1financial Management
1financial Management
1financial Management
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
Scope of
Financial Management involves the management of a firm’s finances and economic
Financial resources and utilizes financial reports and financial statement analysis with the objective of
Reporting supporting future goals and growth of the firm.
and Financial The role of financial reporting by companies is to provide information about their
Statement performance, financial position, and changes in financial position that is useful to a wide
Analysis range of users in making economic decisions. Users include managers, government,
regulators, investors, creditors, owners, employees and other stakeholders. Financial
reporting generally includes the development of key financial statements and additional
materials as directed by legal and tax agencies.
The role of financial statement analysis is to take the financial reports, combined with other
information, and evaluate the past, current, and prospective performance and financial
position of a firm. Analysts typically conduct this analysis with financial management
decisions in mind. Examples of these type of decisions include evaluating an equity
investment, merger candidate, or division of a parent company; determining ability of a firm
to take on new debt, reviewing the creditworthiness of a customer, assessing the potential
of bonds or shares to raise new funds; expanding into new markets, industries or products;
forecasting future net income, sales and cash flows; or purchasing of long term assets for
capital expansion. Given that analysts use financial statements as a main source of
information, it follows that analysts must have strong financial management knowledge to
support understanding of the statements and assess the quality of the information as
presented by a firm. Analysts may not need to know all the details of the financial
accounting techniques, but they do need to fully understand the financial statements in
terms of mechanics of reporting, purpose, development, formats, rules and linkages.
Source: CFA Institute, 2019.
Accounting
Accounting is measuring, processing
versus and recording of financial transactions
Financial of a firm. The major objective of
accounting is reporting the financial
Management information in a manner required by tax
and legal regulators.
In contrast, financial management
utilizes this accounting information to manage the finance and economic resources of the
firm and make decisions regarding optimizing economic activities to achieve financial
objectives. Financial management fundamentals involve:
Financial planning for funding ensures adequate short, medium and long‐term
funds are available at the time of need to operate the business efficiently
Financial control: ensures efficient utilization of firm’s assets.
Financial decision‐making: assessment of investment, production and financing
options to ensure adequate future returns.
Source: https://www.wallstreetmojo.com/accounting‐vs‐financial‐management/.
Mechanics of
The mechanics of financial reporting & analysis include the following steps:
Financial 1. Group Transactions: Group each business transaction as an operating, investment or
Reporting financing activity. These activities are referred to as financial management activities.
2. Element Classification: Using the activity type as a guide, classify each business
and Analysis: transaction as one of the elements of asset, liability, owner equity, net worth, revenue
5 Steps or expense.
3. Develop Statements: Develop the financial statements using the elements
4. Conduct Analysis: Using the financial statements, conduct the financial analysis using
various techniques and review the financial performance indicators of solvency,
liquidity, profitability, financial progress and position.
5. Interpret and Complete Assessments: By interpreting the results of the analysis, the
firm’s performance and growth potential can be reviewed.
Following these 5 steps and understanding the terms used in each of the steps will allow a
strong understanding of the fundamentals of the financial statements & analysis without the
need to go too deeply into the accounting rules. A brief description of the terms used in
each step are provided in the next sections.
Financial
For financial reporting purposes, business transactions are classified into the three financial
Management management activities of operating, financing and investing.
Activities
Operating activities (also called core business activities) involve transactions directly related
to the provision of goods and/or services to the market. Specific activities would include
sales, marketing, production and distribution of the firm’s products and/or services.
Operating activities can be found in both the firm’s income statement (as operating revenue
and operating expenses) and cash flow statement operating section (as operating cash
inflow and outflow).
Financing activities show how a company funds its operations and expansions externally via
loans, shares or bonds. The financing activities involve transactions that increase and
decrease liabilities and/or owner’s equity. Examples include obtaining new loans, issuing
bonds or shares, obtaining lines of credit, repaying loans or bonds, owner contributions or
withdrawals from business, and dividend payments. Financing activities can be found in cash
flow statement financing section (as operating cash inflow and outflow) and the balance
sheet (as liabilities or owner equity). Internal financing transactions are not included as a
financing activity.
Investing activities are transactions that increase and decrease capital assets This is called
investing because the firm’s purchase of assets is considered and investment in itself.
Examples include purchase/sale of land, building or manufacturing equipment, purchase of
shares of another business as an investment. Investing activities can be found in cash flow
statement investing section (as operating cash inflow and outflow) and the balance sheet (as
assets).
Financial Management Activity Example: If a firm’s core business activity is to manufacture
granola bars, then the operating activities are those associated producing and selling the
granola bars and could include items such as sales of granola bars, paying employee wages,
paying rent for the manufacturing plant or delivery of the granola bars. In contrast, the
buying of the manufacturing equipment used to produce the granola bars are not considered
an operating activity but instead considered an investment activity because the firm’s core
business activity is the production and sale of granola bars and not equipment sales.
A new loan obtained to purchase the machinery is considered a financing activity.
Elements of
Using the financial management activity as a guide, business transactions can be classified as
the Financial an element of a financial statement/s. Note: Operating activities generally involve
Statements transactions that create operating revenues, expenses, operating cash inflow and outflow.
Financial and investment activities generally involve transactions that create assets,
liabilities, equity and financing or investing cash inflow and outflow There are some
exceptions, but at an introductory level of finance these are good guidelines to use when
classifying elements.
Assets (A): Assets are resources that are owned and controlled by a business, government
or individual and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the business.
Assets are considered a stock variable because they are a measure of economic value at a
point in time. Assets can be classified basis duration – either current or long‐term (also
referred to as non‐current). Current assets are those assets that are expected to be
converted into cash or utilized by the business within 12 months. Examples of current assets
include input supplies, finished goods inventory, account receivables and cash. Long term
assets are not expected to be converted into cash within the year as they have been
purchased to produce goods & services for the firm over a longer term. Examples of long‐
term assets include equipment, renovations, machinery, buildings and land. In financial
reporting, assets are valued at one point in time using either the fair market or book
valuation (historical value) method as dictated by legal and accounting rules. These rules
and the valuation methods will be discussed in the net worth and balance sheet factsheets.
Liabilities (L): Liabilities represent the financial obligations of a company. Liabilities are
considered a stock variable because they are a measure of economic value at a point in
time. Liabilities are also classified via duration ‐ current and long term (or non‐current).
Current liabilities are obligations that must be paid within 12 months. Examples of current
liabilities include overdraft, line of credit, wages payable, loan principal payments due within
a year, account payable, interest payable or tax payable. Long term liabilities are financial
obligations that are not due within the next 12 months. Examples of long‐term liabilities
include long term mortgages, equipment loans or bond payables. Liabilities are valued as the
amount owing to the creditor on a specific date and thus this value is always a current value.
Liabilities are required to finance asset purchases and operating activities. They are
generally obtained from creditors including banks, suppliers or credit unions but can also be
provided by an individual or another firm. When a firm receives money (i.e., loan, account
payable) from a creditor, they are under obligation to pay back the original amount plus
interest charges. This transaction creates a financial obligation for the firm and thus a
liability. Liabilities are often referred to by a range of names such as debt, creditor claim,
loans, mortgages or credit.
Owner Equity (OE): Owner Equity is the proportion of the firm’s assets that are owned by
the owner. Mathematically, owner's equity is computed at one specific date as the total
value of assets (valued at book value (net)) less the total value of liabilities. The name of this
element will change depending upon the legal structure of the firm (i.e., if legal structure is
sole proprietorship then referred to as owner equity, partnership as partner equity, and
corporation as shareholder equity). Note that the owner's equity value does not represent
current or today’s value of the business because assets are valued at book value and not fair
market value.
Net Worth (NW): The net worth value is the amount left over to distribute to the business
owners if all business assets were sold today and all liabilities paid. Net Worth value is
calculated at one point in time as the total value of assets at fair market value less total
liabilities.
Revenue (R): Revenues are the money received during a specific period of time with the
majority of these sourced from operating activities such as the sale of products produced, or
service provided. Operating revenue is calculated as the price (P) at which the products or
services sold multiplied by the quantity (Q) of units sold. Non‐operating revenue is sourced
from activities not related to its core business operations and could include dividend
income, profits or losses from investments, as well as gains or losses incurred by foreign
exchange and asset write‐downs.
Revenues are considered a flow variable because revenue is the sum of transactions
occurring over a specific period of time (e.g., sales of goods from Jan 1 to Dec 31). The
recognition of revenue during a time period follows a specific set of accounting rules. These
rules will be discussed in the net income factsheet.
Expenses (E): Expenses are costs incurred during a specific period of time. Expenses are
categorized as operating expenses if they are associated with product or service production
and non‐operating expenses if they are associated with financing or investing activities.
Examples of operating expenses include payment of employee wages, rental payment,
depreciation and supplies used to produce a good. Examples of non‐operating expenses
include income taxes, interest on loans or lawsuit settlement. Expenses are considered a
flow variable because they are the sum of the transactions occurring over a period of time.
The recognition of expenses during a time period follows specific accounting rules. These
rules will be discussed later in the net income factsheet.
Financial
Statement After transaction are grouped into financial management activities and classified into
Development elements, they are organized into the financial statements.
Financial statements follow a very specific format. The heading of each of the financial
statements should include the following:
(a) Name of the entity
(b) Name of the statement
(c) Date of the statement, or the period of time
(d) Unit of measure (CDN $)
Timing for each financial statement is very specific. The net income statement, statement of
changes in owner equity and the statement of cash flows are dated “For the Year Ended
December 31, 20XX,” because they report the sum of transactions occurring during a period
of time. In contrast, the balance sheet and net worth statements are dated “At December
31, 20XX,” because they report the value of assets, liabilities and owner equity at a specific
date.
1. Net Worth Statement: This statement provides a snapshot of the firm’s assets and
liabilities at one point in time. Assets and liabilities are valued at fair market value. This
statement measures solvency.
2. Balance Sheet Statement: This statement provides a snapshot of the firm’s assets and
liabilities at one point in time. Assets and liabilities are valued at historical basis (also
referred to as book value (net)). This statement provides financial position.
3. Net Income Statement This statement presents the revenues, expenses and net income
of the business during a period of time. This statement measures profit.
4. Cash Flow Statement This statement presents cash inflow and outflow of the business
associated with the operating, financial and investment financial management activities
during a specified period of time. This statement measures liquidity and financial
flexibility.
5. Statement of Changes in Owner Equity The statement of changes in owners’ equity
reports changes in the value of ownership (owners’ equity) in the business during a
specified period of time and assists the analyst in understanding how these changes
have occurred. This statement most clearly measures financial progress of the firm.
Note: balance sheet can sometimes provide financial progress, but this statement
provides a more detailed and reliable view.
Note that these statements can be used to measure or estimate other financial
performance items. However, the ones noted above are the primary items measured by
the statement.
The main financial statement analysis techniques include the following:
Financial
Statement 1. Comparative Financial Statements Analysis: This analysis involves expressing financial
data, including entire financial statements, in relation to a single financial statement
Analysis item, or prior time period. The major methods include Common size analysis ‐ both
Techniques & Horizontal and Vertical.
Key Financial 2. Financial Ratio Analysis: This involves the development and analysis of ratios related to
profitability, liquidity, solvency, financial flexibility, financial progress and efficiency.
Performance 3. Graphs and Charts: This analysis support a comparison of performance and financial
Terms structure over time and a visual overview of risk & trends in a business.
4. Cost–Volume–Profit (CVP) & Breakeven Analysis: Breakeven analysis is a method used
to determine the quantity value where the business is able to cover all its fixed and
variable costs and begin to make a profit. CVP reviews the effects of changing fixed cost,
variable cost and price on output and earnings.
Using these techniques, analysts review the key financial performance indicators in order to
develop a sense of a firm’s status and growth potential. These key financial performance
indicators are generally assessed using financial analysis techniques and statements noted
earlier. The key financial performance terms include the following:
Solvency Refers to the firm’s ability to meet all their financial obligations. A firm is
considered solvent at one point in time if their total assets valued at fair market
value are greater than their total liabilities. In other words, a positive net worth
value indicates solvency and a negative net worth value indicates insolvency or
bankruptcy. Additional methods to measure this concept will be discussed in the
financial analysis section.
Profitability Profit is a value equal to revenue minus expenses. However,
profitability refers to a metric used to review a firm’s profit relative to a base such
as sales, assets, net worth, or equity investment. Profitability is a key measure in to
review opportunity cost potential for growth.
Liquidity Refers to the firm’s ability to meet their current financial obligations as
they come due. A firm is considered liquid if current assets less current liabilities is
a positive value or if net cash flow over a period of time is positive. Additional
methods to measure this concept will be discussed in the financial analysis section.
Financial Flexibility Refers to a firm ability to react to unexpected expenses and
investment opportunities and is generally reviewed by a firm’s cash holdings or free
cash flow value at a period of time.
Financial Progression An important goal for business owners and is defined as an
increase of owners’ equity through the profits of the business. This increase in
owner equity occurs when the business profit is retained by the firm (called
retained earnings) and then used by the firm to decrease liabilities or increase
assets. The decision to either withdraw the firms profit and distribute to owners as
dividends versus retain the profit is made by the business owners and managers.
Generally
GAAP (generally accepted accounting principles) is a collection of commonly‐followed
Accepted accounting rules and standards for recording and reporting of financial information.
Accounting Specifically, GAAP is the following:
A common set of 12 accounting assumptions, principles and constraints that
Principles support integrity and quality of financial information
(GAAP) Developed by a combination of authoritative standards (national and international)
boards
A set of basic rules to guide financial statement/s development and thus support
comparability of finances between firms and limit management ability to distort
finances of a business.
Improves the clarity of the communication of financial information.
Note that the 12 GAAP items may have slightly different names basis the source of the
material. However, the definition and rules associated with each item remain the same.
Assumptions
1. Accounting This principle requires business records must not include the
Entity personal assets or liabilities of the owners. This principle is
important as business structure such as corporations, sole
proprietors and partners have different legal ability to own
assets and pay taxes.
3. Measurement Statements show only quantifiable activities and report these
and Units of in the stable currency.
Measure
4. Periodicity/ Firms must define their continuous lifetime into measured in
Time period specific and consistent time periods for which financial
assumption statements are prepared.
Principles
5. Revenue Requires that revenue must be recorded when earned and
Recognition measurable. In other words, revenue needs to be recognized
Principle (a major when a sale is made to a customer and not just when cash is
GAAP) paid for the sale now or in the future. In addition, revenues
can also be recognized when sales are realizable under
condition that there is a ready market for these products with
reasonably assured prices (example: mining, renewable
resources, manufacturing, and commodity goods). This
principle follows the accrual method of accounting.
Example: A business produces $15,000 in products and sells
$10,000 for cash and $5,000 on credit to be paid in one year
later.
Basis this principle, revenue for the year will be $15,000
because the product is produced and sold in this year even if
the money will not be received by the firm until the next year.
This principle may result in adjustment entries on financial
statements to ensure the principle is being followed.
7. Cost Assets are recorded at cost, which equals the value exchanged
at the time of their acquisition and are not revalued for
financial reporting purposes in any statements but the net
worth statement.
Example: A firm purchases land for $10,000 in 1970 and in the
financial statement for today, they still record the value at
10,000 even though it is worth $500,000.
8. Disclosure This principles states that information relevant and important
to an investor or lender is required to be disclosed within the
statement or in the notes to the statement. Example: lawsuit,
patent pending or departure of CEO.
Constraints
9. Estimates and Certain measurements cannot be performed completely
Judgements accurately and must therefore utilize conservative estimates
and judgments.
10. Materiality This assumption allows the firm to violate another accounting
principle if an amount is insignificant.
11. Consistency Preparation of financial statements must utilize consistent
methods each time period to support meaningful comparisons
between different accounting periods and between different
companies.
12. Conservatism Conservatism examples: Assets and revenues should not be
overstated; liabilities and expenses should not be understated;
& financial statements should be prepared with a downward
measurement bias.
Source: Accounting Coach GAAP review:
http://www.accountingcoach.com/accounting‐principles/explanation
Accrual accounting is a method that records revenues and expenses when they are
incurred basis GAAP, regardless of when cash is exchanged.
Questions for
What is the difference between accounting and financial management?
Review What steps are involved in the mechanics of financial reporting? What rules guide
the steps?
What is meant by financial performance indicators? What is being indicated?
What is the purpose of each financial statement? Items included? Time Period?
What are the similarities and differences between the statements?
Why is it important to distinguish between the three financial management
activities?
What are the most important GAAP rules and why?
What could occur if GAAP was not in place in the financial sector?
Identify the difference between the three types of financial management activities
What perspective does the term investing activity involve? Owner? Firm? Investor?
What items are included in each financial statement and why?
What is the time frame of each of the statements? Who defines these?
What are the differences and similarities between an asset, liability, revenue and
expense?
Can a revenue turn into an asset? Can an expense turn into a liability? Vice Versa?
What is the difference between the following? Profit and Net Worth? Net Worth
and Owner Equity? Liquidity and Solvency? Profit and Profitability
What are the examples of Investing activities? Operating? Financing?
Web
Investopedia
Resources http://www.investopedia.com/dictionary
Accounting Coach
https://www.accountingcoach.com/terms
Provides an online glossary of the basic terms of accounting.
Pearson Financial Accounting terminology
http://wps.pearsoned.co.uk/wps/media/objects/3507/3591169/glossary/
glossary_fa.html
Updated August 2019