Use:

Adverbs can be used to describe verbs. They describe HOW you do something.
Examples: She walks quickly; He sings nicely.
Form:
1) You can make many adverbs by adding –ly to an adjective.
slow -> slowly; loud -> loudly
If an adjective ends in ‘y’, change it to an ‘i’.
heavy -> heavily; funny -> funnily
Add ‘ally’ to adjectives ending in ‘ic’.
Physical -> physically; energetic -> energetically
2) Some adverbs are irregular, and do not end in ly. These include:
good -> well She dances well.
hard -> hard He works hard.
fast -> fast He runs fast.
late -> late He arrives late.
3a) Usually, the adverb goes after the verb it describes.
She talks quietly NOT She quietly talks.
He runs fast. NOT He fast runs.
3b) If the verb has a direct object WITHOUT A PREPOSITION the adverb should go after the object.
You sang that song nicely. NOT You sang nicely that song.
He did the job well. NOT He did well the job.
3c) If the verb is followed by a preposition and an object, you can put the adverb in different places.
He quickly walked to the shop.
He walked quickly to the shop.
He walked to the shop quickly.
4) Adverbs are NOT used to describe the following verbs. These verbs use adjectives.
Be I am quiet. NOT I am quietly.
Seem It seems strange. NOT It seems strangely.
Look That looks nice. NOT That looks nicely.
Smell That smells good. NOT That smells well.
Sound That sounds great. NOT That sounds greatly.
Feel That feels funny. NOT That feels funnily.
5) Some words end in ‘ly’ but they are not adverbs. Friendly is an example. Friendly is an adjective. We
can say ‘She is friendly’ but not ‘She talks friendly’. There is no adverb for friendly, but we can say ‘She
talks in a friendly way’. Elderly and lonely are also adjectives, not adverbs. Kindly and early are
adjectives and adverbs.

Use:
1) Both
Both means two of two things.
I have two cats. I like both of them.
2) Neither
Neither means not one or the other of two things.
Neither of my cats is grey.
Remember to use a singular verb after neither.
Neither of the dogs are dangerous. => Neither of the dogs is dangerous.
3) Either
Either means one or the other.
There are two cakes. Please have one. You can have either one.

Form:
1) You can use both, neither and either directly before a noun.
Both supermarkets are good.
Neither supermarket sells electrical goods.
We can go to either supermarket, I don’t mind.
2) Both, neither and either are often used with ‘of’. But you must always use a determiner (the, my,
these, those, his etc) before the noun.
Both of children like chocolate cake. => Both of the children like chocolate cake.
However, you don’t have to use of with both.
Both of the children like chocolate cake.
Both children like chocolate cake.
3) You can use both, neither and either+ of + object pronoun(you, them, us).
Both of them wore white dresses.
Neither of us was late.
Have either of you got a pen?
4) You can use both ... and ...; neither ... nor ..., and either ... or ....
Examples:
Both James and Diana work here.
Neither James nor Diana works here.
You can ask either James or Diana.

Grammar: So, such, too, enough

Too
Use:
Too means there is a lot of something. It shows a negative opinion.
It’s too hot = It is very hot and I don’t like it.
Form:
You can use too before an adjective.
It’s too cold. My trousers are too small.
You can also use it before an adverb,
You walk too fast. James speaks too quietly.
Before a noun, use too much (uncountable nouns) or many (countable nouns).
I ate too much food.
I ate too many sandwiches.
You can also use too much after a verb.
I ate too much.
Paul drinks too much.
Enough
Use:
Enough means you have what you need.
We have enough food for everyone = everyone has some food.
We don’t have enough chairs for everyone = some people don’t have chairs.
Form:
Write enough before a noun.
We have enough chairs.
But write it after an adjective or verb.
Are you warm enough? He’s qualified enough. She isn’t tall enough to be a model.

You don’t work hard enough. Are you sleeping enough?

Sentences with enough are sometimes followed by to + verb infinitive.
I’m not tall enough to reach the book.
I haven’t got enough money to buy that coat.
So
Use:
So means very.
It’s so hot!

Form:
So is generally used before an adjective or an adverb.
He’s so funny! He plays the piano so well!
However, in modern English, it is increasingly being used before nouns and verbs.
That dress is so last year! (= That dress is last year’s fashion)
I’m so going to shout at him when I see him! (so = really)
So can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was so hot that I couldn’t sleep.

Such
Use:
Such also means very. Such is used before an adjective and noun.
They are such nice children.

Form:
A / an, if necessary, go after such, not before.
That’s a such pretty dress. => That’s such a pretty dress!
Like So, Such can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was such a nice day that we decided to go to the park.

Common mistakes
1) Some students use too with a positive meaning. But use so or very here
It’s too hot! I love the summer! => It’s so hot! I love the summer!
2) Some students write enough in the wrong place.
Do we have sugar enough? => Do we have enough sugar?
3) Some students use so / such…that incorrectly.
It was so hot that the sun was shining.
This sentence is not correct because ‘the sun was shining’ is not a direct result of ‘It was so hot’. The hot
day did not cause the sun to shine.

Comparatives
Use:
Use the comparative form to talk about how two things are different.
I am taller than you.
This book is thicker than that one.
Form:
1) If an adjective has one syllable, add er to the end. If it ends in e already, just add r.
tall => taller nice => nicer
thick => thicker late => later
2) If an adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant, write the consonant again, then write er. But
never write a w twice.
big => bigger new => newer (NOT newwer) thin => thinner slow => slower (NOT slowwer)
slim => slimmer
My brother is thinner than me.
3) If an adjective has two syllables and ends in y, change the y to i and add er.
funny => funnier silly => sillier
Which of these books is funnier?
5) Some adjectives have irregular superlative forms. These are listed below.
good => better
bad => worse
far => further
Add than after a comparative adjective to compare one thing with another. However, this is not always
necessary.
My house is smaller than yours.

Superlatives

Use:
Use the superlative form to describe something that is greater than any other thing.
The Amazon is the longest river in the world.
Helen is the most intelligent student in the class.
Form:
1) Write the before all superlatives.
2) If an adjective is short and has one syllable, add est to the end. If it ends in e already, just add st.
tall => the tallest nice => the nicest
thick => the thickest late => the latest
2) If an adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant, write the consonant again, then write est.
But never write a w twice.
big => the biggest new => the newest (NOT newwest)
thin => the thinnest slow => the slowest (NOT slowwest)
slim => the slimmest
The biggest cat in the world is the lion.
3) If an adjective has two syllables and ends in y, change the y to i and add est.
funny => the funniest silly => the silliest

It’s the silliest film I’ve ever seen!

4) For other adjectives with two or more syllables, DON’T add est. Write most before the adjective.
interesting => the most interesting surprising => the
most surprising

It’s the most interesting book I’ve ever read.

5) Some adjectives have irregular superlative forms. These are listed below.
good => the best
bad => the worst
far => the furthest
6) a) In is often (but not always) used after a superlative adjective to describe where this statement
is true.
London is the biggest city in England.
Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
My brother is the tallest person in my family.

Question Tags
Use:
Use question tags in two situations.
1) You are not sure if something is true, so you want to check. In this case, your voice should rise when you
say the question tag.
↗
You’re not going now, are you?

2) You know something is true. You want to include/involve another person in the conversation. In this
case, your voice should fall when you say the tag. It does not sound like a question.
↘
He doesn’t live here now, does he?
Form:
Question tags are either:
1) positive statements with short, negative questions at the end.
These tags check something that you believe is true.
It’s Monday today, isn’t it?
2) negative statements with short, positive questions at the end.
These tags check something that you believe is false.
It’s not raining, is it?
Make question tags this way:
1) If there is an auxiliary verb or a modal verb, write it in the opposite form (positive or negative) at the
end of the sentence. Then write the subject pronoun of the sentence.
Ian’s nice, isn’t he?
Laura hasn’t arrived yet, has she?
I can’t do anything to help, can I?
We won’t be late, will we?
Caution:
CAUTION: Use aren’t with I’m in questions tags.
I’m a bit careless, aren’t I? NOT I’m a bit careless, am not I?
2) In present and past simple sentences, use do, does or did in the question tag.
Brian and Cathy don’t eat meat, do they?
Your dad lives abroad, doesn’t he?
Your friends enjoyed themselves, didn’t they?
3) Use a positive question tag after never.
Miles never goes out, does he?

Second Conditional
Use:
The second conditional structure is used to talk about imaginary situations and the consequences.
Example: If I had a car, I could visit my friend.
(But the truth is, I do not have a car, and I cannot visit my friend).
The second conditional structure is also used to talk about imaginary abilities and the consequences.
Example: If I could fly, I wouldn’t need a car.
(But the truth is, I cannot fly, and so I need a car.)

Form:
1) Make the second conditional in this way.
If I past simple , I would / wouldn’t verb
you you ‘d (infinitive
he he form)
she... she... could / couldn’t

Example: If we had more money, we would buy that house.

Or
I would / wouldn’t verb If I past simple
you ‘d (infinitive form) you
he he
she... could / couldn’t she...
Example: She’d be more successful if she worked harder.
2) The verb to be can use were for all subjects. This is particularly true in the sentence: If I were you…
If I were you, I’d buy a bicycle.
However, this rule is often overlooked.
If he were more careful, he wouldn’t break everything. =>
If he was more careful, he wouldn’t break everything.
3) To talk about imaginary abilities, use could.
If I could + verb (infinitive) , I would / wouldn’t verb
you you ‘d (infinitive
he he form)
she... she...
Example: If I could help you, I would!
4) Notice that the infinitive verb after the modal verbs is not necessary if the meaning is clear. Don’t
contract modal verbs when there is no infinitive verb present.
If I could pay, I’d... => If I could pay, I would...
Common errors:
1) Many students write would after If
If I would have a lot of money, I would buy that car!
=> If I had a lot of money, I would buy that car!
2) Many students forget to use could to talk about abilities.
If I played the drums, I’d join a band.
=> If I could play the drums, I’d join a band.

Third Conditional
Use:
Use the third conditional to talk about past events. Use it to describe what could have happened (event ‘b’)
as a result of something else (event ‘a’). However, neither event a nor event b happened. Therefore the
third conditional describes hypothetical, imaginary situations.
If I had been at home yesterday, I’d have got your phone call.
(But, I was not at home, and I didn’t receive your call.)
The third conditional is often used to criticise:
If you had worked harder, you wouldn’t have failed the test.
(But you didn’t work hard and you failed the test).
Or it can be used to express regret:
If I hadn’t spent all my money, I could’ve bought a computer.
(But I spend all my money and I couldn’t buy a computer).
Or it can be used to express relief:
If I we’d taken that route, we’d have been stuck in the traffic jam for hours!
(But we didn’t take that route, and we didn’t get stuck)
Form:
a) Make the third conditional structure this way:
would have
would’ve
If past perfect , ‘d have past participle
(had + past participle) wouldn’t have
(hadn’t + past participle)
EVENT A EVENT B
If you’d told me that Anna had put on weight, I wouldn’t have congratulated her on becoming pregnant.
Or:
I / you / he / she / would have past perfect
we / it / they would’ve (had + past participle)
‘d have past participle if (hadn’t + past participle)
wouldn’t have
EVENT B EVENT A
Jim wouldn’t have made those mistakes if you had trained him properly.
b) You can also use may have / may not have, might have / might not have or could have / couldn’t
have to describe less certain possibilities rather than certain consequences.
You might have had an accident if you’d driven home in the snow last night.
c) Sometimes the if clause is implied but not spoken.
‘I’d have helped.’
means ‘I’d have helped if you’d asked me.’
‘I wouldn’t have said that.’
means ‘I wouldn’t have said that if I’d been there.’
Common Mistakes
Some students write would after if. Would does not go in the If clause, it goes in the other clause.
If I would have seen Sally, I’d have told her the news. → If I had seen Sally, I’d have told her the
news.
Use:
Connectives join two clauses, and show the relationship between them.
The relationship can show:

 a contrast Although, but, even though, however, despite, in spite of

 a cause because, because of, as a result of, due to
 an effect so, consequently, as a result, thus, therefore

These words cannot be used interchangeably. They may be located in different places with in the sentence,
and they may use a different grammar.
Form:
a) Connectives showing Contrast
Compare these sentences with the same meaning:
i It is sunny but temperatures are low.
Never start a sentence with But. You can use but after a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is
needed.
ii Although it is sunny, temperatures are low. / Even though it is sunny, temperatures are low.
Note how Although and Even though are located in a different part of the sentence from
But. Although and Even though go before the known clause, whereas but goes before the unknown
clause. The two clauses are separated with a comma. The order of clauses can be reversed.

Temperatures are low, even though / although it’s sunny.

iii It is sunny. However, temperatures are low.
Note how however starts a sentence and is followed by a comma. It may also be seen after a semi-colon
(;). Consequently, it is usually seen in longer sentences.
iv Despite the sun, temperatures are low.
In spite of the sun, temperatures are low.
Note the position of Despite and In spite of before the known clause. The order of clauses can be
reversed:
Temperatures are low despite / in spite of the sun.
Also note that these words are followed by a noun, not a verb clause. You can also use the –ing form of
the verb in these sentences.
Despite / In spite of it being sunny, temperatures are low.
b) Connectives showing a Cause
Compare these sentences with the same meaning.
i I arrived late because the traffic was bad.
Because the traffic was bad, I arrived late.
Note you can ONLY start a sentence with Because if there are two clauses in the sentence.

Because we were late. INCORRECT

Because we were late, we missed the start of the show. CORRECT
Starting a sentence with Because is more formal than using it in the middle of a sentence, and is most
commonly used in writing, not speaking.
ii I arrived late because of the bad traffic. OR Because of the bad traffic, I arrived late.
I arrived late due to the bad traffic. OR Due to the bad traffic, I arrived late.
I arrived late as a result of the bad traffic. OR As a result of the bad traffic, I arrived late.
Note how these expressions are followed by a noun, not a verb clause.
c) Connectives showing Effect
Compare these sentences with the same meaning.
i We were late so we missed the beginning of the show.
Never start a sentence with So. So can follow a comma(,). In short sentences, no punctuation is needed.
ii We were late and thus we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and consequently we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and as a result we missed the beginning of the show.
We were late and therefore we missed the beginning of the show.
Consequently, As a result, Therefore and Thus are more formal than So. They are common in formal
sentences. They often start a sentence, but they can be joined to the previous sentence with and.
Common Mistakes:
1. Some students begin sentences with But and So.
Joe went to university. But he didn’t like it. → Joe went to university, but he didn’t like it.
2. Some students write a sentence with because and only one clause.
I went to the shop. Because I needed some bread. → I went to the shop because I needed some bread.
3. Some students do not use nouns when they needed to.
I went indoors due to it was cold outside. → I went indoors due to the cold weather outside.
Use:
Whenever you use an introductory phrase before a question, you must change the word order in the
question.
Introductions include:
Can you tell me...? Do you know...? I don’t know... I’m not sure... I wonder... I can’t remember...
What’s the time? =>Can you tell me what the time is?
Where did he go? =>I don’t know where he went.
Form:
1) If the question has an auxiliary verb, swap the positions of the auxiliary verb and the subject. You can
also do this in sentences with the verb to be.
Example: When can you get here?
Can is the auxiliary verb and you is the subject. Swap their positions when you add an introduction.
Do you know when you can get here?
Other examples:
Where has he gone? =>I don’t know where he has gone.
What are they doing? =>I don’t know what they’re doing.
What time is it? =>Have you any idea what time it is?
You cannot contract the verb if it is the last word in the sentence.
Do you know what time it’s? =>Do you know what time it is?
2) If the question is in the present or past simple, remove do / does / did from the question. Change the
verb ending so that the verb is in the correct tense.
Example:
Where did he go? =>Did you see where he went?
What time do you get up? =>Can you tell me what time you get up?
Where does she work? =>I wonder where she works.
3) If a question does not have a question word (Where, What, Why etc.) use if or whether before the
question.
Example:
Does he live here? =>Do you know if he lives here?
Are they coming to the party? =>Do you know whether they are coming to the party?

Future Continuous
Use:
a) Use the future continuous to talk about an event that will already be in progress at a specified time in the
future.
This time next week, I’ll be driving to my parents’ house.
Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:
By ..., This time next week..., In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple.
When you arrive, I’ll be driving home.
By the time I get home, you’ll probably be having a bath.
b) The future continuous can be used instead of the present continuous for future plans.
Will you be going to Jane’s party?
Yes, but I’ll be getting there a bit late, because I’m going to a meeting after work.
c) We can also use the future continuous to make a guess about something that is in progress at the
moment.
Don’t phone Richard now, he’ll be having dinner.
Oh no, I forgot about the dinner! It’ll be burning, I know it!
These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to talk about what
we assume is happening at the moment.
Form:
a) You can make the future continuous with will or going to. Make the future continuous this way:
Positive and Negative

I will be verb + ing

you won’t be
he / she it
am / are / is going
we
to be
they
Questions

Will I be verb + ing?

you
Won’t
Am he / she it going to be
Is we
Are they
b) Remember that some verbs are not used in continuous tenses. These include verbs connected with
possession: possess, own, belong, likes and dislikes: like, love, hate and other abstract verbs: seem, be,
cost, want.

Using Modals for Recommendations

Use:
The following modals can be used to give recommendations.
must Must can be used to give a strong recommendation.
You must see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.
have to You can also use have to for recommendations, but must is more common. Have to is generally
used to talk about rules and things beyond your control.
You have to see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.
should Should and ought to are used to give a suggestion.
You should try haggis while you are in Scotland.
could Could is used to give an option.
You could stay in a hotel, or you could stay at a guest house.
don’t have to Don’t have to is used to say that something isn’t necessary.
You don’t have to get a taxi; the metro is really fast and efficient.
shouldn’t Should is used to warn someone gently against doing something.
You shouldn’t walk home alone after dark.
mustn’t Mustn’t is used to warn someone strongly against doing something.
You mustn’t go to that part of the city – it’s dangerous.
Form:
Must, should and could are modals. Modals follow the following rules.
1) Do not add ‘s’ to the third person singular.
He must. NOT He musts
2) To form a negative, add not after the verb.
I shouldn’t. NOT I don’t should
3) To form questions, invert the modal verb and the subject.
Must you? NOT Do you must?
4) Modals are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I should go. NOT I should to go. / I should coming.

Have to is a regular verb.

1) Use Do / Does / Did to form questions.
Do you have to go? NOT Have you to go?
2) Have to is followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I have to go.
3) Use don’t / doesn’t / didn’t to form negative sentences.
I don’t have to go. NOT I haven’t to go.
Common Mistakes:
1. Many students use to after modal verbs.
You must to visit the museum. → You must visit the museum.
2. Some students write the question and negative form of have to incorrectly.
You haven’t to take the bus → You don’t have to take the bus.
Have you to go now? → Do you have to go now?
Should have
Use:
1) Should have can be used to express regret about the past – to wish that something in the past
had happened in a different way:
I should have studied for my exam!
(I didn’t study for my exams. I failed. Now I wish that the past was different.)
2) Should have can also be used to talk about something you expected to happen, but it didn’t
happen (or it didn’t happen until later).
The letter should have arrived by now, but it hasn’t come yet.
(I was expecting a letter, but it isn’t here).
Here’s the bus! It should have been here twenty minutes ago.
(The bus is late. It has just arrived).
Form:
I should have + past participle You should have phoned me.
You should’ve
He / She / It You shouldn’t have done
We shouldn’t have + past participle that.
They

May Might and Adverbs of Probability

May and Might
Use:
Use May and Might to talk about what will possibly happen in the future. May and Might mean maybe will.
They can refer to the future or the present.
Examples: I might have a pen in my bag. ( = present use)
She may arrive tomorrow. ( = future use)
Form:
May and Might are modal verbs, like can, will and should, so they follow the same rules.
1) Do not add ‘s’ to the third person singular.
He may come. NOT He mays come.
She might stay. NOT She mights stay.
2) To form a negative, add not after may and might.
He may not come. She might not stay.
3) To form questions, invert may/might and the subject. However, questions with might are not common.
Might he be late?
4) May can be used with ‘I’ or ‘we’ to make requests. However, can and could are more common.
May I have some chocolate? May we go to the party?
5) May and Might are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I might go. NOT I might to go.
She might stay. NOT She might staying.

Will + adverbs of probability

Use:
You can use will and won’t with different adverbs to show how probable a future event is.
I’ll possibly go to the party.
I’ll probably go to the party.
I’ll definitely go to the party.
I’ll certainly go to the party.
Form:
Note that will / ‘ll is used before the adverb, but won’t is used after the adverb.
I’ll probably see you later.
I probably won’t see you later.

Using Modals for Recommendations

Use:
The following modals can be used to give recommendations.
must Must can be used to give a strong recommendation.
You must see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.
have to You can also use have to for recommendations, but must is more common. Have to is generally
used to talk about rules and things beyond your control.
You have to see the Empire State Building while you are in New York.
should Should and ought to are used to give a suggestion.
You should try haggis while you are in Scotland.
could Could is used to give an option.
You could stay in a hotel, or you could stay at a guest house.
don’t have to Don’t have to is used to say that something isn’t necessary.
You don’t have to get a taxi; the metro is really fast and efficient.
shouldn’t Should is used to warn someone gently against doing something.
You shouldn’t walk home alone after dark.
mustn’t Mustn’t is used to warn someone strongly against doing something.
You mustn’t go to that part of the city – it’s dangerous.
Form:
Must, should and could are modals. Modals follow the following rules.
1) Do not add ‘s’ to the third person singular.
He must. NOT He musts
2) To form a negative, add not after the verb.
I shouldn’t. NOT I don’t should
3) To form questions, invert the modal verb and the subject.
Must you? NOT Do you must?
4) Modals are always followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I should go. NOT I should to go. / I should coming.

Have to is a regular verb.

1) Use Do / Does / Did to form questions.
Do you have to go? NOT Have you to go?
2) Have to is followed by a verb in the infinitive form.
I have to go.
3) Use don’t / doesn’t / didn’t to form negative sentences.
I don’t have to go. NOT I haven’t to go.
Common Mistakes:
1. Many students use to after modal verbs.
You must to visit the museum. → You must visit the museum.
2. Some students write the question and negative form of have to incorrectly.
You haven’t to take the bus → You don’t have to take the bus.
Have you to go now? → Do you have to go now?

Past Perfect
Use:
a) The past perfect is a narrative tense. This means it is used when telling a story about the past.
It is used in the same paragraph as verbs in the past simple tense, and is often used in the same sentence
as a past simple verb.
The past perfect describes an event which happened before another event in the past. We use it when
we do not want to say the events in the order they happened.
Example:
A sentence with the events in the order they happened:
John went to the shop on the way home from work, so he got home late.
Both verbs are in the past simple.
A sentence in which the events are NOT in order:
John got home late because he had gone to the shop on the way home from work.
The event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense.
b) The past perfect is also used in other structures such as:
I wish: I wish I had cleaned the house!
Third Conditional: If I had practiced harder, we might have won the competition.
Form:
I
you
he / she / it had past participle
we hadn’t
they
Write any adverbs between had and the past participle.
The film had already started.
The post had just been delivered.

Past simple
Use:
Use the past simple to talk about finished events in the past. Use it to tell stories, jokes and anecdotes.
Form:
1) Many past tense verbs are formed by adding -ed to the end of the verb.
want => wanted
start => started
If a verb ends in e, just add d (liked, hoped).
If a verb ends in y, delete y and add ied (studied, carried). But don’t do this if the verb ends in a vowel +
y (played, NOT plaied. stayed, NOT staied)
But a lot of past tense verbs are irregular. You need to learn each one separately. Here are some
examples.
have => had make => made
take => took sit => sat
get => got feel => felt
Past simple verbs are the same for all persons.
I went; you went; he went; she went; they went; we went...
2) Form negatives this way:
I, you, he , she, we, they... didn’t infinitive verb
know, see, go
Don’t use the past verb in negative sentences.
I didn’t had dinner. => I didn’t have dinner.
3) Form questions this way:
I, you, he , she, we, they... infinitive verb
Did know, see, go

Common mistakes:
Some students use the past verb in questions.
Did you saw the film? => Did you see the film?

Prepositions and prepositional phrases of place

Use:
Use prepositions of place to describe where something is.

The ball is in the

The ball is on the box. The ball
box. is under the box.

The ball is over the

box. The ball is next The ball
to the box. is between the two
boxes.

The ball is near

The ball is in front The ball
(to) the box.
of the box. is behind the box.

In is also used in these situations:

Countries, cities, villages We live in France / in Paris / in Madrid.
 It’s the highest building in the world.
the world

They have a cottage in the mountains / in a valley.

mountains and valleys

She works in a bank.

buildings

Don’t swim in the sea / the river / the lake.

water

He lives in the middle of Paris / in the city centre.

the middle / centre

Which film was that actor in? I read about it in the newspaper.
books / films / newspaper

On is also used in these situations:

walls, ceilings, doors, floor: She hung the picture on the ceiling / the wall / the door.

There’s a dirty mark on the page / table

surfaces

There’s a label in on the box / bottle

the front / side/ back

The school is on the left.

left / right

Jim’s office is on the second floor.

Floors

What’s on the menu? Did you buy everything on the list?

lists / menus
I live on Jackson street. The nearest gas station is on the motorway. The
roads post box is on the way to work.

He lives on the coast. London is on the River Thames.

natural lines and borders

At is also used in these situations:

the top / bottom (of a page) Sign your name at the top / bottom.

Turn left at the traffic lights / roundabout / end of the street.

Directions:

Wait at the traffic lights / corner / tree.

Position (next to something)

I wrote my name at the front / back of the book.

the front / the back

What happened at the beginning / end of the film?

the beginning / the end
 I met him at a party / conference / football match
events

I’ll meet you at the airport / the station / home

buildings

Common mistakes:
1. Some students miss out part of the prepositional phrases.
I live next a small shop. => I live next to a small shop.

I parked the car in front the I parked the car in front of the building.
building. =>
2. Some students add a second preposition where it is not necessary.
Your bag is behind of the
Your bag is behind the door.
door.=>

Present Perfect Continuous

Use:
Use present perfect continuous in two situations.
1) You started something in the past and you are still doing it now.
I’ve been working all morning (and I’m still working now).
2) You have just finished doing something. The effects of this activity can still be seen.
I’ve been gardening, so my hands are dirty.

Form:
Form the present perfect continuous in this way.
Positive and Negative
have / haven’t been verb + ing
I, you, we, they ‘ve /’ve not
has / hasn’t
‘s / ‘s not
he, she, it
Examples: You’ve been eating chocolate. I’ve not been sleeping well.

Questions
I, you, we, they been verb + ing?
Have
he, she, it
Has
Examples: Have you been drinking? Has Emily been seeing her ex-boyfriend?

Present Perfect vs Past Simple

Present Perfect
Use:
1) The present perfect tense is often used to tell up-to-date news.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby!’
But you cannot use the present perfect with phrases relating to finished time.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby yesterday!’
So, to ask about and give more details, you need to use the past simple.
‘Great news! Jane has had a baby!’
‘When did she have it?’
‘She had it last night!’
2) The present perfect can be used with phrases relating to unfinished time, such as:
this week, today, this year
I’ve seen Roger twice this week.
That’s the second time I’ve seen that film this year.
3) The present perfect is often used in sentences with these words:
just, yet, already, ever, never
I’ve just finished the report.
Karen has finished the book already.
I haven’t finished the report yet.
I’ve never been to Spain. Have you ever been?
4) The present perfect is used to describe periods of time that start in the past and continue until the
present. It is often used with for and since.
I’ve lived here for five years.
James has worked here since last summer.

The present perfect and past simple may appear in the same sentence:
I’ve lived here since I was a child.
Tom has been unemployed since he left the factory.
Past Simple
Use:
The past simple can be used with phrases relating to finished time, such as:
yesterday, last week, last month, in 2010, two weeks ago
Jemma left the company six weeks ago.
I emailed Tony last week.
Form:
Present Perfect
Positive
I / you / they / have / ‘ve past participle
we
he / she / it has / ‘s

Negative
I / you / they / haven’t / ‘ve past participle
we not

he / she / it hasn’t / ‘s
not
Questions
Have you / they / past participle?
we
Has he / she / it

Past Simple
Positive
I / you / they / past tense verb
we / he / she / it

Negative
I / you / they / didn’t infinitive verb
we / he / she / it

Questions
Did you / they / infinitive verb?
we / he / she
/ it

Comratives
Use:
Use reported speech to talk about what another person said in the past.
Eve: ‘I went to the party on Friday night’.
James: ‘Eve said that she had gone to the party on Friday night’.

Form:
1) When reporting speech, the verb in the sentence may shift to a past tense.
am / is / are changes to was / were
“I am fine.” She said that she was fine.
present simple changes to past simple
“I like it.” He said he liked it.
present continuous changes to past continuous
“She’s sleeping.” He said that she was sleeping.
will changes to would
“I’ll be there.” You said that you’d be there.
can changes to could
“I can come to the meeting.” You said that you could come to the meeting.
past simple changes to past perfect
“I did the shopping.” Tom said that he had done the shopping.
present perfect changes to past perfect
“I’ve read that book.” I told him that I’d read the book.
past continuous changes to past perfect continuous
“She was walking home alone.” He said that she had been walking home alone.
present perfect continuous changes to past perfect continuous
“I’ve been working,” I told him that I’d been working.
2) To report speech, use He / She / I said (that) ...
You can also use He / She told me (that)...; I told him / her (that)...

3) Don’t use quotation marks (“) when reporting speech.

4) References to times in the past also may need to change when using reported speech, if that time is no
longer the same.
this morning / week / month → that morning / week / month
yesterday → the previous day
last week / month → the previous week / month
ago → earlier / previously
tomorrow → the following day
next week / month → the following week / month

Simple passive
Use:
The passive voice is used:
a) When the object of a sentence is more important than the subject
The city was destroyed by the volcano.
b) When the subject of the sentence is unknown.
This cheese was made in Canada.
It is common in formal and scientific writing.
Form:
You can use the passive voice in all tenses. Use the correct form of be + the past participle of the verb.
Present Simple: Past participle The workers collect the rubbish of
I Wednesdays.
you / they / we am => The rubbish is collected on
It / She / he are Thursdays.
is
taken
Past Simple: People built the castle over 800
given
you / they / we years ago.
were built
I / It / She / he => The castle was built over 800
was made
years ago.
eaten
Present Perfect: brought Someone has taken my book!
I / you / they / we cooked => My book has been taken!
It / She / he have been left...
has been
Past Perfect: When we arrived at the airport,
I / you / they / we / it / she / he someone had resold our tickets.
had been => When we arrived at the airport,
our tickets had been resold.
Modals You must wear a hard hat in this
I / you / they / we / it / she / he area.
can be => Hard harts must be worn in
will be this area.
would be
must be
 should be
could be

To mention who caused the action, use by.

The bins were emptied by the cleaning staff.

be going to
Use:
Use be going to to talk about your personal plans for the future.
I’m going to see my sister at the weekend.
Are you going to marry Paul?
Form:
1) The form of the positive and negative sentences and questions is shown below.
Positive
am / ‘m
I
going to verb (infinitive form)
you are / ‘re
he / she / it is / ‘s
we are / ‘re
they are / ‘re
Negative
‘m not
I
going to verb (infinitive form)
you aren’t OR ‘re not
he / she / it isn’t OR ‘s not
we aren’t OR ‘re not
they aren’t OR ‘re not
Questions
I
Am
going to verb (infinitive form) ?
Are you
Is he / she / it
Are we
Are they
2) The short reply to a ‘be going to’ question is ‘Yes, I am’, ‘Yes, she is’ etc. You cannot contract these
short sentences.
Yes, he’s. => Yes, he is.
The short negative replies are:
No, I’m not.
No, you’re not / No, you aren’t.
No, he’s not / No he isn’t. No, she’s not / No she isn’t. No, it’s not / no it isn’t.
No, we’re not / No, we aren’t.
No, they’re not / No, they aren’t.

Common mistakes:
1) Some students forget to add the verb ’be’ before ‘going to’.
I going to see my friends tonight. => I’m going to see my friends tonight.
2) Some students forget to invert the subject and be in questions.

What time you are going to leave? => What time are you going to leave?