PAPER

CHANGE, CONFLICT AND MOTIVATION MANAGEMENT

SUPERVISOR :Dr.Windu Santoso M. Kep.

Made By:
Class and Group : C/3
1. Ferlian Firmanda Baskoro (201601102)
2. Maya Diyah Kusuma Dewi (201601093)
3. Isna Ainun Mahya (201601118)
4. Yeheskiel Dwi Arif Wibowo (201601087)
5. Durrotun Nafisah (201601109)
6. Krisna Rini Kusumastutik (201601085)
7. Habib Baharuddin (201601079)

STAGE 1 STUDY PROGRAM OF NURSING SCIENCE

INSTITUTE OF HEALTH SCIENCE
MOJOKERTO
2018
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

BELUM DI BUAT

2
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Throughout human life has always faced and wrestled with conflict
both individual and organizational. Conflict is unavoidable. Likewise with
organizational life, every member of the organization is always faced with
conflict whether it is conflict between individuals, conflicts between groups
or others. In the organizational changes or new innovations are very
vulnerable to cause conflict (destructive). In the old paradigm many people
believe that conflicts will hinder the organization developing. But in the new
paradigm there is a different view. Conflict can indeed hinder, if not managed
properly, but if well managed conflict can be the trigger of the development
of the organization becomes more productive.
Change Management has to be viewed in relation to Knowledge
Management, which took several turns during the nineties. When the
establishment of an intranet was suddenly feasible to any large organisation,
IT and management scientists declared the beginning of the "knowledge
society". The premature anticipation of knowledge management was that
every member of an organisation would be highly motivated to share
information through a common platform and a quality improvement process
would be enabled more or less by itself. It only took a couple of years to
realise that this assumption was false. To date there are no examples of
companies which transformational learning is facilitated by an IT system
only, because the early protagonists forgot that information does not equal
knowledge and that human knowledge is in hands of the people who make-up
the larger system
Conflict management is very influential for members of the
organization. Organizational leaders are required to master conflict
management so that emerging conflicts can have a positive impact on
improving the quality of the organization.

1
 Conflict management is a series of actions and reactions between actors
and outsiders in a conflict, including a process-oriented approach that leads to
the form of communication (including behavior) of the offender and outsiders
and how they affect the interests and interpretations. For outsiders (outside of
the conflict) as third parties, what they need is accurate information about the
conflict situation. This is because effective communication among actors can
occur if there is confidence in a third party.
Motivation is such an important element in improving work productivity,
every educational administrator needs to have a firm understanding of how it
relates to job satis- faction and reward systems. Basedon numerous state and
national studies concerning the condition of schools, a great deal of time, energy,
and effort is expended by educational administrators trying to improve the
effective- ness and efficiency of educational delivery systems. Understanding job
satisfaction and work motivation can be key elements to improving educational
productivity.

Areview of the literature on motivation from three of the foremost

theorists on motivation, Maslow, Herzberg and McClelland, indicates that typical
reward system used in public schools satisfies only the hygiene factors and does
not address the higher level needs that truly motivate people. Changing how we
attempt to motivate employees requires a deeper understanding of these two
motivational theories.

Thepurpose of this literature review is to present an overview of three of the

theories that explain motivation in the workplace and address the factors that
contribute to job satisfaction (motivation) or cause job dissatisfaction. The classic
theories of motivation from Maslow, Herzberg and McClelland presented in this
paper focus on how each theorysupports the other and how they are applicable in
the workplace.(Pardee, 1990)

2
1.2 Formulation of The Problem

BELUM KEISI
1.3 Purpose

BELUM KEISI

3
 CHAPTER II
A LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CHANGE MANANGEMENT

2.1.1 Definition

Change Management is a process and a utilisation of tools and techniques

to manage the people side of change processes to achieve the required outcomes
and to realise the change effectively within the individual change agent, the inner
team, and the wider system (Toolbook, Original, & Management, 2011) managers
of change is to understand the distinction between the changes being managed in
the external world and the concurrent psychological transitions that are
experienced internally by people (including managers themselves). (Vati & Vati,
2013).

based on the above understanding it can be concluded that change is a

process that helps individuals, groups and organizations to move from the old way
of doing things to new ways even though the results are the same, but the process
can be different to achieve the desired results.

2.1.2. Concepts and tools in change

Change Management starts and ends with individuals. Systems theory

asserts that you cannot really predict how a person reacts to a stimulus. As a
result, if you want to introduce change into a system, you will most likely need to
think about the skills, behaviours and belief systems the members of a system will
need to be part of the change effort. An idea worth considering would be to start
with yourself. Read more about concepts and tools of personal change in this
section, which are divided in two parts: (Toolbook et al., 2011).Goals and
Creativity - Tools that help you think outside of the box and to think about your
personal goals in the process (Toolbook et al., 2011)

Creativity can also be a team process. Have you ever experienced the
power of a team connected through the desire of developing a new project? This
power can be stimulated through creative techniques, which are described under
this section. But this part of the toolbook goes further. It gives you some tools,
which you can apply for your personal projects: Defining personal targets: Test-
Operate-Test-Exit (T.O.T.E): This tool helps you to define your goal and the
evidence you need to know that you have achieved your goal.

4
 It is a cybernetic model of problem solving through self-correcting
feedback loops. An example for an artefact based on the T.O.T.E. is thermostat
that regulates central heating. The temperature of a room is constantly tested and
adjusted until the actual result is in line with the expected result (see Figure 1).
The idea is to constantly adapt your behaviour (or that of your team, or that of
your organisation) to the changing environment, until the objective is reached. It
requires all stakeholders to be flexible.

As Robert Dilts describes, the model has neurological consequences,

which can be compared to deeper processes that are behind the effectiveness of
Appreciative Inquiry. The more evidence people have that shows that they are
getting closer to their goal, the more motivated and inspired they are. The strength
of the model is that it provides alternative options.
The model can be used in personal, team and organisational development. It
resembles parts of the Walt-Disney-Circle. The process has the following steps:
1. Describe your goal/objectives in positive, affirmative terms instead of
expressing what you want to get rid of. "What is your goal? What do you
want to achieve?"
2. Describe your goal with as much detail as possible - use your different senses.
"What would you see, hear, smell, taste, feel when you reached your goal?
What is a concrete example?"
3. Establish the evidence that would show the progress on your way towards
achieving the goal (process indicators): "How exactly would you know that
you are getting closer or further away from your goal? How exactly would
somebody else know that you are getting closer or further away from your
goal?"
4. Establish actions that would lead you towards your goal. "What will you do to
achieve your goal? What is your plan?"
5. Establish the anticipated impact of the achievement of your goal. "What
benefit would the achievement of your goal give to you? What is the long-
term effect of the achievement? What is it good for?"

5
6. Ecology check "Who else will be affected and how? How will other persons
(or parts of yourself) perceive the achievement of the goal or your plans and
operations?"
7. Specify all anticipated problems and limitations, and what you will do about
it. "What could prevent you from achieving the goal? Is there something you
would lose when you achieve the goal (or during the operation)? Which
resources do you have to mobilize to deal with these barriers and
limitations?" (Toolbook et al., 2011)

Refining Personal Targets: The Walt-Disney-Circle: A tool which you will

also find in the section on creative planning. By separating a dreamer, a
realist and a critique state, the exercise leads you step by step to refining
personal goals.
The model is based on the idea that we can separate any planning process
into three stages the DREAMER, the REALIST and the CRITIC. The
dreamer is the part in any person or the person in any planning team that is
able to creatively develop new ideas, whether they are realistic or not.
Without the dreamer, there would be no innovation. The realist is the actual
planner, or the technocrat. He knows all procedures and is able to make a
detailed plan out of a dream. The critic looks for what could go wrong with
the plan and cares about risks. He provides input for new dreams. What we
usually do is to mix all three stages once we start planning. That means, we
often prevent the creativity of the dreamer to develop by immediately
engaging the critic. Or, we never come to grips with the risks of the project by
staying in the dreamer phase. (Toolbook et al., 2011)

Mind Mapping:
Doing brainstorming in a different way - you will discover your
creative part. (Toolbook et al., 2011)

These skills can be utilised for creative planning. A method now

widely applied to awaken the artist in ourselves is called Mindmapping.
Take some coloured pens, markers, or crayons. You can do this exercise on
your own, you might only need small sheets of paper. I do it regularly

6
 when I start to plan a new project. But it is fun to do it in groups! You may
then need large sheets of paper such as those used for flip-charts or for
pin-boards.
Any one of the group starts to write a word in the center of the
paper and circles it (some people draw clouds around, and others don’t
circle at all, while others write the key-words along the branches of the
tree; it is not really important, which geometric forms you choose). This is
the central concept you want to explore. Do not think about it too seriously
whether the first expression is really the central issue - we are embracing a
creative process, and we do not want to rank concepts now, in terms of
importance or not. Please leave your critic outside the room for the next
hour. Structure is the death of creativity. (Toolbook et al., 2011)

Personal Growth - These tools help you to define your personal

vision, goals as well as remove the barriers that may hinder your
achievement of these goals (Toolbook et al., 2011). Personal development
starts with developing integrity and competence for yourself. That is the
essence of this section. Without acknowledging your own capacities and
your own personality (including weaknesses and strengths) you won’t do
it. (Toolbook et al., 2011)

8. Process of change To demonstrate change management we will draw on four

approaches to change. These are the behavioural, the cognitive, the
psychodynamic and the humanistic psychological approaches, as shown in Figure
1.1.(Vati & Vati, 2013)

a. Summary of the behavioural approach If you were to approach change

from a behavioural perspective you are more likely to be acting on the
assumption of McGregor’s Theory X: the only way to motivate and align
workers to the change effort is through a combination of rewards and
punishments. You would spend time and effort ensuring that the right
reward strategy and performance management system was in place and
was clearly linked to an individual’s behaviours. Herzberg’s ideas suggest
that there is something more at play than reward and punishment when it

7
 comes to motivating people. That is not to say that the provision of
Herzberg’s motivators cannot be used as somesort of reward for correct
behaviour.
b. The cognitivive approuch to change. Cognitive psychology developed out
of a frustration with the behaviourist approach. The behaviourists focused
solely on observable behaviour. Cognitive psychologists were much more
interested in learning about developing the capacity for language and a
person’s capacity for problem solving. They were interested in things that
happen within a person’s brain. These are the internal processes which
behavioural psychology did not focus on. Cognitive theory is founded on
the premise that our emotions and our problems are a result of the way we
think. Individuals react in the way that they do because of the way they
appraise the situation they are in. By changing their thought processes,
individuals can change the way they respond to situations. (Vati & Vati,
2013)
c. the psychodynamic approach to change The idea that humans go through a
psychological process during change became evident due to research
published by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross (1969). The word ‘psychodynamic’ is
based on the idea that when facing change in the external world, an
individual can experience a variety of internal psychological states. As
with the behavioural and cognitive approaches to change, research into the
psychodynamic approach began not in the arena of organizations, but for
Kubler-Ross in the area of terminally ill patients. Later research showed
that individuals going through changes within organizations can have very
similar experiences, though perhaps less dramatic and less traumatic(Vati
& Vati, 2013)
d. Summary of the humanistic psychology approach For the manager, the
world of humanistic psychology opens up some interesting possibilities
and challenges. For years we have been told that the world of
organizations is one that is ruled by the rational mind. Recent studies such
as Daniel Goleman’s (1998) on emotional intelligence and management
competence (see Chapter 4) suggest that what makes for more effective
managers is their degree of emotional self-awareness and ability to engage
with others on an emotional level. Humanistic psychology would not only
agree, but would go one step further in stating that without being fully
present emotionally in the situation you cannot be fully effective, and you
will not be able to maximize your learning, or anyone else’s learning. (Vati
& Vati, 2013)

2.1.3. Achieving results

Key questions in achieving results in an organizational context, as shown

in Figure 1.5, are:
a. Self concept and values: what are my core values and how do they
dovetail with those of my organization?
b. Beliefs and attitudes: what are my limiting beliefs and attitudes and with
what do I replace them?

8
 c. Feelings: what is my most effective state of being to accomplish my goals
and how do I access it?
d. Behaviour: what specifically do I need to be doing to achieve my goals
and what is my first step?
e. Results: what specific outcomes do I want and what might get in the way?
(Vati & Vati, 2013)

2.1.4 Techniques for change

The cognitive approach has generated numerous techniques for changing
the beliefs of people and thereby improving their performance. These include
the following:
a. Positive listings
Simply list all the positive qualities you have, such as good
feelings, good experiences, good results, areas of skills, knowledge and
expertise. By accepting that these are all part of you, the individual, you
can reinforce all these positive thoughts, feelings and perceptions, which
then lead to enhanced beliefs.
b. Affirmations
An affirmation is a positive statement describing the way that you want
to be. It is important that the statement is:
1) Personal: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ It is you
who this is about, and it is as specific as you can make it.
2) Present tense: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ It is
not in the future, it is right now.
3) Positive: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ It
describes a positive attribute, not the absence of a negative attribute.
4) Potent: ‘I am always enthusiastic when it comes to work!’ Use words
that mean something to you
Try writing your own affirmation. Put it on a card and read it out
10 times a day. As you do so, remember to imagine what you would feel,
what you would see, what you would hear if it were true.
c. Visualizations
Visualizations are very similar to affirmations but focus on a
positive, present mental image. Effective visualizations require you to
enter a relaxed state where you imagine a specific example of the way you
want to be. You imagine what you and others would see, what would be
heard and what would be felt. Using all your senses you imagine yourself
achieving the specific goal. You need to practise this on a regular basis.
d. Reframing

9
 Reframing is a technique for reducing feelings and thoughts that
impact negatively on performance. You get daunted when going in to see
the senior management team? Currently you see them looming large, full
of colour, vitality and menacing presence? Imagine them in the
boardroom, but this time see them all in grey. Maybe shrink them in size,
as you would a piece of clip art in a document that you are word-
processing. Turn down their volume so they sound quite quiet. Run
through this several times and see what effect it has on your anxiety.
e. Pattern breaking
Pattern breaking is a technique of physically or symbolically taking
attention away from a negative state and focusing it on a positive. Take the
previous example of going into the boardroom to meet the senior
management team (or it could be you as the senior manager going out to
meet the staff and feeling a little awkward). You find you have slipped into
being a bit nervous, and catch yourself. Put your hand in the shape of a fist
to your mouth and give a deep cough, or at an appropriate moment clap
your hands firmly together and say, ‘Right, what I was thinking was ....’
Once you’ve done the distraction, you can say to yourself, ‘That wasn’t
me. This is me right now.’
f. Detachment
This is a similar technique with the same aim. Imagine a time when
you did not like who you were. Perhaps you were in the grip of a strong
negative emotion. See yourself in that state, then imagine yourself
stepping outside or away from your body, leaving all that negativity
behind and becoming quite calm and detached and more rational. When
you next catch yourself being in one of those moods, try stepping outside
of yourself.
g. Anchoring and resource states
These are two techniques where you use a remembered positive
experience from the past which has all the components of success. For
example, remember a time in the past where you gave an excellent
presentation. What did you see? What did you hear? What did you feel?
Really enter into that experience, then pinch yourself and repeat a word
that comes to mind. Rerun the experience and pinch yourself and say the
word. Now try it the other way, pinch yourself and say the word – and the
experience should return. Before your next presentation, as you go into the
room reconnect to the positive experience by pinching yourself and saying
the word. Does it work? If it does not, simply try something else
h. Rational analysis
Rational analysis is a cognitive technique par excellence. It is
based on the notion that our beliefs are not necessarily rational: ‘I could
never do that’ or, ‘I’m always going to be like that’. Rational analysis
suggests you write down all the reasons that are incorrect. You need to be
specific and not generalize (for example, ‘I’m always doing that’ –
always?). You need to set measurable criteria, objectively based, and you

10
 need to use your powers of logic. By continuously proving that this is an
irrational belief you will eventually come to disbelieve it.

2.1.5 Propensity for change

We have isolated five factors, shown in Figure 1.12, that have an
influence on an individual’s response to change. As a manager of change
you will need to pay attention to these five areas if you wish to achieve
positive responses to change:

a. The nature of the change varies. Changes can be externally imposed or

internally generated. They can be evolutionary or revolutionary in nature.
They can be routine or one-off. They can be mundane or transformative.
They can be about expansion or contraction. Different types of change can
provoke different attitudes and different behaviours.
b. The consequences of the change are significant. For whose benefit are the
changes seen to be (employees, customers, the community, the
shareholders, the board)? Who will be the winners and who will be the
losers?
c. The organizational history matters too. This means the track record of how
the organization has handled change in the past (or how the acquiring
organization is perceived), what the prevailing culture is, what the capacity
of the organization is in terms of management expertise and resources to
manage change effectively, and what the future, beyond the change, is seen
to hold.
d. The personality type of the individual is a major determining factor in how
she or he responds to change. The Myers-Briggs type of the individual
(reviewed earlier) can give us an indication of how an individual will
respond to change. People’s motivating forces are also important – for
example, are they motivated by power, status, money or affiliation and
inclusion?

11
 e. The history of an individual can also give us clues as to how he or she
might respond. By history we mean previous exposure and responses to
change, levels of knowledge, skills and experience the individual has,
areas of stability in his or her life and stage in his or her career. For
example an individual who has previously experienced redundancy might
re-experience the original trauma and upheaval regardless of how well the
current one is handled. Or he or she may have acquired sufficient
resilience and determination from the previous experience to be able to
take this one in his or her stride. (Vati & Vati, 2013)

2.1.6 Dimensions of change

(Iles & Cranfield, n.d.)

Strategic analysis typically begins by looking at the dimension of content. This

covers the components of the organisation’s strategy: e.g. financial, technological,
marketing, human resources and governance. It includes key objectives, built-in
assumptions and expectations, targets, sources of drivers of strategic change and
methods and rules of evaluation.
Analysis then moves on to the dimension of context. This refers to ways in which
the organisation is configured. The context can be divided into two categories:
 Internal context includes the organisation’s structure, culture, distribution
of power, micro-politics and internal capabilities.
 External context includes wider elements of the organisation’s
environment, including the economic, political, legal and social contexts in
which the organisation operates. If the external context changes, the
internal context must respond concurrently.

12
After analysis and discussion of content and context, comes the dimension of
process, the practicality of how individuals, groups and organisations embrace (or
resist) change over time. Process issues, it is argued, acquire particular
significance in the NHS where ‘energy and capabilities which underpin [service
change] cannot be conjured up over a short period of time through the pulling of a
single lever’ (Pettigrew, Ferlie and McKee, 1992: 275). Moreover, in this
particular setting history often has a prominent role in people’s thinking: ‘The past
weighs a heavy hand in determining local perceptions, and layers of competence
emerge only slowly to enable and protect champions of change(Iles & Cranfield,
n.d.).

2.2 CONFLIK
2.2.1 Definition
Definition of conflict to mean: “the process that begins when one party
perceives that the other has negatively affected, or is about to negatively
affect, something that he or she cares about”. (Harper, 2004, p. 10). Conflict
management must be viewed as a part of a larger process of ensuring that
man lives in peace and in an orderly way, conflict should also be channelled
towards positive effect in every human community. In the view of Fisher et
al. (2001:7) bringing about peace in a conflict situation is a process, which
involves different stages, the best and most crucial of which is conflict
transformation. (Fisher et al, 2006, p. 2). Conflict management is “a
philosophy and a set of skills that assist individuals and groups in better
understanding and dealing with conflict as it arises in all aspects of their
lives”. (Torres, 2007, p. 9)
The term conflict management include: conflict prevention, conflict
avoidance, conflict containment, conflict transformation, conflict settlement,
and conflict resolution. The different approaches are both ends of the same
stick and one end aims at, according to Zartman, resolving the current conflict
so that business or peace can move on and the other aims at resolving the
deeper conflict over time. (Wallensteen, 1994, p. 20)
Based on several theories that have been described above, we can
conclude that manangement conflik is the presence of two or more people
who interact and can influence negative impacts or positive impacts on
something he cares about. Winning conflicts can also form a skill that can

13
 help individuals and groups in better understanding in dealing with conflicts
when they arise in all aspects of their lives, even though in resolution they
don't have to be win or lose.
The conflict management mechanism has its focus on the relationship
between the actors and the continuation of their relationship rather than blind
justice. Tanner has defined conflict management as the limitation, mitigation
and/or containment of a conflict without necessarily solving it. Conflict
management has also been defined as a change in the mode of interaction
from destructive to constructive. (Wallensteen, 1994, p. 21)

2.2.2 Cause of Conflict

Some factors causing the conflict that is as follows :
a. Differences of Perceps
Differences in view of things can create conflict because each person is
stubborn with perceptions.
b. Disharmony of Thought
Harmonious thought unconformity and harmony of thought can create a
conflict because of differences in vision and mission, but they have one desire that
each wants to accentuate his ego.
c. Egoisme
The more silfish or the higherthe level of one’s adoration the younger the
conflict arises with others wherever he is.
d. Compotition Desire
e. Situations and Conditions That Support Conflict (Disputes)
Situations and conditions can create conflict when is situations that have
arisen an action that ignites selfishness. The person is called a “provocateur for his
invention to bring about conflict for his sake”.
f. People Behavior
Our behavior or other people who lead to things that can occur if the behavior
is offensive or not subject to the rules agreed earlier.
g. Lack of Communication problems can lead to conflict if not property
directed
Therefore in order for the conflict communication model based on mutual
respect among all parties involued or incorporated in an activity.

h. The Occurrence of Discrimination

14
 Things that can lead to conflict because of attitudes and behavior of someone
against other people is not the same, both superior to subordinates or managers
with employees.
i. Hatred
Hatred that has emerged before the conflict will cause the conflict to deepen
and lead to conflict.
This addresses the causes of conflict and seeks to build a new and
lasting relationship between hostile groups. (Fisher et al, 2006, p. 2)

2.2.3. Types of Conflict

The conflict has many types as James A F.Stoner and Charles Wankel
are known to have four types of conflict : the intrapersonal conflict, the
interpersonal conflict, the conflict between individuals and groups, inter-
organizations conflict.
a. Intrapersonal Conflict
An intrapersonal conflict is a conflict with it self. Conflict occurs when at the
same time a person has two wishes that can not be fulfilled at once. As is it know
that in a person it usually there are things as follows :
1. Competing needs and roles.
2. The number of obstacles that can occur between the drive and the goal.
3. There are both positive and negative aspects that hinder the goals.
If the confict is left it well cause an unpleasant situation there are three
are trhee types of intrapersonal conflict that is :
1. Conflick approaches, for example people who are faced with two
choices that are equally draws.
2. Conflict avoidance approaches, for example the person faced with the
same two choices makes it difficult.
3. The avoidance-avoidance conflict, for example a person faced with one
thing that has both positive and negative values at the same time.

Intra-individual conflict can be defined as a struggle which takes place

within an individual. When expectations are placed upon a person who is
incapable of achieving the goals and or objectives, intra-individual conflict
occurs. Intra-individual conflict is evident when too much is expected
from the individual whilst undermining the resources available to the
person. (Korsgaard, 2006, p. 32)
b. Interpersonal Conflict

15
 Interpersonal conflict can occur when members of the group fail to work
cooperatively with each other. Cooperation is necessary to ensure group cohesion
due to the reason that it promotes the efficient use of the group resources, it frees
individuals to work towards a common goal, it enhances group member
satisfaction and it lastly enhances the group’s effectiveness in an ability to resolve
its own conflicts. (Korsgaard, 2006, p. 34)
Interpersonal conflict arises when there are disagreement between workers in
an organization. Employees can disagree on the methods applied to achieve goals.
(Korsgaard, 2006, p. 34)
c. Intergroup Conflict
Intergroup conflict occurs when a particular group feels somehow about the
other group. This is due to the stereotypes groups attach to others. has mentioned
that “stereotypic distortion occurs when the parties only see evidence that supports
the hypotheses they have developed about the other side, but not evidence that
contradicts them.” Groups in this circumstance tend to prejudice one another. In
order to reduce this type of conflict, groups must be encouraged to live and
interact with each other in a more frequent way. When the contact between
different groups is increased, groups tend to identify positive aspects about others.
(Korsgaard, 2006, p. 35)
d. Inter-organizations Conflict
Organizational conflict can arise in situation when, for example, some
organizational departments fight to gain more resources at the expense of the
others. This leads to departments harbouring grudge against each other.

Organizational conflict can be caused by the organizational culture

in that individuals who are not conversant with it might feel left out.
Organizational culture is “a pattern of shared organizational values, basics
underlying assumptions and informal works that guide the way work is
accomplished in an organization. (Korsgaard, 2006, p. 37)

2..2.4. Conflict Management Mechanism

Galtung has argued that “One way of accepting the solution lies in the
acceptance of the mechanism, and that one way of accepting the mechanism
lies in its institutionalization” (1965:352). This implies that there would be
lesser acceptance of an ad hoc mechanism, and it is only mechanisms that

16
 have reached some form of institutionalization that are accepted, both for
formal and informal mechanisms (1965). This is in line with this thesis’
objectives, since regional cooperation is the base of the research and regional
cooperation tends to need a high degree of institutionalization to be
operational (cf Network and other informal groupings (Weidenbaum &
Hughes, 1996)).31 Moreover this thesis is only interested in peaceful
mechanisms for conflict management, though it might be logical to consider
duels and warfare (limited or full-scale) as conflict mechanisms. It would
undoubtedly “resolve” the issue if one party was eliminated or severely
weakened, but it would not create a better environment for future regional
cooperation. (Wallensteen, 1994, p. 24)

2.2.5 The Problem Solving Process

Mediation is a conflict management process, which has some features
in common with facilitation in educational drama. As we have pointed out,
there are many models of mediation. Here we will describe a basic problem
solving approach which is outlined by many authors. (Barsebäck, 2005, p. 75)
From a problem-solving perspective the term mediation is com- monly
defined as a process by which the parties, together with the as- sistance of an
acceptable, impartial person or persons, voluntarily and systematically isolate
issues in need of consideration to develop a range of options, consider
alternatives and reach a consensual settlement that will take into account the
interests and needs of all concerned. Media- tion is a process that emphasises
the parties’ responsibility for making decisions that affect their lives. The
mediator manages the process but does not get involved in the decision.
(Barsebäck, 2005, p. 75).

17
 2.3 motivation

2.3.1 Definition

Motivation is incidental to or defined by goal-directed behaviour (Locke,

op. cit.). This impliesthat motivation is concerned with the strength and
direction of that behaviour. In other words it implies that motivation takes
place when people expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the
attainment of a goal and a valued reward - one which satisfies their particular
needs. Well-motivated people are therefore those with clearly defined goals
who take action which they expect will achieve those goals (Erez and Zion,
1984).(Mwita, 2002).

18
 A motive what prompts a person to act in a certainway or at least develop
an inclination for specific behavior (Kast and Rosenzweig 1985, 296),
"Motivation" can be defined as those forces within an individual that push or
propel him to satisfy basic needs or wants (Yorks 1976, 21). The level of
needs will determine what rewards will satisfy an employee. According to
Dessler, most psychologists believe that all motivation is ultimately derived
from a tension that results when one or more of our important needs are
unsatisfied (Dessler 1986, 332). Maslow also states that "Only unsatisfied
needs provide the sources of motiva- tion; a satisfied need creates no tension
and therefore no motivation". (Burke 1987, 32).(Pardee, 1990b)
Motivation refers to “the process whereby goal-directed activity is
instigated andsustained” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 5). Motivation consists
of two components: energy and direction. It is argued that learners could
become energized by multiple sources (Pintrich, 2003). These sources of
energy can originate either from the learner him/herself (i.e., dispositional
motivation) or from the context (i.e., situational motivation) in which the
learner resides. The other component of motivation is direction, or what a
learner is motivated for. Alexander (2006) argues that the implication of
motivation lies in its functional meaning to educational outcomes (e.g.,
achievement). (Chen, 2011)
In the section that follows, the early historical development of the
motivation concept is discussed. It highlights the contribution of various
scientific disciplines and schools of thought towards the way in which
motivation was conceptualised over time, and is understood today. The
discussion concludes with an account of some of the major theories of
motivation that have been postulated over the years, and which shaped
thought on the concept of motivation.(Roos, 2005)
Concept of Motivation: Various contemporary authors has defined concept
of motivation. According to Decenzo, Motivation is the outcome of the
individual and the condition interaction6. A process that individual
consciously made in a given situation for choosing what will and will not be7.
The Psychological process at which provides purpose and direction to the
behavior is motivation8. Buford, Bedeian and Lindner, defines motivation as

19
 a mindset to behave in a productive manner to accomplish specific, unreached
needs9 and Bedeian, the determination to achieve it10. This study implies
motivation as the effort made by retailers that drives to accomplish their
personal and organizational goals through consumers’ satisfaction. (Gomes
Nagar & Sharma, 2016)
Another motivational self-management technique is arranging or
imagining rewards or punishments for success or failure at an aca- demic
task. Students who control their motivation by giving them- selves rewards
and punishments outperform students who do not use this control technique
(Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986). (Dembo & Seli, 2013)
Although there are plenty of definitions of motivation that are different in
wording, how- ever there are certain elements and underlying ideas that are
prevalent. The five com- mon underlying ideas that pointed out by Vera
(1995) are:
a. Motivation has an impact on productivity.

b. Motivation is an intrinsic and within oneself phenomenon or process.

c. Motivation stimulates people to gain their objectives.

d. Motivation connects to psychological, social status and relations and

economic satisfaction.

e. Motivation refers to creating a working environment that helps

employees to achieve work-related goals and gain the maximum personal
satisfaction at the same time.(Thi & Oanh, 2016).

based on some understanding above motivation can be interpreted is a

support to achieve its goals, positive motivation that can build itself to return to
enthusiasm in achieving what is desired, motivation not only aims to get what he
wants but can change a person's behavior, therefore people who get motivated
positive he will respond quickly to change himself from the bad to the better

20
2.3.2. Theory Motivation Maslow

Abraham Maslow developed a theory that humans have five

sets of needs that are arranged in a hierarchy. He contends that
people start by trying to satisfy their most basic or compelling needs
and progress toward the most fulfilling. These needs are as follows:
1. Physiological needs: These include the need for food, water,
shelter, clothing and money. Until an individual has access to
these necessities, there can be no further progress. These needs
are very basic, and for the most part, society and our social
network have ensured that they are present. Intrinsic values
include personal comfort and satisfaction, while the extrinsic
values are most often provided by the organization, the
community, or society.

2. Safety needs: These include security, stability, and a structured

environment. Here, the individual expects and pursues job
security, a comfortable work environment, pension andinsurance
plans, and freedom to organize in order to ensure continuation of
these benefits. Individual’s main objective is to ensure that
benefits are protected or employment needs are being met rather
than contributing to long-term organizational goals. Again, we see
a dependance on the external environment to provide these
supports. Personal motivation may include the peace of mind that
can be provided as a result of these needs being secured.

3. Relationship needs: Relationship needs include socialization,

affection, love companionship, and friendship. The individual at
this level participates for personal or intrinsic rewards. Since no
person can live for extended periods without interaction with
other people, the individual may be drawn to participate simply to
fulfill this need. Organizations that provide these opportunities
include social clubs, singles clubs, seniors clubs and service
clubs, depending on the level of personal need. The organization

21
 can assist by ensuring that the opportunity for social and
relationship expectations are created and met.

4. Esteem needs: These include feelings of adequacy, competence,

independence, confidence, appreciation, and recognition by
others. Again, the individual is driven more by internal or intrinsic
needs. The external environment is needed more to provide
recognition than to provide material rewards. At this point, the
intrinsic value is more important than that which can be provided
by outside influences. The ego seems to take over here and the
need is to ensure that it is satisfied.

5. Self-actualization: This area is the most difficult to define and

therefore, may be the most difficult to explain. Why does the
successful business person need to pursue further wealth when
they have already accumulated more than they will ever need?
The answer may lie in the fact that motivation is more internal
and therefore, even more individualistic. Different people have
different ideas about what they need to achieve in order to obtain
true happiness. For the wealthy person, money may no longer be
the motivator, it may now be a need to exercise power or the
adventure and adrenalin rush created as a result of playing “high
stakes games”. This becomes the intrinsic motivation. People who
pursue self-actualization are more accepting of reality,
themselves, and others. Organizational requirements may include
the opportunity for creativity and growth. Frequently, individuals
aspiring to this level often operate outside existing organizations
and instead build their own structures to suit their individual
needs. (Pencheon, 2000a)

In 1943 American psychologist Abraham Maslow who was a major

contributor to the humanistic approach in psychology developed a
theory called “A theory of human motivation” which comprises five
sets of needs to be fulfilled hierarchically by the individual in order to

22
 achieve self-actualization, such needs are prioritized from bottom to
top as: Psychological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem and Self-
Actualisation
The theory suggests that each set of needs has to be fulfilled before
the individual moves on to the next one, and so on until the last and
most important stage is achieved. With this theory Maslow intended
to understand what it is that motivates people, focusing in the fact
that an individual’s performance is the outcome of a motivational
system rather than a reward or an unconscious desire system. His
theory proposes that the basic needs (psychological, safety,
love/belonging) and growth needs (Esteem) of individuals need to be
covered first in order for the individual to achieve self-fulfilment and
thus happiness (Maslow, 1943).

(Elvira & Castellanos, 2014)

2.3.3 Theory X and Y McGregor

According to Hanson (2003:194 -5) Theory X assumes that

workers are indolent and work as little as possible. The Theory
further assumes that workers lack ambition, dislike responsibility
and prefer to be led. Workers are resistant to change and are

23
indifferent to the needs of the organisation. Hanson (2003:195)
further states that because of the abovementioned assumptions
workers must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment
in order to achieve the desired goals. Robbins (2000:72) concurs
by stating that Theory X is basically negative in view. The
managers who practice this approach have assumptions about
workers and base his or her assumptions on those assumptions.
Theory Y assumes that the natural condition of humans is not
to be passive or resistant to organisational needs (Hanson
2003:195). The Theory is basically positive. It further infers that
capacity for assuming responsibility, ability to direct behaviour
toward the completion of organisational goals and the potential for
personal growth is present in all workers. It states that men and
women will exercise self-direction and self control if they are
committed to the objectives of the organisation.
According to Rue and Byars (2000:311) a manager’s attitude
towards human nature has a large influence on how that person
behaves as a manager. They conclude that the manager who views
workers on the basis of Theory X would be likely to use a more
authoritarian style of management then managers who believe in
Theory Y. The application of either Theory X or Y by management
will have an impact on how workers perform in achieving the
organisational goals. Either of the Theories might be right in
particular situations.(Ndlovu, 2009)
Interpretation of Herzberg’s Two-factor theory: people are
influ- enced by both the motivators and hygienic factors. The
quality of life reached within a country dictates the prevalent
needs. Hygienic factors are a necessary, yet insufficient source for
motivating employees. Moti- vational factors have a direct impact
on employee efforts and their in- tensity. The two-factor motivation
model expanded the arsenal of man- agement measures revealing
the importance of inner motives to the work process. Managers
also have to bear in mind that insufficient at- tention to hygienic

24
 factors can cause employees to be dissatisfied with the work
environment.(Blaskova & Grazulis, 2009)
2.3.4.Theory F. Herzberg

Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory is often called the two

factor theory and focuses on those sources of motivation which are
pertinent to the accomplishment of work (Hall and Williams 1986,
6). Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction
were the products of two separate factors: motivating factors
(satisfiers) and hygiene factors (dissatisfiers)respectively:
Satisfiers
1. Achievement

2. Recognition

3. Work itself

4. Responsibility

5. Advancement

6. Growth

Dissatisfiers
1. Company Policy

2. Supervision

3. Working conditions

4. Interpersonal relations

5. Salary

6. Status

7. Job security

8. Personal life

25
 (Herzberg, Mousner, and Snyderman, 1959, 59-83).
Herzberg used the term "hygiene" in the medical sense - the
sense that it operates to remove hazards from the environment
(Duttweiler1986, 371). Herzberg identifies and compares the
dynamics of hygiene and motivation as illustrated below.

The Dynamics of Hygiene

 The psychological basis of hygiene needs is the avoidance of
pain from the environment - APE

 There are infinite sources of pain in the environment

 Hygiene improvements have short-term effects

 Hygiene needs are cyclical in nature

 Hygiene needs have an escalating zero point

 There is no final answer to hygiene needs

The Dynamics of Motivation

 The psychological basis of motivation is the need for personal
growth

 There are limited sources of motivator satisfaction

 Motivator improvements have long-term effects

 Motivators are additive in nature

 Motivator needs have a nonescalating zero point

 There are answers to motivator needs

(Herzberg 1976, 101). (Pardee, 1990b)

26
 (Ganta, 2014)
According to Herzberg, hygiene cannot motivate, and when
used to achieve this goal it can actually produce negative effects
over the long run. A "hygienic" environ- ment prevents discontent
with a job, but such an environment cannot lead the individual
beyond a minimal adjustment consisting of the absence of
dissatisfaction.A positive "happiness" seems to require some
attainment of psycho- logical growth (Herzberg 1966, 78, 89).
The hygienes have always been - and probably always will be -
easier to measure, control, and manipulate than the motivators. The
motivators are more complex and sub- jective, and often too
elusive to measure. But to the extent that management concentrates
on hygienes, while at the same time neglecting motivators, workers
are probably going to seek more of the hygienes (Hamner and
Organ 1978, 155). This has a negative effect on developing a
motivated workforce.
The proper management of hygiene is an important first step in
applying Herzberg's two factor theory, which is shown in a five
part process a shown below.
The propermanagement of hygiene
1. Identify type of hygiene

2. Give hygiene for hygiene purposes

3. Give hygiene for what hurts

4. Keep hygiene administration simple'

27
5. Give it and shut up about it

Fig. 1. The five rules for administering hygiene

(Herzberg.1976, 93)
The fact that joh satisfaction is made up of two unipolar traits
is not unique, but it remains a difficult concept to grasp. The
opposite of job satisfaction would not be job dissatisfaction, but
rather no job satisfaction;similarly, the opposite of job
dissatisfaction is no job dissatisfaction, not satisfaction with one's
job (Herzberg 1976, 76)
Herzberg also says, "A deprivation in hygiene factors can lead
to job dissati 1.,:tion, but their amelioration does not lead to job
satisfaction." (Herzberg 1976, 61). Hersey describes hygiene
saying, "Hygiene factors, when satisfied, tend to eliminate
dissatisfaction and work restriction, but they do little to motivate
an individual to superior per- formance or increased capacity."
(Hersey and Blanchard 1982, 59)
There are three primary psychological states that significantly
affect worker satisfaction:
1. Experienced meaningfulness of the work itself

2. Experienced responsibility for the work and its outcomes

3. Knowledge of results, or performance feedback The more

that work is designed to enhance these states, the more
satisfying the work will be (Wallace 1987, 275 and Burke
1987, 35).

The dimension of job dissatisfaction differs psycho- logically

from job satisfaction, but it is also associated with an escalation
phenomenon, or what some have called she principle of (rising
expectations): the more people receive, the more they want (Burke
1987, 33). This clarifies Herzberg's escalating zero point statement.
Mathis said it this way, "Hygiene factors provide a base which
must be carefully considered if dissatisfaction is to be avoided.

28
 But, even if all of the maintenance needs are taken care of, the
people will still not necessarily be motivated to work harder."
(Mathis 1979, 55).
Herzberg suggests that factors that lead to job satis- faction are
primarily intrinsic, whereas factors leading to job dissatisfaction
are primarily extrinsic. The cluster of intrinsic factors was found to
include the work itself, achievement, advancement, recognition,
and responsibility. The cluster of extrinsic factors was found to
include supervision, interpersonal relations, working
conditions,salary, company policies, and administration (Caston
and Braoto 1985, 270)
At times, Herzberg seems to indicate that intrinsic factors will
not lead to job satisfaction if the extrinsic factors present in the
work setting are deficient (Caston and Braoto 1985, 281).
An employee experiencing a state of intrinsic motiva- tion
tends to be committed to the job and self-fulfillment through it
(Aldag 1979, 11). In a state of intrinsic motivation, the employee
attributes job behaviors to out- comes which are derived from the
work itself. Such intrinsic outcomes are experienced by employees
independent of the involvement of others (Aldag 1979, 11 & 22).
(Pardee, 1990b)

2.2.1.1 Comparison Of Three Theories

Ca Type The Summary Implica

tegory orist (s) of Theory tions
Ne Hiera Mas A Focuse
eds rchy low hierarchy of fi ve s attention on
(co of (195 needs exist: the various
ntent) needs 4) physiological, needs that
Th safety, motivate
eory social, people and the
esteem, notion that a
self-fulfi lment. satisfi ed need
Needs at a is no longer a
higher motivator. The
level only concept of a
emerge hierarchy has

29
 when a lower no practical
need is satisfi ed signifi cance
T Relat Her Two Identifi
wo-factor ed to needs zberg et al groups of factors es a number of
model theory (1957) affect job fundamental
satisfaction: (1) needs ie
those intrinsic to achievement,
the work itself; recognition,
(2) those extrinsic advance- ment,
to the job autonomy and
(extrinsic the work itself.
motivators or Infl uences
hygiene factors) approaches to
such as pay and job design (job
working enrich- ment).
conditions Underpins the
proposition
that reward
systems should
provide for
both fi nancial
and non-fi
nancial
rewards

Th Gen Mc Theory X Empha

eory X eral Gregor is the traditional sizes the
and approaches (1960) view that people importance of
theory Y tomotivatio must be coerced commitment,
n into per- forming; rewards and
theory Y is the integrat- ing
view that people individual and
will exercise self- organizational
direction and needs
self-direction in
the service of
objectives to
which they are
committed

(Tool, 2007)

2.2.1Theory Of Process Motivation

Process theories, or extrinsic theories, attempt to identify the

relationships among the dynamic variables that make up motivation and the

30
actions required to influence behaviour and actions. They provide a further
contribution to our understanding of the complex nature of work motivation.
Many of the process theories cannot be linked to a single writer, but major
approaches and leading writers under this heading include:
(Satisfaction, 1999)
2.2.2.1 Theory 3 Needs McClelland

Psychologist David McClelland contends that we develop a

relatively stable personality early in life that, once acquired,
remains unchanged. McClelland, therefore, does not see motivation
ashierarchical. He does not address the issue of growth, but has
been more concerned with the behavioural consequences of need.
The three areas of need he has identified include the need for
achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for power.
Need for achievement: Individuals in this category have a
strong desire to perform challenging tasks well. They have a
preference for situations where personal responsibility can be taken
for successful outcomes. The goals they set provide for moderate
and calculated risk, and the individual seeks performance feedback
to allow for modification and to ensure success.
Need for affiliation: People in this category display a need
to establish and maintain friendly, compatible relationships. They
have a need to like other people and want others to like them. They
have an ability to create social networks that will result in meeting
these needs.
Need for power: People in this category have a strong need
to have influence over others. They wish to make a significant
impact and impression on those with whom they come in contact.
This need for power corresponds in many ways to Maslow’s
esteem needs where power is used to get attention or to build
personal prestige.
Since this theory is non-hierarchical, the growth pattern
between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards that are a major part of the
earlier theories, do not appear to contain the same significance.

31
 McClelland contends that people will be motivated to seek out and
perform well in jobs that match their needs. These needs may
include either of the three categories identified above and are not
contingent on any progression from one category to another.
The testing of these three theories has resulted in some
conclusions that help us identify the strengths and limitations of
each approach. While Maslow’s theory is complicated and contains
more steps than the others, there is recognition of the progression
from one level to the other. Alderfer’s three levels seem to be
simpler, less rigid, and therefore, may be more satisfactory to those
who wish to understand and apply a model to individual behaviour.
Results of McClelland’s research has been applied in
organizational settings and have been supportive of the idea that
particular needs are motivational. Our former theme, ‘when all else
is consistent, the individual is different’, suggests that the
application of any theory of motivation has strengths and
weaknesses that allow insight into individual motivation and
provide escapes for those times when the theory will let us down.
All theories contribute to a better understanding of human
behaviour in general, but specific application of theory depends on
factors that respond to individual needs.(Pencheon, 2000b)

2.2.2.2 Theory Of Justice J.S Adam

Equity theory states that people seek to maintain a balance

between their inputs and the outcomes they receive, also in relation
to the outputs of others. Fair treatment creates motivation. It adds a
crucial additional perspective to motivation theory, of comparison
with ‘referent’ others (people we consider to be in a similar
situation).(Ball, n.d.)
Equity Theory (J S Adams, ‘Toward an Understanding of
Inequity’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67 (1963),
pp 422-36), as the name suggests, is based on the notion of fairness
and justice and how people form perceptions of what this means.

32
 According to Adams, author of the theory, people judge the
fairness of their work situation by comparing the inputs that they
contribute to the outputs that they receive from their job.
Inputs:
a) Skills and experience

b) Effort

c) Loyalty

d) Personal sacrifice

e) Trust

f) Working hours

g) Patience

h) Tolerance

i) Flexibility

j) Enthusiasm

k) Support of others

Outputs
a) Financial reward and benefit

b) Praise

c) Recognition

d) Sense of achievement

e) Status

f) Reputation

g) Responsibility

h) Respect

33
 i) Trust

j) Security

k) Personal development

Where there is a balance between the two, people tend to be

satisfied and perform effectively. However, where people feel that
their inputs far outweigh the outputs they receive in return,
motivation and productivity slumps.
The greater the perceived disparity between the inputs and the
outputs, the greater the demotivation. This can result in reduced
effort, a negative and disruptive attitude, or, most drastically,
resignation.(Jones & Page, 1987)

2.2.2.3 Theory Of Expectancy V Vroom

Vroom’s theory separates effort from performance and

outcomes. It works on perceptions, and assumes that behavior is
the result of conscious choices among alternatives aimed at
maximizing pleasuring and avoiding pain. He introduces the
concepts of Expectancy (increased effort will lead to increased
results), Instrumentality (if you perform well you will receive a
valued outcome) and Valence (value placed on the expected
outcome).(Ball, n.d.)
Expectancy theory is based on four assumptions (Vroom,
1964). One assumption is that people join organizations with
expectations about their needs, motivations, and past experiences.
These influence how individuals react to the organization. A
second assumption is that an individual’s behavior is a result of
conscious choice. That is, people are free to choose those behaviors
suggested by their own expectancy calculations. A third
assumption is that people want different things from the
organization (e.g., goodsalary, job security, advancement, and
challenge). A fourth assumption is that people will choose among

34
alternatives so as to optimize outcomes for them personally. The
expectancy theory based on these assumptions has three key
elements:
expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. A person is motivated
to the degree that he or she believes that (a) effort will lead to
acceptable performance (expectancy), (b) performance will be
rewarded (instrumentality), and (c) the value of the rewards is
highly positive (valence). (Lunenburg, 2011)
Vroom focused his attention on individual/workers behaviour
in organisations. He observed the work behaviour of employees
with the object of explaining the process involved, and his
assumptions were premised on the notion that observed behaviour
would lead to motivation. The main method developed for this is
referred to as ‘objective observation’. The key elements of Vroom’s
Expectancy theory are that motivated behaviour is a product of two
variables listed as follow;
a. The valence of an outcome for the individual

b. The expectancy that a particular act will be followed by a

predictable outcome.

Valence is the anticipated satisfaction from an outcome,

whereas expectancy is a momentary
belief concerning the likelihood that an act will be followed by
a particular outcome. Valence multiplied by expectancy is equal to
force. Motivation according to Vroom is force which literally
translates to the pressure to perform an act. The basic formula is:
Force (motivation) = Valence x Expectancy.
Rewards (which may be intrinsic or extrinsic) are thus
functions of valence. Vroom considered job satisfaction as an
integral part of motivation. Job satisfaction was regarded as the
conceptual equivalent of the valence (of job/work) to the
employee. The main variables affecting job satisfaction are: job
content; length (hours) of work; emoluments; growth

35
 opportunities; group dynamic (at work) and supervision (style).
(Ibietan, 2010)
2.2.2.4 Theory Z W. Ouchi

Ouchi (1981) outlines the attributes of Theory Z.

Organizations committedto this theory focus on:
1. Long term employment of workers

2. A balance between organizational controls - explicit

(information and accounting systems, formal planning,
management by objectives) and implicit (internal
communication. always seeking what is bes! for the company)

3. A company philosophy that incorporates a statement of

purpose or objectives for ways of doing business

4. Interdependence within organizational Efe, relying on trust and

achieving consensus among workers

5. Participative decision making, providing for broad

communication among workers at all levels, values within the
organization, cooperative intent of the firm, development of
interpersonal skills to facilitate group decisions , developme'1t
of trust, maintenance of a strong egalitarian atmosphere.

6. Self-direction of workers as opposed to hierarchical direction.

7. Egalitarian atmosphere that implies trust among workers.

Ouchi (1981) emphasizes Theory Z management's

wholistic orientation that incorporates the involvement of workers
in every facet of the organization.
I have selected four of the components of Theory Z
identified by Ouchi (1981)that have a role in motivation and
appear to be significant elements for church organizations.
Leadership, trust , communication, and participative decision

36
 making have received attention in literature. Theory X, and to
some extent, Theory Y, represent authoritarian approaches to
managmenet that stimulate "discontent, frustration, and negative
attitudes toward leadership" (Rush, 1983, p. 12). And yet church
organizations are frequently managed within one of these theories
(Schaller, 1980). To better understand the productive organiza-
tional climate fostered by Theory Z, further examination of the
literature is necessary .(Drushal, 1982)

2.3 Relationship Motivation And Job Satisfaction

Certain needs and motives experienced by employees are indicative of

their energy and dynamism while at work, such as their need for achievement
and power, their level of activity under pressure and the extent to which they
are motivated by acompetitive environment. A number of studies (Du Plessis,
2003; Maslow, 1968; Rothmann & Coetzer, 2002; Stinson & Johnson, 1977)
have shown that the extent to which people are motivated by challenging
tasks and by the sense that their abilities are being stretched directly impacts
on the job satisfaction that they experience. People are motivated by their
objectives and goals (Spector, 2003); goal involvement and goal attainment
have also been shown to be positively related to job satisfaction (Bellenger,
Wilcox & Ingram, 1984; Coster, 1992; Strydom & Meyer, 2002). These
results are explained by the contribution that achievement makes towards a
person’s self-esteem (Beach, 1980), which reinforces his or her sense of
contributing towards an organisation. A need for achievement is often linked
to a need for power in the workplace (McClelland, 1987) and it has been
shown that power is a significant predictor of job satisfaction for those
workers who are motivated by it (Becherer, Morgan & Richard, 1982; Coster,
1992; Hoole & Vermeulen, 2003).
Another dimension of work motivation relates to the synergy that
people experience between their motivational drive system and the
characteristics of their work environment. This includes the extent to which

37
they are motivated by opportunities for interaction at work, by praise and
tangible recognition, by the synergy between their own and the organisation’s
values and principles, by their need for job security and by their need for
opportunities for continual growth and development. The need for security is
one of the most basic needs. Job security refers specifically to one’s
expectations about continuity in a job situation and extends to concern over
loss of desirable job features, such as promotion opportunities and working
conditions (Davy, Kinicki & Scheck, 1997). This variable has been shown to
be an important predictor of job satisfaction (Cohen- Rosenthal & Cairnes,
1991; Davy et al., 1997; Hoole & Vermeulen, 2003; Moon, 2000; Ritter &
Anker, 2002; Visser, Breed & Van Breda, 1997). Studies have also shown that
many employees experience job satisfaction because their affiliation needs
are being satisfied to some extent at work (Cohen-Rosenthal & Cairnes, 1991;
Hoole & Vermeulen, 2003; Strydom & Meyer, 2002; Van Vuuren, 1990;
Visser et al., 1997). Needs related to theself and higher-order needs that affect
job satisfaction include the recognition of performance (Beach, 1980;
Bellenger et al., 1984; Guppy & Rick, 1996; Van Vuuren, 1990), an
environment that corresponds with personal values (Deshpande, 1996; Hoole
& Vermeulen, 2003; Viswesvaran & Deshpande, 1996) and opportunities for
training and development that satisfy the need for self-actualisation (Coster,
1992).
The intrinsic motivation dimension refers to an increase in motivation
corresponding with meaningful and stimulating work, flexible structures and
procedures, and an adequate level of autonomy. Literature shows a positive
relationship between job satisfaction and the need to perform jobs that are
challenging and that provide variety, interest and stimulation (Becherer et al.,
1982; Coster, 1992; Fried & Ferris, 1987; Jernigan, Beggs & Kohut, 2002;
Kemp, Wall, Clegg & Cordery, 1983; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007; Strydom &
Meyer, 2002; Vercueil, 1970; Visser et al., 1997). Literature also shows that
repetitive jobs lead to lower levels of job satisfaction (Shepard, 1973; Stinson
& Johnson, 1977). Autonomous activity is an innate need experienced by
many people (Beach, 1980; Coster, 1992; Vercueil, 1970) and scope for
greater self-regulation in a work context leads to greater job satisfaction

38
(Agho, Mueller & Price, 1993; Becherer et al., 1982; Coster, 1992; Fried &
Ferris, 1987; Guppy & Rick, 1996; Jernigan et al., 2002; Orpen, 1994;
Stinson & Johnson, 1977; Tyagi, 1985; Weaver, 1988). An employee’s
perceived control over his or her own work was also found to moderate the
relationship between levels of motivation and job satisfaction experienced
(Orpen, 1994).
The extrinsic motivation dimension is represented by aspects such as the
need for financial reward, positive promotion prospects, and position and
status. Extrinsic rewards provided by an organisation are those that are
tangible and visibleto others. A significant positive correlation has been found
between the extent to which people are motivated by financial reward and
their level of satisfaction with the work (Agho et al., 1993; Bellenger et al.,
1984; Hoole & Vermeulen, 2003; Mol, 1990; Strydom & Meyer, 2002;
Thomson, 2003; Visser et al., 1997). Praise and recognition seem to be valued
more by senior employees (Bellenger et al., 1984). This represents the
affirmation of an individual’s self-worth, which is also represented by the
positive relationship between position and status as motivators and the
experience of job satisfaction (Hoole & Vermeulen, 2003; Jernigan et al.,
2002). Many employees, especially highly achievement-orientated people, are
strongly motivated by opportunities for promotion. This has been shown to
improve job satisfaction significantly (Coster, 1992; Hoole & Vermeulen,
2003; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007; Visser et al., 1997).
From the aforegoing, it is clear that the realisation of personal and
job-related characteristics that motivate an individual is related to increased
job satisfaction. It was therefore hypothesised that the different dimensions of
motivation representing these characteristics are positively related to job
satisfaction. (Roos, 2005)
As the coefficient of correlation tells only that there is a relationship
between the two variables but it does not clarify the kind of relationship
existing between the two variables. Therefore, regression analysis was carried
out to examine the kind of relationship existing between Motivation and Job
Satisfaction.

39
 The functional relationship between the two variables under study
may be understood with the help of the line of regression of motivation on
Job Satisfaction.
M = a + bJ
(M = Motivation and J = Job Satisfaction while 'a' and 'b' are
constants)
(Tiwari, 2011)

CHAPTER III
CLOSING

40
BELUMM SELESAIII

CHAPTER IV

41
 REFERENCES
REFERENSINYA YANG PERUBAHAN BELUM DI CANTUKAN

Barsebäck, S. (2005). BRIDGING THE FIELDS OF DRAMA AND CONFLICT

MANAGEMENT: Empowering students to handle conflicts through school-
based programmes.
Fisher et al. (2006). National open university of nigeria school of arts and social
sciences course code: cth 413 course title: wisdom literature.
Harper, C. E. (2004). HARPER, CORA ELAINE. The Conflict Management Styles,
Strength Of Conflict Management Self-Efficacy, And Moral Development
Levels Of School Counselors. (Under the direction of Stanley Baker).
Torres, W. (2007). Clan Feuding and Conflict Management in Mindanao.
Wallensteen. (1994). Regional Cooperation and Conflict Management: Lessons
from the Pacific Rim.
Ball, B. (n.d.). A summary of motivation theories by Benjamin Ball.
Blaskova, M., & Grazulis, V. (2009). Motivation of Human Potential : Theory
and.
Chen, S. (2011). Ninth graders’ expectancy-value motivation, energy-balance
knowledge, and physical activity. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Dembo, M. H., & Seli, H. (2013). Motivation and learning strategies for college
success: A self-management approach, third edition. Motivation and
Learning Strategies for College Success: A Self-Management Approach,
Third Edition. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203823149
Drushal, B. M. E. (1982). Motivational Components of Theory Z Management :
an Integrative Review of Research and Implications for the Church, 8–27.
Elvira, Y., & Castellanos, V. (2014). AN ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATIONAL
THEORIES THAT COULD AID THE.
Ganta, V. C. (2014). MOTIVATION IN THE WORKPLACE TO IMPROVE THE
EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE (Vol. 2).
Gomes Nagar, J., & Sharma, S. (2016). Relevance of theories of Motivation in
retail business: A study on Retailer’s decision making process. Research
Journal of Management Sciences April Res. J. Management Sci (Vol. 5).

42
Ibietan, J. (2010). Theories of personnel motivation in organisations (Vol. 15).
Jones, L., & Page, D. (1987). Theories of Motivation. Education + Training (Vol.
29). https://doi.org/10.1108/eb017334
Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Expectancy Theory of Motivation : Motivating by
Altering Expectations (Vol. 15).
Mwita, J. I. (2002). The role of motivation in performance management:The case
of performance-related-pay schemes in British local authorities. University
of Birmingham.
Ndlovu, E. (2009). The impact of management on learner performance:
Nhlophenkulu area. Retrieved from
http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/4044
Pardee, R. (1990a). Motivation Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor &
McClelland. A Literature Review of Selected Theories Dealing with Job
Satisfaction and Motivation. Synopsis of selected motivational theories.
https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v4n2p2
Pardee, R. (1990b). Motivation Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor &
McClelland. A Literature Review of Selected Theories Dealing with Job
Satisfaction and Motivation. Synopsis of selected motivational theories.
https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v4n2p2
Pencheon, D. (2000a). Leadership and motivation. Bmj (Vol. 321).
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.321.7256.S2-7256
Pencheon, D. (2000b). Leadership and motivation. Bmj (Vol. 321).
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.321.7256.S2-7256
Roos, W. (2005). The Relationship Between Employee Motivation, Job
Satisfaction and Corporate Culture. Journal of Chemical Information and
Modeling. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Satisfaction, W. M. (1999). Work Motivation and Job.
Thi, H., & Oanh, K. (2016). EMPLOYEE ’ S MOTIVATION .
Tiwari, V. (2011). Relationship Between Motivation and Job Satisfaction of the
White Collar Employees : A Case Study. School of Management Science
Varanasi, VII(2), 7.
Tool, P. (2007). Learning Outcomes •.

43
44