation process of D.M
3. What is the drawback of D.M?
4. Compare D.M with ADM
5. What is meant by slope over load modulation
6. What is the advantage of D.M compare with DPCM
7. Give the application of D.M

4. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING OF 2 BAND LIMITED
SIGNALS
AIM:
To study the time division multiplexing by applying different band limited
signals to time division multiplexer. Apply the multiplexed output to
Demultiplexer and observe the individual signals.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: -
TDM Multiplexer and Demultiplexer kit

CRO
BNC probes
Patch cards.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

THEORY: -
A time division multiplex system enables the joint utilization of a common

communication channel by a plurality of independent message sources without
mutual interference among them.
Each input signal is first restricted in bandwidth by a low pass anti aliening
filter to remove the frequencies that are non-essential to an adequate signal
representation. The low pass filter outputs are then applied to commentator,
which is usually implanted using electronic switching circuitry the function of
the commutator is two fold.

To take a narrow sample of each of the N input messages at rate f s that are
slightly higher than 2w where W is the cutoff frequency of the anti-aliening.
To sequentially interleave there N samples inside the sampling interval TS
In deed this later function is the essence of the time division multiplexing
operation following the communication process the multiplied signal is applied
to pulse modulator, the purpose of which is to transform the multiplied signal
into a form suitable for transmission over the communication channel it is clear
that the use of time division multiplying introduces a band width expansion
factor N because the scheme must squeeze N samples derived form N
independent message sources into a time slot equal to one sampling interval at
the receiving end of the system, the receive signal is applied to pulse
demodulator, which performs the reverse operation of the pulse modulator. The
narrow samples produced at the pulse demodulator output are distributed to the
appropriate low pass reconstruction filter by means of a dissimulators which
operates in synchronism with the commutator in the transmitter the is
synchronization is essential for a satisfactory operation of the system. The way
this synchronization is implemented depends naturally on the method of pulse
modulation use to transmit the multiplied sequence of samples.
The TDM systems are highly sensitive to dispersion in the common channel .so
accurate equalization of both magnitude3 and phase response of the channel is
necessary to ensure a satisfactory operation of the system.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on Time Division Multiplexing and De Multiplexing Trainer.

2. Connect the sine wave to channel-1, square wave to channel -2 and triangle wave to
channel-3 terminals of 8 to 1 Multiplexer.
3. Observe the multiplexer output on channel -1 of a CRO.
4. Connect mux output to de-mux input.

5. Observe corresponding signal outputs at channel-2 of CRO.
MODEL GRAPH: -
RESULT:
The operation of TDM is observed and the output waveforms are verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define TDM.
2. Which principle is used in TDM
3. Compare TDM with FDM
4. In which area TDM is applicable
5. Explain the generation of TDM
6. Compare PAM & TDM
7. What is the function of commentator
8. What is the function of De commentator
9. Give the application of TDM.

5. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING GENERATION & DETECTION
AIM: To generate FSK modulation and demodulation signals.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
FSK modulation and demodulation kit

CRO
BNC probes
Patch cards.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
In FSK systems two sinusoidal carrier waves of same amplitude AC but

different frequencies fC1 and fC2 are used to re present binary symbols 1 and 0
respectively.
I.e. S (t) = Ac Cos (2 П fC1,t) symbol 1
= Ac Cos (2 П fC2,t) symbol 2
The FSK is essentially a superposition of two ASK waveforms one with

frequency fC1 and the other with fC2. Hence the PSD of FSK is the sum of two
ASKS specter at frequencies fC1 and fC2. The bandwidths of FSK are higher than
that of psk and ask .The application of FSK signals is in low speed digital data
transmission.
Generation of FSK:
The FSK signal can be generated by applying the incoming binary data to a
frequency modulator and to other input a sinusoidal carrier wave of amplitude
AC and frequency fC is applied. As the binary data changes form one level to
another (but non zero being pear) the output changes its frequencies is the
corresponding manner.
Detection of FSK: -
FSK can be demodulated using synchronous or coherent detector. This type of
detection or digital communication reception is also known as correlation
reception. The coherent detection requires phase and time synchronization.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch 'ON' the power to the Trainer.

2. Observe the clock frequency on the oscilloscope.
3. Apply the clock to the decade counter (7490). And vary the data outputs and
draw the data outs.
4. Select one data output of the decade counter to the data input point of the
FSK modulator and observe the same signal one channel of a dual trace
oscilloscope.
5. Observe the output of the FSK modulator on the second channel of the CRO.
6. Apply the FSK modulator out put to demodulator input. Adjust the
potentiometers P1 & P2 until we get the demodulated output equivalent to the
modulating data signal.
MODEL GRAPHS:
RESULT: -Hence generated frequency modulated and demodulated signals

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Binary FSK signal?

2. What is meant by carrier swing?
3. Define Frequency deviation of FSK signal?
4. What are the advantages of this FSK signal?
5. Give the differences between FSK & FM?

6. PHASE SHIFT KEYING GENERATION & DETECTION
AIM:
To study the operation of phase Shift Key Modulation and Demodulation.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
PSK Modulations and Demodulation Trainer kit

CRO
BNC probes
Patch cards
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Phase shift keying or discrete phase modulation is another technique available

for communicating digital information over band pass channels. The psk is a
form of angle modulated, constant amplitude digital modulation. In binary phase
shift keying two out put phases are possible for a single carrier frequency as the
input digital signal changes state, the phase of the output carrier shifts between
1800 out of phase.
In binary phase shift keying modulation the balanced modulator acts as a phase
reversing switch. Depending on the logic condition of the digital input, the
carrier is transferred to the output wither in phase or 180 0 with reference carrier
oscillators and for proper operation the digital input voltages must be greater
than the peak carrier voltage as it has to control ON-OFF of diodes.
The coherent detection also called synchronous detection is used for binary
phase shift keying detection. It is more complicated than envelope detector, and
results in a lower probability of error for a give S/N input. Synchronous
detection requires a carrier recovery circuit to generate local carrier component
exactly synchronized to the transmitted carrier.
The primary advantage of the psk signaling scheme lays in is superior
performance over the amplitude shift-keying scheme operating under the same
peak power limitations and noise environment.

MODEL GRAPHS:
PROCEDURE: -
1. Switch ON the experimental board.

2. Apply the carrier signal to the input of the modulator.
3. Apply the modulating data signal to the modulator input and observe this signal on
one channel l of the CRO.
4. Observe the output of the PSK modulator on the channel 2 of the CRO.

5. Apply this PSK output to the demodulator input and also apply the carrier input.
6. Observe the demodulator output and compare it with the modulating data signal
applied to the modulator input.
RESULTS: - Hence generated Phase modulated and demodulated signals
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define PSK?
2. Explain the generation proven of PSK?
3. Differentiate PSK & PM?
4. Give the application of PSK?
5. PSK is which type of modulation?
6. Compare PSK & FSK?
7. Give the advantages PSK?

7. AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING GENERATION & DETECTION
AIM:
To observe the variation in amplitude of carrier signal corresponding to applied
binary sequence.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
ASK Modulation &demodulation trainer kit

Function generator
CRO
BNC cable
Patch cards
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
The binary ASK system was one of the earliest forms of digital modulation used
in wireless telegraphy. In a system transmitting a sinusoidal carrier wave of
fixed amplitude Ac and fixed frequency Fc represents binary symbol. For the bit

duration Tb are when an binary symbol is represented by switching off the
carrier for Tb . the signal can be generated by simply Turing the carriers of
sinusoidal oscillation ON-OFF for the prescribed periods indicated by
modulating pulse train So, it is known as ON-OFF keying (00k)
i.e. S(t) = Ac cos(2*3.14*Fc*t) symbol 1
=0 symbol 0
Generations of ask: -
ASK applying the incoming bi8nary data and the sinusoidal carrier to the inputs
of 2:1 multiplexer and control input as reelect signal can generate signal. The
ASK signal which is basically the product of binary data and sinusoidal data has
PSO name as that of base band ON-OFF signal but is shifted in frequency
domain by ± Fc. The ASK output has an infinity bandwidth but practically the
bandwidth is equal top that of an ideal and band pass filter is a approximately
3/Tb Hz.
Demodulation of ASK: -
The demodulation of ASK wave can be done with the help of envelope detector /
coherent deter. This detection involves the use of linear operation here the local
carries is assumed to be in perfect synchronization with the modulating signal.
MODEL GRAPHS:

PROCEDURE:
1. Circuit connected as shown in the figure.

2. Apply the binary data to the input and give NRZ-M to control input of
modulator circuit and ground the second input of modulator
3. Apply sine wave to second input of the modulator.
4. Observe the output waveform on the modulator.
5. Now give the modulated output to demodulator or input and check
whether the binary data is corrected or not.
RESULTS: Hence generated Amplitude modulated and demodulated signals
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define ASK?
2. Explain the generation proven of ASK?
3. Differentiate ASK & AM?
4. Give the application of ASK?
5. ASK is which type of modulation?
6. Compare ASK & FSK?
7. Give the advantages ASK?

8. DIFFERENTIAL PHASE SHIFT KEYINGMODULATION &
DEMODULATION
AIM:
To study the various steps involved in generating the differential binary signal and
differential phases shift keyed signal at the modulator end and recovering the
binary signal from the received DPSK signal.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
DPSK modulations and demodulation trainer kit
CRO
BNC probes
Patch cards
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The differentially phase shift keying makes use of a technique designed to get around the
need for a coherent reference signal at the receiver. In the differential phase shift
keying scheme. The phase reference for the demodulation is derived form the
phase of the carrier during the preceding signaling interval and the receiver
decodes the digital information’s based on the differential phase. If the channel
perturbations and other disturbances are slowly varying compared to the bit rate
than the phase of the RF pulse are affected by the same manner, thus preserving
the information contained in the phase difference. If the digital information had
been differentially encoded in the carrier phase the transmitter the decoding at
the receiver can be accomplished without a coherent load oscillator signal.
MODULATION:
The differential signal to the modulating signal is generated using an Exclusive OR gate and
1-bit delay circuit (It is shown in figure). CD4051 is an analog multiplexer to
which carrier is applied with and without 1800 phase shift (created by using an
operational amplifier connected in inverting amplifier mode) to the two inputs of
the ICTL084. Differential signal generated by Ex-OR gate (IC7486) is given to
the multiplier’s control signal input. Depending upon the level of control signal,
carrier signal applied with or without phase shift is steered to the output.1- bit
delay generation of differential signal to the input is created by using a D- flip-
flop (IC7474).
DEMODULATION:
During the demodulation, the DPSK signal is converted into a +5V Square Wave signal using
a transistor and is applied to one input of an EX-OR gate. To the second input of
the gate, carrier signal is applied after conversion into a +5 V signal. So the EX-

OR gate output is equivalent to the differential signal of the modulating data.
This differential data is applied to one input of an EX-OR gate and to the second
input, after 1-bit delay the same signal is given. So the output of this Ex-OR gate
is modulating signal.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch ON' the experimental board.

2. Check the carrier signal and the data generator signals initially.
3. Apply the carrier signal to the carrier input of the DPSK modulator and
give the data generator to the data input of DPSK modulator and bit clock
output to the input of DPSK modulator.
4. Observe the DPSK modulating output with respect to the input data
generator signal of dual trace oscilloscope (observe the DPSK modulating
signal on channel l and the data generator signal on channel 2).
5. Give the output of the DPSK modulator signal to the input of
demodulator, give the bit clock output to the bit clock in put to the
demodulator and also give the carrier output to the carrier input of
demodulator.
6. Observe the demodulator output with respect to data generator signal
(modulating signal)
MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Hence generated the differential binary signal and differential phases shift keyed signal at the
modulator end and recovered the binary signal from the received DPSK signal.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between PSK&DPSK?
2. What is the band width requirement of a DPSK?
3. Explain the operation of DPSK detection?
4. What are the advantages of DPSK?
5. What is meant by differential encoding?
6. In Differential encoding technique which type of logic gates are used?

Mwedc Lab

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mwedc Lab

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mwedc Lab

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DESCRIPTION OF MICROWAVE BENCH

Electrical measurements encountered in the microwave region of

Reflex Klystron Oscillator:

Thus we have a velocity modulated beam traveling towards the

Department of ECE MLRIT 4 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Fig 2:Bunching of Electrons in reflex Klystron Oscillator

Department of ECE MLRIT 5 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Fig:3 Typical Mode Curves of Reflex Klystron

Department of ECE MLRIT 6 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 7 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 8 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 9 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 10 MWE & DC LABORATORY

A wave guide consists of a hollow metallic tube of a rectangular or

The corresponding cut off wave length,

Where c is velocity of light.

Hybrid Tee(Magic Tee):

The Scattering matrix of a Magic Tee is given as:

Department of ECE MLRIT 13 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 14 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Where Pi = Incident power ;

Where Pr = Reverse Power ;

Department of ECE MLRIT 15 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Several types of directional couplers exist, such as a two hole directional

Department of ECE MLRIT 16 MWE & DC LABORATORY

I= 10 log10( Pi/ P3)

FIRING OF THE REFLEX KLYSTRON:

Department of ECE MLRIT 17 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 18 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Klystron Reflex Frequency Detector Indicator

Department of ECE MLRIT 19 MWE & DC LABORATORY

(B) Mode Study on Oscilloscope:

Department of ECE MLRIT 20 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Fig.2: Typical mode curves for a reflex

Department of ECE MLRIT 21 MWE & DC LABORATORY

S.No Repeller CRO/VSWR meter Frequency meter

The formula for electronic Tuning range is given as

Department of ECE MLRIT 22 MWE & DC LABORATORY

1. How bunching takes place in a reflex klystron?

2. GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Department of ECE MLRIT 23 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 25 MWE & DC LABORATORY

(B) Square Wave Modulation:

Department of ECE MLRIT 26 MWE & DC LABORATORY

The characteristics of Gunn diode are plotted and Modulation depth

1. What are various modes of Gunn diode?

2. What is a PIN diode and how does it work as amplitude modulator?

3. Why are Gunn diode devices classified as voltage controlled devices?

5. Name some crystals from which Gunn diode may be manufactured.

6. Write the RWH criteria for negative resistance.

7. Write the criteria for classifying modes in gunn diode.

8. For LSA mode f*L > _____________ ?

9. For stable Amplification mode n0 * L = _________________________?

10. For delayed domain mode f* L lies between_______________________ ?

Department of ECE MLRIT 27 MWE & DC LABORATORY

1. Regulated klystron power supply - 1 No

Department of ECE MLRIT 28 MWE & DC LABORATORY

Department of ECE MLRIT 29 MWE & DC LABORATORY