Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of

communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication. The scientific

The approximately 3000-6000 languages that are spoken by humans today are the most salient
examples, but natural languages can also be based on visual rather than auditive stimuli, for
example in sign languages and written language. Codes and other kinds of artificially constructed
communication systems such as those used for computer programming can also be called
languages. A language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information.
The English word derives from Latin lingua, "language, tongue", this metaphoric relation
between language and the tongue exists in many languages and testifies to the historical
prominence of spoken languages .[1] When used as a general concept "language" refers to the
cognitive faculty that enables humans to learn and use systems of complex communication. The
human language faculty is thought to be fundamentally different and of much higher complexity
from those of other species. Human language is highly complex in that based in a set of rules
relating symbols to their meanings it can form an infinite number of possible utterances from a
finite number of elements. The word language can also be used to describe the set of rules that
makes this possible, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules.

All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate a sign with a particular meaning. Spoken
languages contain a phonological system that governs how sounds are used to form sequences
known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes
are used to form phrases and utterances. Written languages and sign languages use visual
symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken languages, but they still require syntactic rules that
govern the production of meaning from sequences of words.

Definitions

The word "language" has two meanings: language as a general concept, and "a language" a
specific linguistic system - e.g. "French". Languages other than English often have two separate
words for these distinct concepts, French for example uses langage for language as a concept and
langue as the specific instance of language.[2]

When speaking of language as a general concept several different definitions can be used that
stresses different aspects of the phenomenon.[3]

A tool for communication

Yet another definition defines language as a system of communication that enables humans to
cooperate. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it
to express themselves, and to manipulate things in the world. This view of language is associated
with the study of language in a functional or pragmatic framework, also in socio-linguistics and
linguistic anthropology
 The Uses of Language
We use language in many different ways and for many different purposes. We write, speak,
and sign it. We work with language, play with language, and earn our living with language. We court
and seduce, buy and sell, insult and praise, all by means of language. Much of the material in
subsequent chapters of this book will present techniques for simplifying language and its use. In
doing so, it is important that we not forget the complexity behind what we are doing. Logic is one,
but only one, approach to the study of language.

One way, though not the only way, we use language is to reason. It is this use of language with
which logic is primarily concerned. The purpose of logic is to improve our critical thinking. To think
critically is to recognize, construct, analyze, and evaluate arguments. Doing these things requires that
we be able to separate the argumentative uses of language from the other uses.

Arguments, as understood by the logician, are not disputes or confrontations between people,
though the logician's analysis of arguments may well have a bearing on such disputes. An argument
in logic is a linguistic entity, an object having properties that can be discovered and described. These
properties will be the subject of several chapters later in this book.

Types and Tokens

It rains in Spain.

It rains in Spain.

Are these two different sentences? Are these two occurrences of the same sentence? If there
are two occurrences of the same sentence, in virtue of what are they the same?

We want to say that there are two different sentences, for we can easily refer to and identify the
first sentence and the second sentence. The first occurs above the second on the page. The first is like
the second in that it contains four words, the verb is "rains," etc. We are able to discuss these two
different sentences because we are treating them as different sets of physical marks on the page.

Marks on a page are not the only physical way in which sentences occur. They can occur as
sounds. As I write this, the two sentences occur in specific memory locations of my computer and as
specific pixels on the video display screen. Soon they will become magnetized portions of a
computer disk. Or are these copies, and if so, where are the originals?

When we are discussing the different physical occurrences of linguistic entities, we are treating
the tokens. We also want to say that we have two occurrences of the same

1
 sentence. That which is identical in the two occurrences above, as well as in the computer
memory, the video display, and the disk, is the type.

The type is not a physical entity. It is abstract. Many people of good sense, and even some
philosophers, have qualms about the introduction of or discussion of abstract entities. These are
things that cannot be seen, heard, smelled, touched, or tasted. They are not in any physical place.
There are great philosophical disputes over whether they are discovered or invented. Nevertheless,
they seem to be part of our world, and necessary tools for understanding that world.

Sentence types are not the only kind of abstract entity. Numbers are also abstract, as are songs.
The number three occurs between two and four, but it is not on the bookshelf rather than on the table.
The William Tell Overture preceded each episode of The Lone Ranger. It exists on paper, vinyl, and
tape. Yet it is the type that is identical in each case.

Use and Mention

We use language to talk about both language types and language tokens. When we are talking
about a given bit of language, we are mentioning it. Quotation marks are a standard convention for
mentioning language. For example, "It rains in Spain" was the example used above.

It would be nice if use and mention could be clearly distinguished in every case. However, it is not
possible to do so. The only way we can mention anything, including bits of language, is to use
language.

The Informative Use

What we express, when using language informatively, can be judged true or false. We may not know
which it is, but we know it is one or the other. For example, consider the sentence, "There are
intelligent life forms in other galaxies." It may be the case that there are no life forms of any kind in
any other galaxy. If so, the sentence expresses something false. There may be myriad forms of life
throughout the universe, many of which are far beyond us in intelligence. If so, the sentence
expresses something true

The Evocative Use

Language, when used evocatively, serves to bring about a response, usually from another
person. Commands are one large group of evocative expressions. If I use the sentence, "Close the
door," presumably there is an open door and someone present whom I want to close it. The sentence
is used to evoke the action of door closing.

There are ways of getting that door closed besides commands. One can request it. "Please close
the door." It can be put in the form of a question. "Would someone mind closing that door?" As a last
resort one might say, "I beg and beseech you to close the door."
 Questions, like commands, are an evocative use of language. The function of a question, in
normal cases, is to elicit an answer. Rhetorical questions are used evocatively, though the point of
using them is not to evoke answers. If your instructor asks, "Are you sure you've studied enough?"
she probably is encouraging you to study more.

Feelings or emotions, as well as actions, may be evoked by language. One of the things we
must be cautious of is language that pretends to be informative, but is actually evocative. A sentence
such as "Joe Jones, who incidentally is a member of an all white country club, was appointed to the
Civil Rights Commission," not only informs, but also evokes our feelings regarding racial
exclusiveness.

The Expressive Use

The expressive use of language is best characterized by its lack of other directedness. We can
express our joy, sadness, or pain privately or publicly. Expressions such as "Oh," "Wow," and
"Ouch," curses and cheers are typical of the expressive use.

Because we are social beings, and language is a primary vehicle of our social interaction, it is
frequently the case that language is simultaneously used to express and evoke. We have empathy
with others. When they express joy through laughter, we laugh with them. When they cry, we cry
with them.
Terms like "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "beautiful," "ugly," "efficient," and "inefficient" are
clues to the evaluative use of language.

Evaluative language falls into three major areas: ethical, aesthetic, and technical. Ethical
language is about right and wrong, duties and obligations, rights and responsibilities. Aesthetic
language is about beauty and ugliness, the pleasing and displeasing. Technical language is about
what is useful and useless, efficient and inefficient, functional and disfunctional.

The evaluative category has been the most controversial in philosophy. Various attempts have
been made to reduce it to one or another of the other categories. While important issues arise here,
they belong in a value theory course. For the sake of initial clarity, it is best to separate evaluative
uses of language from the others.

The Performative Use

A performative expression is one used to accomplish some social act, in contrast to reporting,
evaluating, provoking, or reacting to it. To say, "I apologize for my offensive behavior," is to
apologize for that behavior. It is not to report an act, which has been performed or will be performed.
It is the performance of apologizing. When the minister or justice of the peace, in performing a
wedding, asks, "Do you take..." and you reply, "I do," you've done it.

Both the recognition and the execution of performatives require knowledge of social roles and
actions. Certain kinds of performatives can only be executed by socially authorized persons.
Marriages are performed by priests, ministers, judges, and captains of ships at sea. They are not
performed by electricians or retail store managers. Voting is done by citizens or by members of
organizations. Promises are generally binding only on those who make them.

evaluvative Use

Language is used evaluatively to express ethical, aesthetic, or functional judgments.