Basic Concepts

Electricity is the most widely used form of energy, ranging from miniature Batteries in
your Wristwatch to large Arc Furnaces for melting Steel. It is important to understand
electricity's basic principles to see how to use it wisely and safely.

Our first understanding of electricity began about 600 B.C. with the observed attraction
between materials and Amber Rods rubbed with other materials. This is how the name
electricity was derived.

Ironically, electricity must be converted to other forms of energy to be useful such as:
heat, light, or mechanical power. In fact, Thomas Edison himself never thought electric
power could be sold, since power itself had no "value." He thought people would have to
be sold light or heat - a thought that is coming back into vogue today as "end-use
pricing."

What is Electricity?
What is "electricity?" It is much easier to describe what it does than what it is. For
example, electricity operates our Lights, runs our Refrigerators and powers our Electric
Motors.

Electricity is actually defined as: " the movement (or flow) of Electrons through a
material."

The word "electric" comes from the Greek word "amber" and has been used to describe a
wide range of related phenomena. We cannot see electricity, but we can see its effects
(i.e. light).

Electricity can exist in a number of forms; however, there are two types of commonly
used electricity:

1. Direct Current: which is commonly provided by Batteries; and

2. Alternating Current: provided by Electric Utilities or other Power Generators in
the form of Electrons (called "current") flowing through a Wire called a
"Conductor."
 Atoms
To gain an insight into how electricity flows through a material, we need to understand
the structure of "Atoms" (nature's building) blocks.

All matter is made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and other Atoms. Each Atom is comprised
of Protons, which are positively-charged; Neutrons, which have no charge; and
Electrons, which are negatively-charged. The Protons and Neutrons form the "nucleus"
of the Atom, and the Electrons travel in "orbits" around the "nucleus" much like the
earth travels around the sun.

Protons and Electrons follow specific Laws of Attraction. Since they have opposite
charges, they "attract" to one another. If an Atom has the same number of Protons as
Electrons, then the Atom is balanced and stable. The orbiting Electrons remain in their
"orbits" as long as nothing upsets the balance.

When something upsets this balance, then some of the Electrons become "knocked out"
of their "orbits". They are called "Free" Electrons. This unbalanced condition can be
caused by rubbing cat's fur on Amber, passing a Wire through a Magnetic Field, or
putting two chemicals together (as in a Dry Cell Battery).

Conductors

Materials that are made up of Atoms whose Electrons are

easily freed are called "conductive materials" or "Conductors."
Platinum, Gold, and Silver are examples of the very best
Conductors of electricity. Gold is used extensively in small
quantities for high-value products like: microelectronics, high
quality audio components, computer chips, and
telecommunications satellites.

Copper and Aluminum are also very excellent Conductors of electricity and much less
expensive. Almost all Electrical Wiring is Aluminum or Copper, although many actually
contain some for added strength.
 Copper Wires
Copper Wire is commonly used on the "customer side" of the Electric Meter. While
Copper generally costs more than Aluminum, it is a better Conductor, so smaller Wire
can be used. Copper also requires less maintenance.

Copper Wire is required by code for most residential buildings. There may be exceptions
for using Aluminum Wire, but always check the local code authority before using
Aluminum.

Aluminum Wires
Aluminum Wire is used as Electrical Conductors on electric utility transmission and
distribution systems. The Overhead Wires spanning Utility Poles are made of Aluminum
and do not have Insulation around them.

Aluminum has two advantages over Copper as a Conductor for Utility Lines:

• It is lightweight and economical. The light weight permits larger "spans" between
Poles.
• Because Aluminum costs less than Copper, it helps Utilities keep costs down.

Most Electrical Codes do not permit Aluminum Wiring in residential buildings.

Aluminum can be used in many commercial and industrial buildings provided it is
installed and maintained under strict rules.
 Insulators
"Insulators" are materials that have structural properties exactly opposite of Conductors.
These materials are made up of Atoms whose Electrons are not easily "freed." These
Electrons are said to be tightly bound to the "nucleus" and are very stable.

Insulators are used to prevent the flow of electrical current. The rubberized Power Cord
and plastic coverings on Appliances are typical examples of Insulators. Glass, rubber,
porcelain, and most plastics are good Insulators.

Voltage
"Voltage" is the electrical force that causes Free Electrons to move from one Atom to
another. Just as water needs some pressure to force it through a Pipe, electrical current
needs some force to make it flow. "Voltage" or "Volts" is the measure of "electrical
pressure" that causes current flow. Voltage is sometimes referred to as the measure of a
potential difference between two points along a Conductor.

Either a Generator or Battery typically supplies Voltage. Generators are analogous to a

Water Pump in a water piping system, and Batteries are similar to Water Towers. Both
systems have a potential difference between the source of the power and someplace
"downstream" from the source.

The scientific symbol for Voltage is an "E," dating to early days of electricity when it
was called the "Electromotive Force." Scientists and Engineers use the "E" symbol for
Voltage, while Electricians and Wiring Books use "V" as the Voltage symbol. This can
create some confusion, since either may be encountered. In this course, we shall use the
practical symbol "V" for Voltage.
 Current
"Current" is a measure of the rate of Electron flow through a material. Electrical
Current is measured in units of Amperes or "Amps" for short. This flow of Electrical
Current develops when Electrons are forced from one Atom to another.

One Amp is defined as Electrons per

second.

When Current flows in a Conductor, heat is produced.

This happens because every Conductor offers some
Resistance to current flowing.
Flow of Electric Current
That is why the Amperage flow in a Circuit is important, since the more Amps flowing
on a given Wire, the more heat is produced. Most people notice this heating effect when
the Cord of any Appliance or electrical device heats up after the device has been running
for an extended period of time.

Recognizing this heat production is important in specifying Wire sizes. When a Wire
carries more Amps than it can handle without overheating, we say it is "overloaded."
Overloaded Wires can melt the Insulation and create "shocks" or even Fires.

Wire Gauge

The scientific symbol for Amperage is an "I," dating back to the early days of electricity.
It is still used by Scientists and Engineers. Electricians and Wiring Guides use "A" as the
Amperage symbol. In this course, we shall use the practical symbol "A" for current flow
in Amps.
Electrical Resistance
"Electrical Resistance" is defined as the "resistance to
flow of electricity through a material." Even the best
Conductors, (i.e. Gold) have some Resistance.
Resistance Elements essentially fall somewhere
between a Conductor and an Insulator. Resistance can Flow of Electric Current
also be considered a measurement of how tightly a
material holds onto its Electrons.

The Electrical Resistance of a material is measured in units called "ohms." The lower
the Resistance of a material, the better the material acts as a Conductor. For example,
Copper has a lower Electrical Resistance than Aluminum; Copper is a better Conductor.
The "resistance value" for most materials is listed in physics or science books. For
example, "Common Resistance Elements" in a Circuit are: lights, motors, and electrical
resistance headers.

We can use a water piping system as an analogy. The Resistance in the Water Pipe to the
flow of water comes mainly from the size of the Pipe. Rust and corrosion inside the Pipe,
objects stuck inside the Pipe, and the number of "bends" and Fittings all add up to
increase the Resistance to the flow of water.

The same is true of current flow in an Electric Circuit. A number of factors determine the
Resistance to current flow such as Wire diameter, Wire length and any impurities in the
Wire's makeup. For example, smaller Wires have more Resistance than larger diameter
Wires and longer Wires have more Resistance than shorter Wires.

Resistance Factors

When electricity flows through any Resistance, energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
If the heat becomes intense enough, the Conductor Resistor may actually "glow". This is
exactly how an Incandescent Light Bulb works. The Filament is made of a material that
will resist the current enough to heat up and "glow".

The scientific symbol for Electrical Resistance, which is measured in "Ohms," is the
Greek letter "Omega". Electricians and practical Wiring Books typically use an "R" to
represent Resistance. So in this course, we shall use the practical symbol "R" to
represent Resistance in "Ohms".

Power
"Power" is a "measure of the amount of work an electric current can accomplish in a
specified period of time." The most common unit of electrical power measurement is the
"watt" (or "kilowatt" which is 1,000 watts). Power is the rate at which electrical energy
is converted into some other form of energy such as: light, heat, mechanical work, or
horsepower.

For any electrical device, the higher its power rating in watts,
the greater its consumption of electrical energy (not necessarily
the amount of work it produces). For example, consider a 100- Standard Fluorescent
watt Incandescent Light Bulb. The 100 watts does not Light Bulb Light Bulb
represent how much light it produces, but how much electrical
power it uses. A 17-watt Fluorescent Lamp may produce much- or even more-light,
while using only 17% of the power.

Appliance manufacturers normally indicate how much Electrical Power an Appliance

uses in units of watts.

Electric Utilities measure the Power consumption of their customers in kilowatts or

thousands of watts, and measure the Power produced by a Generator or Power Plant in
units of megawatts or millions of watts.

U.S. motor manufacturers still rate Motors in units of horsepower (i.e. one horsepower
equals 746 watts).

The symbol for "Power" is a capital "P," while the symbol for watt is a capital "W." The
kilowatt is shown as "kW" with a small "k" and capital "W." The megawatt is shown as
"mW" with a small "m" and capital "W."

Electrical Energy
"Electrical Energy" is the average amount of power used over a given time
period and is commonly measured in "kilowatt-hours." Electric Utility
Meters accurately measure the kilowatt-hour energy use by the customer
and may also measure peak power use during a specified time interval.

Let's calculate the energy use for a Blow Dryer. Say the Blow Dryer is
rated at 1,500 watts by the manufacturer. This is how much electric power
it uses when it operates. If the Blow Dryer is operated for a total of 2 hours
each month, the Blow Dryer consumes 1,500 watts x 2 hours = 3000 watt-
hours. Since "Utility Rates" are based on kilowatt-hours, divide by 1,000
to get 3 kilowatt-hours. This shows how power consumption and operating time are
important in determining energy use.
Electrons are thought of as being:?

A. Positively-Charged
B. Negatively-Charged

B.

Which of the following are good insulation materials?

A. Gold and Silver
B. Porcelain and Glass
C. Copper and Aluminum
D. None of the Above

B.

Which of the following materials is the best Conductor?

A. Aluminum
B. Copper
C. Plastic
D. Gold

D.

Copper is used to "wire" most residential buildings

because it:
A. is cheaper than Aluminum
B. is not as good a Conductor as Aluminum
C. requires less maintenance than Aluminum
D. fits inside Walls easier than Aluminum

C.

Aluminum Wire is used by Utilities on their Lines because it is:

A. better "conductor" than Copper

B. not allowed in residential buildings
C. lightweight and economical
D. easier to hold onto for the birds and squirrels
C.

Voltage is described as:

A. Electrical Power
B. Electrical Current
C. Electrical Resistance
D. Electrical Force or Pressure

D.

The more Current flowing through a Wire, the

higher the Wire flow of:
A. Amps
B. Volts
C. Ohms
D. Farads

A.

Resistance in an Electrical Circuit is measured in

units of:
A. Volts
B. Ohms
C. Amps
D. Watts

B.

Electrical Power use is measured in units of:

 A. Volts
B. Amps
C. Watts
D. Ohms

C.

Electrical energy consumption of a 1000 watt load operating for 5 hours would be:

A. 0.5 kilowatt-hours
B. 5 kilowatt-hours
C. 50 kilowatt-hours
D. 0.2 kilowatt-hours

B.