A Guide to Polyolefin Film Extrusion

lyb.com
About Us

LyondellBasell is one of the world’s largest plastics,

chemical and refining companies. We are the largest
producer of polypropylene and polypropylene
compounds; a leading producer of propylene oxide,
polyethylene, ethylene and propylene; a global leader
in polyolefins technology; and a producer of refined
products, including biofuels.
LyondellBasell products and technologies are used to
make items that improve the quality of life for people
around the world including packaging, electronics,
automotive components, home furnishings,
construction materials and biofuels.

i
Table of Contents
About Us i Nip Rolls 24
Table of Contents ii Width Measurement 24
Gauge Measurement 24
Introduction 1 Oscillating Haul-Off Units 25
Polyolefins are Thermoplastics Derived from Petrochemicals 2 Surface Treaters 25
Molecular Structure and Composition Affect Properties Guide Rolls 25
and Processability 3 Feed Roll Assembly 24
Density 4 Optical Inspection System 25
Molecular Weight 5 Film Winders 25
Melt Viscosity 5 Surface Winders 25
Molecular Weight Distribution 5 Center Winders 26
Comonomers 5 Surface/Center Assist Winders 26
Modifiers, Additives and Tie Layers 6 Gap Winding 26
LyondellBasell Works Closely with Processors 6 Taper Tensioning 26
Shipping and Handling Polyolefin Film Extrusion Resins 6 Automatic Roll Changers 26
How Polyolefins are Made 7 Turret Winders 26
LDPE 7 Web Slitters 26
HDPE 8 Edge Cutting System 26
LLDPE 8 Recycling Systems 27
PP 8 Controls 27
The Film Extrusion Process 9 Operation of a Blown Film Line 28
Materials Conditioning/Handling 9 Start-Up Procedure for Film Line 28
Materials Handling Equipment Design 9 Accident Prevention 28
Blending with Colorants and Additives 10 Shutdown Procedures for Blown Film Extruders 29
Film Extrusion Equipment 11 Cleaning the Extruder and Its Parts 30
Extruder 11 How to Clean the Extruder 30
Coextrusion Systems 12 Cleaning the Screw 30
Cascade Extrusion Systems 12 Cleaning the Barrel 30
Hopper 13 Cleaning the Adapter 30
Barrel 13 Cleaning the Breaker Plate 30
Heaters 14 Cleaning the Blown Film Die 30
Thermocouples 14 Cleaning the Cast Film Die 30
Screw 14 Optimizing Film Extrusion Process 31
Mixing Screws 15 Flat Film Forming 31
Barrier-Type Screws 15 Temperatures 31
Screen Pack and Breaker Plate 15 Screw Speed 31
Automatic Screen Changers 16 Gauge Control 31
Pressure Valves 17 Width 31
Adapter 17 Cooling 31
Melt Pumps 17 Tubular Film Forming 31
Film Forming Equipment 18 Temperatures 31
Die 18 Screw Speed 31
Transfer Piping/Adapters 18 Blow-up Ratio 32
Blown Film Dies 19 Cooling 32
Rotating Dies 19 Process Variables Controlling Property Improvement 33
Automatic Gauge Adjustment 19 Barrier 33
Coextrusion Blown Film Dies 20 Clarity 33
Cast Film Dies 20 Environmental Stress Crack Resistance 33
Coextrusion Cast Film Dies Coextrusion Feedblock 21 Gauge Uniformity 33
Coextrusion Cast Film Dies 21 Gloss 33
Cooling Systems 22 Heat Sealability 33
Blown Film Cooling 22 Stiffness 33
External Air Rings 22 Strength 33
Internal Bubble Cooling 22 Toughness 33
Bubble Stabilizer 23 Slip 33
Cast Film Cooling 23 Shrink Wrap and Stretch Wrap 33
Takeoff and Windup Equipment 24 Appendix 1: Metric Conversion Guide 34
Blown Film Tower 24 Appendix 2: Abbreviations 36
Guide Bars 24 Appendix 3: ASTM Test Methods Applicable to Film Extrusion 37
Collapsing Frames 24 Appendix 4: Trade Names for Products of LyondellBasell Chemicals 38

ii
Introduction

Polyolefins are the most widely used plastics for film extrusion. A Guide To
Polyolefin Film Extrusion contains general information concerning materials,
methods and equipment for producing high quality polyolefin film products at
optimum production rates.

Polyolefins that can be extruded as a broad range of chemical modifiers. This manual contains extensive information
monolayer and multilayer film include: Further, polyolefin-based films can be on polyolefin film extrusion; however, it
coextruded with various other polymers, makes no specific recommendations for
• Low density polyethylene (LDPE)
including ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), the processing of LyondellBasell Chemicals
• Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) nylon, polyester barrier resins and adhesive resins for specific applications. For more
tielayers, to produce multilayer films with detailed information, please contact
• High density polyethylene (HDPE) special, high-performance properties. Major your LyondellBasell polyethylene sales
application areas for polyolefin films are: representative.
• Ethylene copolymers, such as ethylene
vinyl acetate (EVA) and ethylene methyl • Packaging for food, textiles, consumer
acrylate (EMA) products, industrial products, medical
products, merchandise, among others
• Polypropylene, propylene copolymers
(PP) and thermoplastic olefins (TPOs). • Agriculture
In general, the advantages gained with • Construction
polyolefin films are ease of processing,
light weight, good toughness and • Consumer products, including diaper
tear resistance, flexibility (even at low backing, garment bags, household wrap
temperatures), outstanding chemical and trash bags
resistance and relatively low cost compared
• Materials handling, including stretch
with other plastics. The basic properties
wrap and shrink wrap
of polyolefins can be modified with

Polyolefin films are used in a wide variety of applications.

LLDPE film HMW-LLDPE film LDPE film

1
Polyolefins Are
Thermoplastics Derived
From Petrochemicals

Polyolefins are plastic resins polymerized from

petroleum-based gases. The two principal gases are
ethylene and propylene.
Ethylene is the principal raw material for Most polyolefin resins for film extrusion
making polyethylene (PE) and ethylene generally are used in pellet form. The
copolymer resins; and propylene is the main pellets are about 1/8 inch thick and 3/16
ingredient for making polypropylene (PP) inch in diameter, usually somewhat
and propylene copolymer resins. Polyolefin translucent and white in color. Polyolefin
resins are classified as thermoplastics, resins sometimes will contain additives,
which means that they can be melted, such as thermal stabilizers. They also can
solidified and melted again. This contrasts be compounded with colorants, antistatic
with thermoset resins which, once molded, agents, slip and antiblock
cannot be reprocessed.

2
Molecular Structure and Composition Affect
Properties and Processability

Three basic molecular properties affect are enormously long, containing several
most of the properties essential to high hundred thousand monomer units. For
quality film extrusion: polyethylene, the ethylene chains have
numerous side branches. For every 100
• Average Molecular Weight
ethylene units in the molecular chain,
• Molecular Weight Distribution there are about one to 10 short or long
branches. The branches radiate in three
• Crystallinity or Density. dimensions (Figure 4).

Figure 1: Ethylene monomer molecular structure These molecular properties are determined Chain branching affects many polymer
by the materials used to produce the properties including density, hardness,
polyolefins and the conditions under flexibility and transparency, to name
which they are manufactured. The basic a few. Chain branches also become
building blocks for the gases from which points in the molecular network where
polyolefins are derived are hydrogen and oxidation may occur. In some processing
carbon atoms. For polyethylenes, these techniques where high temperatures are
atoms are combined to form the ethylene reached, oxidation can adversely affect the
monomer, C2H4, i.e., two carbon atoms polymer’s properties.
and four hydrogen atoms (see Figure 1).
In the polymerization process, the double
Figure 2: Polyethylene molecular chain. bond connecting the carbon atoms is
broken. Under the right conditions,
these bonds reform with other ethylene
molecules to form long molecular chains
(Figure 2). The resulting product is
polyethylene.

For polypropylene, the hydrogen and

carbon atoms are combined to form the
propylene monomer, CH3CH=CH2, which
has three carbon atoms and six hydrogen
Figure 3: Polyethylene chain with side branches.
atoms (Figure 3). The third carbon atom
remains pendant and protrudes from the
spiraling backbone chain.

Ethylene copolymers, such as EVA and

EMA, are made by the polymerization of
ethylene units with randomly distributed
comonomer groups, such as vinyl acetate
(VA) and methyl acrylate (MA).

The polymerization of monomers creates

a mixture of molecular chains of varying
Figure 4: Polyethylene chain with side branches. lengths. Some are short, while others

3
 Density • LLDPE resins densities range from
0.900 to 0.939 grams per cubic
Polyolefin resins have a mixture of
centimeter (g/cc)
crystalline and amorphous areas. Molecular
chains in crystalline areas are arranged • LDPE resins range from 0.916 to
somewhat parallel to each other. In 0.925 g/cc
amorphous areas, they are randomly
• MDPE (medium density) resins range
arranged. This mixture of crystalline and
from 0.926-0.940 g/cc
amorphous regions (Figure 5) is essential
to the formation of good film products. • HDPE resins range from 0.941 to
A totally amorphous polyolefin would 0.965 g/cc
be rubber-like and have poor physical
properties; a totally crystalline polymer • PP resins range from 0.890 to 0.905 g/cc
would be very hard and brittle.
• The densities of EVA and EMA copolymers
Figure 5: Crystalline (A) and amorphous (B) regions For homopolymer polyethylenes, the higher are functions of the proportion of
in polyolefin. the resin density, the higher the degree comonomer incorporated into the
of crystallinity. High density PE resins have resin; as comonomer increases, density
molecular chains with comparatively few increases, but crystallinity decreases.
side chain branches. This allows the chains
Higher density, in turn, influences numerous
to pack more closely together. The result
properties (Table 1). With increasing
is crystallinity up to 85%. Low density PE
density, some properties increase. However,
resins generally have crystallinity from 35
increased density also results in a reduction
to 55%. Linear low density PE resins have
of some properties, e.g., stress cracking
crystallinity from 35 to 60%. Polypropylene
resistance and low temperature toughness.
resins are highly crystalline, but they are not
very dense.

Table 1: General Guide to the Effects of LDPE Resin Physical Properties on their Mechanical Properties
and Processing.

Characteristic As Melt Index Increases As Density Increases

Chemical Resistance Remains Same Increases

Clarity Increases Increases

Elongation at Rupture Decreases Decreases

Extrusion Speed (faster solidification) Remains Same Increases

Film Drawdown Increases Increases

Film Impact Strength (toughness) Decreases Decreases

Flexibility Decreases Remains Same

Gloss Increases Remains Same

Heat Resistance (softening point) Decreases Increases

Impermeability to Gases/Liquids Remains Same Increases

Low Temperature Flexibiity Decreases Decreases

Melt Viscosity Decreases Increases

Mechanical Flex Life Decreases Decreases

Resistance to Film Blocking Decreases Increases

Stress Cracking Resistance Decreases Decreases

Tensile Strength at Rupture Decreases Increases

4
Molecular Weight to the average length, the resin is said Table 2: Polyolefin Film Extrusion Resins
to have a “narrow molecular weight Melt Index Ranges
Molecular Weight Atoms of different Resin
distribution” (Figure 6). “Broad molecular g/10 min.*
elements, such as carbon, hydrogen, etc.,
weight distribution” polyolefins are those
have different atomic weights. For carbon, LLDPE <1 to 2 Remains Same
resins with a wider variety of chain lengths.
the atomic weight is 12, and for hydrogen
In general, resins with narrow molecular LDPE <1 to 5 Increases
it is 1. Thus, the molecular weight of the
weight distributions have greater stress
ethylene unit is the sum of the weight of its
cracking resistance and better optical HDPE <1 to 10 Decreases
six atoms (2 carbon + 4 hydrogen) or 28.
properties. Resins with broad molecular
Every polyolefin resin consists of a mixture weight distributions generally have greater EVA <1 to 10 Remains Same
of large and small chains, i.e., chains of impact strength and greater ease of
processing. PP 1 to 10 MFR ** Increases
high and low molecular weights. The
molecular weight of the polymer chain
* Melt Index describes the flow behavior of a resin
generally is in the thousands. The average Comonomers at a specified test temperature (190°C, 374°F) and
of these is called, quite appropriately, the under a specified weight (2,160g). Resins with a
Polyolefins made with one basic type
average molecular weight. higher melt index flow more easily in the hot,
of monomer are called homopolymers. molten state than those with a lower melt index.
As average molecular weight increases, There are, however, many polyolefins
** Melt Flow Rate (MFR), rather than MI, is used to
resin toughness increases. The same holds which consist of two or more monomers
describe the flow behavior of polypropylene resins.
true for tensile strength and environmental – each called a comonomer – and these MFR is tested at a higher specified temperature
stress cracking resistance (cracking brought combinations are called copolymers. Many (446°F, 230°C), but under the same specified load
on when film is subjected to stresses in the film extrusion grades of LLDPE, LDPE, HDPE (2,160g) as polyethylene.
presence of liquids such as solvents, oils, and PP are made with comonomers. These
detergents, etc.). side chain groups provide specific property
improvements.
Melt Viscosity
The comonomers used most often with
Melt viscosity generally is expressed for LLDPE and HDPE are collectively called
polyethylene resins by their melt indices alpha olefins. They include butene, hexene
(tested under standard conditions of and others. Other comonomers used with
temperature and pressure). Melt index (MI) ethylene to make film extrusion grades are
is inversely related to the resin’s average MA to make EMA copolymers, and VA to
molecular weight: as average molecular produce EVA copolymers.
weight increases, MI decreases. Generally,
The addition of small amounts of VA
a polyolefin resin with high molecular
to polyethylene results in a resin which
weight has a low MI, and vice versa.
extrudes similarly to a polyethylene
Melt viscosity is an extremely important homopolymer but has the additional
property since it affects the flow of the properties of increased toughness, lower
molten polymer. The resin’s flow when stiffness and potentially higher clarity.
melted increases with increasing MI. A wide range of properties is possible,
depending upon the proportion of VA Figure 6: Schematic representation of molecular
Therefore, polyolefins with lower MI require
weight distribution.
higher extrusion temperatures. It should be incorporated and the synthesis conditions
remembered that pressure can influence used to make the modified resins.
flow properties. Two resins may have the
EMA copolymers offer better heat stability
same MI, but different high pressure flow
during film extrusion than EVA resins.
properties. Therefore, MI (Table 2) must be
This property is of particular interest when
used in conjunction with other yardsticks,
polyolefins are coextruded with resins of
such as molecular weight distribution,
higher melting temperatures. EMAs offer
to measure flow and other properties of
better low temperature melting properties
resins. Generally, polyolefin film extrusion
and good adhesion to a wide variety of
resins are characterized as having medium,
substrates.
high and very high viscosity.
Ethylene is the primary comonomer used
Molecular Weight Distribution with PP. PP random copolymers have
propylene backbones containing random
The relative distribution of large, medium ethylene groups. Impact copolymers have
and small molecular chains in a polyolefin propylene backbones containing groups of
resin is important to its properties. When ethylene molecules.
the distribution consists of chains close
5
Modifiers, Additives and Tie-Layers Table 3: Typical Additives Used with Polyolefin Extrusion Coating Resins.

Numerous chemical modifiers and additives Additive Primary Benefit

are compounded with polyolefin film
extrusion resins. In some grades, the Antistats Static buidup resistance
chemical modifiers are added during
resin manufacture. These include thermal Fragrances Add attractive color, e.g. floral
stabilizers, antistatic agents and slip/
Nucleating Agents Faster film processing
antiblock agents. (See Table 3).

Tie-layers are polyolefin-based resins which Organic Peroxides Improved film processing
are used to bond a polyolefin to other
Processing Aids Reduce melt facturing
polar materials during coextrusion, coating
or lamination. Tie-layers are specifically
Slip/Antiblock Agents Improved film-to-filmstrip
designed for use with such polar barrier
materials as nylon (PA), polyester (PET), Thermal Stabilizers Resistance to oxidation during processing and end us life
polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) and ethylene
vinyl alcohol (EVOH). UV Stabilizers Resistance to effects of sunlight

LyondellBasell
LyondellBasell offers a wide range of • High molecular weight LDPE
polyolefin resins for film extrusion, including • High stress crack resistant HDPE
Petrothene® LDPE, LLDPE, HDPE and PP,

Works Closely Alathon® HDPE and Ultrathene® EVA

copolymers. These resins also are tailored to
• Medium molecular weight HDPE
• High drawdown LDPE

with Processors
meet the requirements of many applications. • High moisture barrier HDPE
Some typical specialty grades are:
• High clarity LDPE
• Heat-seal EVA

Shipping and
It is extremely important to keep polyolefin handling system also is essential. When
resins clean. Contaminated resins can bags and boxes are used, special care
produce poor products. Polyolefin resins also is a must in opening the containers,

Handling are shipped to processors in hopper cars,

hopper trucks, 1000- and 1500-pound
as well as covering them as they are
unloaded and used.

Polyolefin
polyethylene-lined corrugated boxes
Reground resin, whether as a blend
and 50-pound plastic bags. Strict quality
or as is, should also be subject to
control throughout resin manufacture

Film Extrusion and subsequent handling, right through

delivery to the processor, ensure the
stringent precautions to keep it free of
contamination. Whenever possible, the
regrind should be used as it is generated.
Resins
cleanliness of the products.
When this is not possible, the scrap
When bulk containers are delivered, should be collected in a closed system and
the processor must use clean, efficient recycled with the same precautions taken
procedures for unloading the resin. as for virgin resin.
Maintenance of the in-plant materials
6
How Polyolefins Are Made

High-purity ethylene, propylene, butene

and hexene gases are the basic feedstocks
for making polyolefins (Figure 7). These
gases can be a petroleum refinery
byproduct or they can be extracted from
ethane-propane liquefied gas mixes
coming through pipelines from a gas field.
High efficiency in the ethane/propane
cracking and purification results in very
pure ethylene and propylene (Figure 8).
This high purity is one of the key reasons
that LyondellBasell’s polyolefin resins Figure 7: Diagram of the polyethylene production process from liquified petroleum gas (LPG) to solid
excel among commercially available LDPE, polyethylene vpellets.
LLDPE, HDPE, PP and ethylene copolymers.

LDPE

To make LDPE resins (Figure 9),

LyondellBasell uses high pressure, high
temperature polymerization reactors.
Ethylene gas, pumped into the reactors,
is activated by a catalyst and polymerizes
into polyethylene. The LDPE formed
flows to a separator where unused gas
is removed. Next, the LDPE goes to a
compounding extruder where additives
are added prior to pelletizing.

Figure 8: Top left, Polypropylene unit at LyondellBasell’s Morris, IL, plant; Top right, HDPE unit at
LyondellBasell’s LaPorte, TX, plant.

Figure 9: Process diagaram for LDPE production in an autoclave reactor.

7
HDPE

There are two basic processes for making

HDPE (Figure 10): the particle form slurry
process (the most widely used method),
and the gas phase process. The flow of
these processes is quite similar to the
LLDPE process except that relatively low
pressure, low temperature reactors are
used.

LLDPE

LyondellBasell uses a gas-phase process

for making LLDPE (Figure 11). The
LLDPE process is quite different from
the WIDE process, but similar to some
HDPE processes. The major differences Figure 10: Process diagram for HDPE production in a particle-form reactor.
from the LDPE process are that low
pressure, low temperature polymerization
reactors are used and that the ethylene
is copolymerized with butene or hexene
comonomers in the reactor. A final
distinction is that the polymer exits
the reactor as granules that are then
compounded with additives in an extruder
and pelletized. Certain HDPE resins also
can be made in these reactors.

PP

For making PP, LyondellBasell uses a

vertical, stirred fluidized-bed, gas-phase
reactor (Figure 12). LyondellBasell was the
first polypropylene supplier in the United
States to use gas-phase PIP technology.
This process is more energy efficient and
produces a more uniform product than
earlier polypropylene manufacturing Figure 11: Process diagram for LLDPE or HDPE production in a gas-phase reactor.
processes.

Figure 12: Process diagram for PP production in a vertical, stirred fluidized bed, gas-phase reactor.

8
The Film Extrusion Process

There are three basic stages in the overall scrap and the time and work force costs Materials Handling Equipment Design
film extrusion process: of cleaning silos, transfer lines and filters.
Since smooth piping is a leading
1. Materials Conditioning/Handling Many transfer systems consist of smooth contributor to angel hair and streamers,
bore piping that conveys the resin from the logical solution is to roughen the
2. Film Extrusion
hopper cars to storage silos or holding interior wall of the piping. This roughness
3. Film Takeoff bins. Some transfer systems may include will cause the pellets to tumble instead
long radius bends. A polyolefin pellet of slide along the pipe, thus decreasing
conveyed by forced air through such a streamer formation. However, as a rapidly
Materials Conditioning/Handling
transfer line travels at a very high velocity. moving polyolefin pellet comes in contact
At its resin manufacturing plants, As the pellet comes in contact with the with an extremely rough surface, small
LyondellBasell has extensive systems, smooth pipe wall, it slides and slows particles break oft, and fines or dust are
such as filters, cyclones, elutriators, down due to friction. The friction, in turn, created.
etc. to prevent resin contamination creates sufficient heat to raise the pellet’s
Two specific finishes for materials
during production, storage, loading and surface temperature to the resin’s melting
handling piping have proven to be the
shipment. Since polyolefin resins are point. As this happens, a small deposit of
best performers and give the longest life;
non-hygroscopic (they absorb virtually no molten polyolefin is left on the pipe wall.
the first is a sand blasted finish of 600 to
water), they do not require drying prior to This deposit solidifies almost instantly.
700 RMS roughness. This finish is probably
extrusion. However, precautions should Overtime, these deposits buildup and are
the easiest to obtain; however, until they
be taken to ensure the cleanliness of the called “angel hair” when they slough off
become rounded with use, the initial
polyolefin pellets as they are handled at and are found mixed with the pellets.
sharp edges of the finish will result in dust
the processor’s facilities.
As the pellets continuously come in contact and fines.
One way to decrease problems in with the pipe wall, such as along the
The other finish is achieved by shot
processing polyolefin resin is to prevent curved outside surface of a long radius
blasting using a #55 shot with 55-60
contaminants from entering transfer bend, the deposits of polyolefin become
Rockwell hardness to produce a 900 RMS
systems. Whenever a polyolefin resin is almost continuous and long streamers
roughness. Variations of this finish are
moved by a current of air through transfer are formed. Eventually, the angel hair
commonly known as “hammer finished”
piping, the possibility of contamination and streamers are dislodged from the
surfaces. The shot blasting allows deeper
exists. Dust, fines, streamers and angel pipe wall and find their way into the
penetration and increases hardness,
hair can be generated and plug filters or extrusion process, the storage silo or the
which in turn, leads to longer surface life.
other components of the transfer system transfer filters. The size and number of
The rounded edges obtained minimize
that results in starvation of the extruder. streamers formed increase with increases in
the initial problems encountered with
Occasionally, large clumps of angel hair conveying air temperature and velocity and
dust and fines. They also reduce metal
or streamers may accumulate in a silo and are also greater with smooth bore piping
contamination possibilities associated with
plug the exit port. All of these problems than with other kinds of handling systems.
the sandblasted finish.
can result in extruder downtime, excessive

9
Whenever a new transfer system is • Purge the lines with air first and then
installed or when a portion of an existing with a small amount of product prior to
system is replaced, the interior surfaces filling storage silos or bins. Let blowers
should be treated either by sand or shot run several minutes after unloading to
blasting. The initial cost is far outweighed clean lines. This reduces the chance of
by the prevention of future problems. cross-contamination of product.

Eliminating long radius bends wherever Information regarding transfer systems

possible also is effective (Figure 13). Long and interior finishes can be obtained
radius bends are probably the leading from most suppliers of materials
contributor to streamer formation. When handling equipment. Complete systems
Figure 13: Interior surfaces of long radius blends
this type of bend is used, the interior wall can be supplied which, when properly should be roughened to minimize “angel hair”
should either be sand or shot blasted, as maintained, will efficiently convey and streamer formation in transfer systems.
described above. contamination-free product. LyondellBasell
has also published a booklet entitled,
The transfer piping should be rotated
“Handling and Storage of LyondellBasell
90° at periodic intervals. Resin pellets
Polyethylene and Specialty Polymers”
tend to wear grooves in the bottom of
which deals with polymer unloading and
the piping as they are conveyed. The
conveying systems. For a copy, contact
grooves contribute to fines and streamer
your LyondellBasell polyethylene sales
formation.
representative.
Regardless of the type of equipment
used or the materials transferred, transfer Blending With Colorants and Additives
systems should be maintained and
In-line blending units consist of multiple
kept clean in the same manner as any
hoppers which are fed different resin
other piece of production equipment.
compound ingredients (Figure 14).
Periodic washing of silos and holding
Colorant or additive concentrates, regrind
bins will reduce the problem of fines
and base resin are combined using
and dust build-up due to static charges,
either volumetric or weight-loss feeding
as well. Other steps to take to eliminate
(gravimetric) techniques; the latter is
contamination include:
usually more accurate. Microprocessor
• Clean all filters in the transfer system controls determine and monitor the
periodically. amounts of material fed into a mixing
chamber. Recipes can be stored in the
• Ensure that the suction line is not lying
control unit for instant recall.
on the ground when the system is
started. This will prevent debris or gravel Central blending units also can be
from entering the system. used when much higher throughputs Figure 14: Gravimetric blending units accurately
are needed than possible with on line measure components in polyolefin extrusion.
• Place air filters over hopper car hatches
blenders. Transfer to the extruder is by a
and bottom valves during unloading
central vacuum loading system.
to prevent debris or moisture from
contaminating material.

10
Film Extrusion Equipment

Two basic methods are used for making polyolefin film: cast film extrusion and
blown film extrusion.

In both methods, the resin is first melted The standard extruder base for cast film
by subjecting it to heat and pressure inside lines stands about three feet. Bases for
the barrel of an extruder and finally forcing blown lines generally are quite low in
the melt through a narrow slit in a die. The order to minimize the overall height of the
slit may be either a straight line or a circle. die and take-off tower above it. Extruder
The resulting thin film has either the form sizes are designated by their cylinder bore
of a sheet (cast film) or a tube, also called diameter in inches or centimeters. Table 5
a “bubble” (blown film). As the film comes lists film die sizes that can be used with the
out of the die, it is cooled and then rolled most common extruder sizes. The diameter
up on a core. Table 4 compares some of of the blown film bubble generally will be
the properties of cast and blown film. much greater than that of the blown film
die. The width of the flat film obtainable
Extruder with a flat film (cast film) die will be
somewhat more narrow than the size of Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co., Inc.
The extruder (Figure 15) consists of a resin the die because of neck-in.
feeding hopper, a heated barrel, a rotating Figure 15: The extruder consists of a resin feeding
screw, a screen changer, a die adapter hopper, a heated barrel, a constant rotating screw,
and a base. a manual screen changer, a die adapter and a base.

Table 4: General Comparison of Cast and Blown Films Table 5: Sizing Extruders to Film Size

Primary Extruder, Blown Film Die Cast or Flat Film

Characteristics Blown Film Cast Film
Inches Diameter, Inches Die Width, Inches

Clarity Less Greater 1 1/2 Less Greater

Edge TrimWaste Less Greater 2 1/2 Less Greater

Gauge Control Less Greater 3 1/2 Less Greater

Capital Investment Less Greater 4 1/2 Less Greater

Output/Efficiency Less Greater 6 Less Greater

Transverse Strength Greater Less

Width Flexibility Greater Less

11
Coextrusion systems

Coextrusion systems designed for

making multilayer film have two or more
extruders feeding a common die assembly
(Figure 16). The number of extruders is
dependent upon the number of different
materials comprising the coextruded film.
For example, a three-layer coextrusion
consisting of a recycled or barrier material
core and two outer layers of the same
resin, requires only two extruders. A
fivelayer coextrusion consisting of a top
layer of LDPE, a tie-layer resin, a barrier
resin, another tie-layer and a EVA resin
layer, would require four or five extruders.
Seven-and-eight-layer coextrusion lines
are now available that enable the use
of recycled films and additional resins as
layers.

Cascade extrusion

Cascade extrusion systems designed for

making foam or oriented films, including
HDPE and PP films, consist of two extruders
operating in series. The first extruder, which
is slightly smaller than the second, is used
only to melt the resin; the second extruder
is used for metering. Series extrusion
permits lower processing temperatures,
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co., Inc.
thus higher output rates. This also can be
accomplished by using a gear pump in
Figure 16: Coextrusion systems designed for making multilayer film have two or more extruders feeding a
place of the second extruder.
common die assembly.

12
Hopper

Polyolefin resins are dropped into the

extruder feed throat through a round
or square funnel, called the hopper. An
automatic loader on top of the hopper
periodically feeds resin into it.

Two basic types of automatic hopper

feeding systems exist: volumetric feeders
refill the hopper on a set schedule based
on the extrusion system’s output; and
gravimetric feeders (Figure 17), also
referred to as loss-in-weight feeders,
directly feed resin into the extruder feed
throat. These feeders measure the weight
of materials fed to the extruder from a
special weight hopper and determine the
rate at which the material is consumed.
Gravimetric feeders ensure that the amount
of resin in the feed section of the screw is
always the same. With volumetric feeders,
resin pellets tend to become more compact
in the screw when the hopper is full.

With a gravimetric feeder, a computer

compares the actual material consumption
rate against set points specified, performs
statistical analysis and adjusts rates as
necessary to maintain film thickness
and amount of film produced. When a
deviation is detected, the control system
Courtesy of K-Tron Vertech Inc.
corrects the process by changing the screw
or haul-off speed. Figure 17: Gravimetric feeder/blender with eight ingredient modules.

The hopper throat can be water-cooled to

prevent resin pellets from sticking together
and “bridging over.” If an extruder is run
“neutral,” i.e., hot, during shut down, the
screw should be kept turning until all resin
has been moved out of the screw flights
that are visible from the hopper. Otherwise,
resin may melt and “bridge” near the
hopper and choke off output.

Barrel

Most barrels have smooth bores. However,

for making HMW-HDPE and LLDPE film at
high throughput rates, the feed section of
the barrel may be watercooled and have
as many as 12 helical grooves (Figure 18).
This configuration permits low melt index
HMW-HDPE, HMW-LDPE and LLDPE resins
to be processed at high extrusion rates.
Barrels with high wear-resistant metal
liners, such as tungsten carbide, generally
wear better than extruder screws. Figure 18: For HMW-HDPE and LLDPE film extrusion, barrels are designed with up to 12 helical grooves.

13
Heaters Screw A long, properly designed screw makes
for better melting and mixing of the resin,
For fast extruder start-up, barrel heating A motor-driven screw rotates within the
as well as better film appearance, closer
is necessary and usually done by electrical hardened liner of the barrel (Figure 19).
gauge tolerance and increased production
barrel heating bands. They respond rapidly, Screw speeds typically are in the range of
rate. Screws are specified by their length
are easy to adjust and require a minimum 50 to 250 rpm. As the screw rotates, the
to-diameter (UD) ratio and compression
of maintenance. The heater bands are screw flights force the resin in the screw
ratio. Ideally, the screw should be at least
distributed along the barrel length in what channel forward, the screw channels
24 times, preferably 28 to 30 times, as long
are called zones. Generally, the barrel is become more shallow and the resin is
as its diameter. A larger UD ratio allows
divided into three to six zones. Blowers heated, compressed, melted and mixed.
enhanced mixing. The compression ratio
in each zone decrease the heat when The general purpose extrusion screw
is the ratio of the channel volume of one
necessary and rapidly cool the barrel normally is barrier-f lighted and square-
screw flight in the feed section to that of
when the extruder is to be shut down. pitched and has four basic sections, as
one screw flight in the metering section.
Water-cooled zones also are used by some shown by Table 6. Good mixing of the
Thus, a typical screw for polyolefin film
manufacturers for faster heat transfer. melted resin is essential for obtaining high
extrusion should have a 24:1 to 30:1 L/D
clarity film with no defects or blemishes.
Thermocouples ratio and a 2.5 to 3.51 compression ratio.
Static mixers can be added before the die
Thermocouples are inserted deep to maximize mixing. Some film defects that Extruder screws can be cored for water
into the barrel wall, and in some can occur include: cooling. Some recent designs do not utilize
cases even into the melt, to monitor this method but most employ various
• Fisheyes – elliptically shaped spots, with
processing temperature. Signals from types of mixing devices. A cool screw
the long axis in the machine direction
the thermocouples activate temperature can improve resin mixing, but usually
controlling mechanisms to regulate the • Oxidized Particles – yellowbrown specks reduces output at a given screw speed.
heater bands and cooling devices. Regular Screw temperature can be automatically
• Gels – round or oblong, symmetrical, maintained between 80° and 180°F (25°
maintenance checks should be made to
clear spots, so hard they can be felt and 80°C) by a temperature controller
detect loose-fitting, broken or damaged
thermocouples or wires. which adjusts the amount of water flowing
• Arrowheads – minute lines meeting at a
through the screw. If a screw overheats, it
rounded angle
loses much of its pumping capacity.
• Applesauce or Melt Fracture – rough,
wavy appearance

• Pinholes – tiny holes

Table 6: Functions of a General Purpose Polyethylene Extrusion Screw

Channel
Section Functions
Depth

Feed Deep, constant Move cool resin forward

Compression/ Compress, melt and mix resin. Also,

Decreasing
Transition force air ack to feed section

Create sufficient back pressure to

Shallow, uniformly melt resin and meter it
Metering
constant through die at a constant feed rate
with minimum surging.

Mix the resin(s). May have more

Courtesy of Brampton Engineering, Inc.
Mixing Varied than one section. Usually located in
the metering section of the screw.
Figure 19: Schematic of film extrusion screw.

14
Mixing Screws Table 7: Functions of the Four Sections of a Polyethylene Extrusion Mixing Screw

For some polyolefins, additional mixing Channel

Section Functions
Depth
is required of the screw (Table 7). Mixing
screws have the same three sections as Feed Deep Cool resin pellets are moved forward into hotter barrel zones.
general purpose screws, but they also have
a fourth mixing section. The mixing section Resin is compressed, melted and mixed. Air carried along slips
Compression Decreasing
back to the feed section.
can have various configurations designed
for dispersive mixing. Another design gives Sufficient back pressure is created to make the melt output
Metering Shallow
the screw two mixing sections: one at the uniform.
end of the metering section and one near
Mixing Final blending of resin before feeding melt into film die system.
the end of the compression section.

Barrier-Type Screws

Also designed for improved mixing, barrier-

type screws generally have feed, barrier
and metering sections with a dispersive
mixing section at the end of the metering
section (Figure 20). There are many barrier
screw designs, but they all have the same
modification: an additional “barrier flight”
in the transitional section of the screw. The
barrier flight has two separate channels:
a solids channel and a melt channel. The
shallower solids channel is located on the Courtesy of Filmaster Inc.
pushing side of the barrier flight and the
deeper melt channel is located on the Figure 20: Section of a barrier screw designed for Figure 21: Breaker plate (left) and screen pack.
trailing edge of the opposite side. improved melting.

The solids channel steadily reduces in

cross-sectional area over the length of the Screen Pack and Breaker Plate are tightly bolted together. This ensures
barrier section, while the melt channel that no melt can leak out. A sturdy ring
After traveling along the length of the
correspondingly increases. The barrier encloses the thick plate that is pierced
screw, the molten resin passes through a
flight has a radial clearance larger than the by a large number of equally spaced
screen pack, the supporting breaker plate
clearance of the main flight. This allows the holes, usually Y, in. (3.2 mm) or greater in
and through the adapter to the die.
melt in the solids channel to flow over the diameter. The extra length of the breaker
barrier flight into the melt channel while The breaker plate (Figure 21) is located plate permits its sealing surfaces to be
the solids are retained, unable to pass over between the end of the barrel and the ground down when necessary without the
the small clearance. This removal of the adapter and usually fits into both. The plate becoming too short.
melt film helps expose more solids to the breaker plate should be long enough for
extruder barrel surface, thus increasing the some clearance to remain between the
rate of melting. flanges of both machine parts when they

15
The functions of a breaker plate are to:

• Support the screen pack

• Reinforce the screen pack’s action

• Develop back pressure

• Straighten out the spiral flow of the melt

caused by the screw

• Serve as a melt seal between the barrel

and the adapter (which a loose breaker
plate cannot do)

• Help align the barrel and adapter.

The screen pack (Figure 22), located in

the breaker plate, consists of a number of
stainless steel screens to filter out foreign
matter that may have contaminated the
resin in the hopper. The screen pack also
can help increase back pressure in the
barrel and increases mixing.

Automatic screen changers Figure 22: Schematic of a screen pack and breaker plate assembly.

Automatic screen changers have either

a continuous screen band or rotary units
that index when exposed sections become
clogged. The indexing occurs without
interrupting the melt flow. Manual
screen changers (Figure 23) are the most
common in the industry. Hydraulic screen
changers are also used, predominately on
larger machines.

Back pressure in the screw metering zone

may be increased by using a screen pack
consisting of many fine screens. Higher
back pressure at a given screw speed
improves film quality, although it may
reduce output. The temperature of the
melt can be raised slightly by using a much
heavier screen pack (more and/or finer
screens) which, by increasing the pressure,
generates additional friction heat. The
use of a heavy screen pack can result in
Courtesy of ADDEX, Inc.
improved film quality. Excessive pressures
(usually, 2000 to 3000 psi above normal
Figure 23: A manual screen changer is the most commonly found type in the industry.
operating pressure) may indicate that
screen packs need to be changed.

16
 Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.

Figure 24: Schematic of a pressure valve.

Pressure Valves areas where some of the melt could be held

back, excessively heated and decomposed
Pressure valves (Figure 24) provide a
chemically. A hinged collar generally serves
method of varying internal pressures. These
to attach the adapter tightly to the barrel.
pressures have a powerful effect on the
Adapter heaters keep the adapter at a
melt temperature. Pressure valves provide
specified temperature.
good control and handle a function that
would otherwise require variations in the Maintaining the temperature of the
die design and/or screen pack arrangement. melt when it leaves the extruder to be
Two types of pressure valves are used: formed into film is very important. Melt
temperatures can be checked by using
1. The internal pressure valve is a movable
a thermocouple that extends through
screw that can be adjusted forward
the adapter or die wall and into the
or backward to increase or decrease
melt stream. Automatic, motor-driven
pressure. Moving the screw varies the size
thermocouple systems move across the melt
of the opening between the end of the
stream and enable the melt temperature
screw and the breaker plate and adapter.
across it to be monitored.
2. External pressure valves make use of
Melt Pumps
some type of pin arrangement that varies
the size of the opening at the extruder’s Melt pumps, also called gear pumps,
adapter, thereby varying pressure. can be attached between the end of the
extruder and the die to greatly increase film
Adapter quality. These units can deliver a stable,
surge-free, controlled volume of melt
The adapter guides the resin melt from the output, thus improving gauge uniformity.
barrel to the die as quickly and uniformly The melt pump also may enable faster
as possible. Uneven flow would mean dead extruder speeds.

17
Film Forming Equipment

Die

The film extrusion die (Figure 25) is

attached to the adapter. A good die design
ensures smooth and complete melt flow,
thus preventing resin degradation from
overheating. The functions of the die are
to:

1. Force the melt into a form approaching

its final shape.

2. Maintain the melt at a constant

temperature.

3. Meter the melt at a constant pressure

and rate to the die land for uniform
film gauge, with allowance for gauge
reduction.

The die consists of a body, mandrel or pin,

heaters and lands. The die lands decrease
the speed of the melt flow and build-up
back pressure in the die and adapter. If
the land length is too short, the melt flow
out of the die may be uneven because
of nonuniform pressure around the
circumference of the die. The die mandrel Courtesy of Brampton Engineering, Inc.
can be adjusted to change the die opening
in order to control gauge uniformity. Most Figure 25: Blown Film Die.
film extrusion dies are divided into heating
zones and die heaters are automatically
controlled.

Transfer Piping/Adapters

The melt coming from the extruder to

a multilayer die passes through piping
(Figure 26) which must be kept as short
in length as possible. However, any
large reduction in its diameter should be
minimized to prevent the piping from
affecting the melt passing through it.

Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.

Figure 26: Film extrusion involves the melt passing through transfer piping. The length of this piping must be
as short as possible.

18
Blown Film Dies Most blown film dies for polyethylenes Rotating Dies
are positioned vertically to push the tube
In blown film extrusion, the melt enters Rotating dies can be used to randomize
upward. However, there are dies which
the round die either through the bottom transverse film gauge variation in the
extrude downward.
or the side (Figure 27). The melt is bubble. The constant turning of these dies
forced through spiral grooves around The gap between the mandrel and the distributes any gauge variations that can be
the surface of a mandrel inside the die die ring ranges from 25 to 120 mil (0.5 caused by uneven bubble cooling or melt
and extruded through the circular die to 3 mm). In some dies, this opening uniformity deficiencies. The randomization
opening in the form of a thick-walled can be changed by moving the mandrel of gauge bands improves the flatness of
tube. Melt distribution can be improved by lengthwise in the die. Most dies require a film rolls.
lengthening and/or increasing the number change in mandrels in order to adjust the
Automatic Gauge Adjustment
of the spiral grooves. die gap opening. This adjustment changes
the extruded tube thickness. A wider ring Automatic gauge adjustment (Figure 28)
The tube, while still in the molten state, is
opening increases output slightly, but due can be used with blown film as another
expanded into a long “bubble” of desired
to uneven flow, it may make gauge and means of attaining uniform film gauge.
diameter and correspondingly decreased
frost line control more difficult. It also tends Temperature and/or velocity changes
thickness. This expansion results from the
to promote film snap-off, particularly when in segments of the air ring change the
volume of air inside the bubble, which
the film is drawn down to a gauge of less temperature of the melt in that area. This
is introduced into the tube through the
than 0.5 mils (13 microns). Blown film dies change leads to a change in the melt’s
center of the mandrel.
can be as large as 80 inches in diameter, drawdown characteristics and changes
Blown film dies have a number of circular producing film with 125 inches or more in the gauge of the film in that area of the
heating zones. Die temperature should be lay flat width. bubble. Other automatic gauging systems
the same as melt temperature. change overall film thickness by varying the
speed of the primary nip rolls.

Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc. Courtesy of W&H Corp.

Figure 27: Schematic of melt entering the die from five extruders in blown film coextrusion. Figure 28: Automatic gauge adjustment can involve
air jets around the die which selectively cool
segments of the die lip.

19
Coextrusion Blown Film Dies

There are many blown film coextrusion

dies (Figures 29, 30, 31) on the market.
They differ primarily in:

• The way they feed the various melt

streams into the die

• How the melt layers are combined

within the die

• The melt path lengths This last

consideration has led to the development
of a new family of dies called “pancake”
dies.

These dies have much shorter melt paths

than traditional dies. The short melt path
allows shorter transition times between
resin changes. With some dies, fouled
die layers can be replaced without
disassembling and cleaning the entire die.
Figure 29: Schematic of a typical seven-layer blown film die assembly.
Both stationary and rotating/ oscillating
die designs are available. However, only
stationary designs are recommended with
barrier resins such as EVOH and PVDC.
Rotating haul-offs are recommended for
use with these materials.

Cast Film Dies

The most common cast film dies are the

“keyhole” and “coat hanger” designs.
In a keyhole die, the crossection of the
manifold is constant. In a coat hanger
die, this crossection decreases across the
manifold from the center of the die to the
outer edges (Figure 32). The coat hanger Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc. Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
die’s manifold distributes the incoming
melt across a steadily widening flow; then Figure 30: Schematic of a blown film coextrusion die Figure 31: The compact design in this blown film
the die land forms the melt into its final design with multiple mandrels. system allows four coextruders to be packed into
thickness before the melt exits the die. a tight space, shortening the travel distance of
the melt.
Cast film dies can vary in size from a few
inches to 180 inches in width. The larger
the die, the more important film gauge
control becomes.

The die gap is the opening or distance

between die lands. For film with a gauge
of 1-3 mils (25-75 microns), the typical
die gap is 20 mils (0.5mm). Usually, one
of the die lands is adjustable to assist
in controlling film gauge. Automatic
gauge controlling systems, which work
mechanically or thermally, are also
available.

20
The output of film per inch of die width
and the temperature of the die are
usually higher in cast film extrusion than
in the blown film process. Cast film die
temperatures range from 450 to 550°F
(230 to 290°C). Narrow multiple heating
zones, controlled to ± 1° are used to
maintain die temperature uniformity —
another important factor in gauge control.

Coextrusion Cast Film Dies Coextrusion

Feedblock

The coextrusion feedblock takes the

output from the extruders of a multilayer Figure 32: Schematic cross section on a “coat hanger”– type cast film die.
cast film line and layers the materials in
the order and ratio in which they are
present in the final film. This layered
array is fed to the inlet of a coat hanger
or keyhole cast film die through a short
adapter/transfer pipe. This piping should
be as short in length as possible and of the
same crossectional area as the feedblock
output so that the distribution of the
multiple layers is not changed.

Coextrusion Cast Film Dies

Early coextrusion dies were multimanifold/

multi-mandrel dies. These dies are no
longer produced because of their high
cost and weight. Current coextrusion cast
film dies use feedblocks to layer the resins
and feed the layered melt stream to the
inlet of a cast coat hanger or a keyhole die
(Figures 32 and 33).

In the die the layers are spread out to the

full width of the cast film die. The polymer
rheology of the various layers must be
carefully matched so the layers spread
uniformly throughout the width of the die
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
and produce film with a uniform gauge in
each layer.
Figure 33: Cast film die and chill roll unit

21
Cooling Systems

Blown Film Cooling from the die. Dual-lipped air rings have
helped improve film quality, clarity and
As the bubble of molten polyolefin film
output, particularly with thin gauge films.
moves away from the die, it is cooled by
ambient or chilled air. The point at which Air passing through the air ring must be
the bubble reaches its final size is called clean. Filters on the inlet of the system
the “frost line.” Above this point the film must be cleaned or replaced frequently
is solid and has a hazier appearance than to keep the system trouble-free. A fouled
below. cooling system produces poor quality film.

The bubble can be cooled in several ways: Internal Bubble Cooling

• By air from a single- or duallipped air ring Internal bubble cooling systems are used
to supplement external air rings and
• By adding air from single- or dual-lipped
increase the output of blown film lines.
air rings inside the bubble to air from
The evolution of internal cooling systems
similar rings outside the bubble
is similar to that of external air rings. Three
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
• By water sprayed on the outside of a basic types exist (Figure 36):
bubble that is extruded either downward Figure 35: Dual-lip air rings blow air against the 1. A stacked air ring like the external air
or upward. This method is most often base of the bubble as well as slightly higher up.
rings
used with PP homopolymer.
2. A single-lipped air ring
External Air Rings The inside diameter of the air ring is about
½ inch greater than the die diameter. 3. A screen-type air ring that applies a large
External air rings were the original
The air ring sits just above the die face. volume of air over a broad surface of the
method used to cool the blown film
Insulation may be placed between it and bubble.
bubble (Figure 34). These rings are still
the die face.
the most common method used. A
welldesigned air ring delivers a large Dual-lipped air rings evolved from single
volume of chilled air at a uniform units (Figure 35). The dual-lipped air rings
velocity to all parts of the blown tube cool both the upper portion of the bubble
simultaneously. as well as the part of the bubble exiting

Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc. Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.

Figure 34: An air ring around the exiting polyolefin tube just above the die is the Figure 36: Internal bubble cooling (IBC) systems direct the air flow onto the in-
most common means of solidifying and cooling the bubble. side surface of the bubble. There are three basic types: (1) a stacked air ring with
multiple annular gaps at different levels; (2) a single-lip ring; and (3) a screen-
type air ring that applies a large volume or air through a large open area.

22
Bubble Stabilizer Chill rolls have replaceable outer shells
and inner bodies with spiral grooves for
Bubble enclosures, guides, irises and
precise movement of the cooling water
stabilizing cages are used to control the
that flows through them. Periodically the
bubble and minimize wrinkles and gauge
rolls must be reconditioned; new, flat,
variation (Figure 37).
highly polished surfaces applied; and the
inner channels cleaned of any buildup.
Cast Film Cooling
Generally, in chill roll or cast film
In cast film extrusion, the web of hot, operations, the film is cooled while being
viscous melt drops from the die onto a taken up by two or more water-cooled
water-cooled chill roll, contacting it in a chill rolls. The use of more than one chill
straight, level line above the frost line. roll has advantages in setting and cooling
Courtesy of W & H Corp.
The molten web is pinned against the the film. The first roll, with a cooling water
chromeplated, water-cooled roll by an air temperature between 100° and 150°F
Figure 37: Bubble enclosures reduce the effects of
knife and/or vacuum box. This primary (40° and 65°C), takes much of the heat drafts on the extruded film tube.
chill roll may have a texture or pattern on out of the film. This temperature can be
it to impart a matte or embossed surface adjusted by the amount, as well as the
to the film passing over it. temperature, of the cooling water. The
most favorable roll temperature for a
The distance between the die and the roll
given resin should be
is very small in order to minimize “neck
down” of the film. As the film “necks established, and water temperature
down,” its width decreases from that across the casting roll should be closely
of the die. The alignment of the water- controlled to no more than ± 3°F (2°C).
cooled roll, in relation to the falling melt,
also is very important. Whenever wrinkling The heat removal by the second and any
of the film, especially of thin gauge film, additional rolls depends upon takeoff
occurs on the cast (or chill) roll surface, speed, stock temperature and the
the position of the die or the roll must be temperature of the first roll. The cooling
carefully adjusted. water temperature of these rolls should
be adjusted so that the film temperature
is gradually reduced to that desired for
windup.

23
Takeoff and Windup Equipment

Blown Film Tower

The takeoff system for blown film extrusion

is much more elaborate than that used
with cast film. The blown film bubble rising
up from the die is pulled into a complex
takeoff system (Figure 38), generally
referred to as a multidecked tower.
Commercial blown film towers consist of
one or more decks.

The decks provide easy access to different

stages of the blown film process, e.g., deck
1 is at the cooling device, deck 2 at the
collapsing frame, and deck 3 at the nip roll
and film pull-off assembly. From the top of
the tower, the collapsed film bubble passes
through a corona treatment device and
down through a series of guide rolls to a
windup unit.

Guide Bars

The bubble should not vibrate from

unequal air distribution or too high an air Figure 38: The blown film bubble rising up from the die is pulled into a complex takeoff system designed to
velocity. On its path between the die and yield a roll of film of high quality and uniformity.

the nip rolls, the bubble can be supported

and prevented from swaying by means of Nip Rolls Gauge Measurement
one or more pairs of guide bars, generally
set parallel or at right angles to each other At the top of the “tent,” there are several Film thickness can be measured
and/or a bubble stabilizing cage. nip rolls set at fixed, narrow distances from mechanically with snap gauges as the
one another. The nip rolls collapse the film reaches the bottom of the tower or
Collapsing Frames bubble, confine the air within the bubble automatically with non-contact thickness
and assist in pulling the film web upward. measuring systems located at the top
At its upper end, the cylindrical bubble is
One of the nip rolls normally is a water- of the tower. Online gauging systems
gradually flattened and guided to a nip
cooled (or occasionally, refrigerated-air typically use a sensor (infrared reflectance,
roll assembly by a series of guide rolls or a
cooled), driven plated steel roll, and the capacitance or nuclear) to measure the
forming tent. Collapsing angles should be
other is elastomer-covered. transdirectional (TD) gauge. To get an
kept to less than 11°. Collapsing frames
average gauge, multiple sensors combine
generally are made of wood slats, metal Width Measurement
simultaneous measurements. The average
rolls or coated hollow metal beams. The
A non-contact width measuring unit, gauge can be used by closed-loop systems
frame can be raised or lowered to meet
which usually involves an optical sensor, is to adjust haul-off or screw speed to
specific film processing requirements. Air-
located after the nip rolls. This device aligns compensate for machine direction (IVID)
actuated collapsing frames provide a layer
the film by adjusting the nip rolls or by gauge irregularities.
of air between the frame and the bubble to
reduce distortion and wrinkles in the film. controlling the film blow-up ratio by adding
or releasing air.

24
Oscillating Haul-Off Units Film Winders

On top of the tower, some lines have Film is tightly wound generally onto a
oscillating (360° or 720°) haul-off units cardboard or metal tube called a core.
(Figure 39). An oscillating haul-off unit is The core is turned by a winder. Once a film
an excellent way to distribute all film gauge roll is full, windup is switched to an empty
variance in the final roll and eliminate the core via a system of multiple stations. There
need for rotating dies. are numerous types and designs of film
winders, characterized by:
Surface Treaters
1. Take-up roll drives, including surface,
If polyolefin film is to be printed, it has to
center or center/surface assist
be treated with a corona discharge. For in-
line surface treatment, the polyolefin film 2. Film roll changing, including manual, Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.
can pass through or across a treating unit semi-automatic or fully automatic
in order to oxidize the film surface. Any Figure 39: Oscillating (360° or 720°) haul-off units
3. Roll stand configuration, including further minimize film gauge variations in the
static charge on the film must be drawn off
stacked, face-to-face or back-to-back. final roll.
by a static eliminator.
Surface Winders
Guide Rolls
Surface winders (Figure 41), often used
From the haul-off unit on top of the tower,
when the diameter of the film roll exceeds
the film web is fed down through a series
40 inches, utilize a driven drum that fits
of guide rolls. These rolls can have non-slip
flush against the face of the film roll.
coverings to improve web tracking and
While several configurations are available,
improve release of tacky film surfaces.
all surface winders’ operating principles
Feed Roll Assembly are the same: the rotating drum forces
the film roll to turn and thus, wind up the
As the collapsed film web comes down
film web. The film roll is held against the
from the top of the tower, it passes
rotating drum by gravity or pneumatically.
through a series of idler/guide rolls and, Courtesy of Futec International Corp.
The film’s uniform contact on the drum is
finally, near the bottom of its descent,
maintained by a web tensioning device.
through a dancer roll assembly. The latter
Not all polyolefin films lend themselves to
feeds the film web to a windup unit under Figure 40: Optical inspection systems, located
surface winding, however.
constant, controlled tension. A load cell or above the frost line of the bubble, check for film
imperfections during extrusion.
strain gauge roll can be used in place of the
dancer roll assembly.

Optical Inspection Systems

These units, located beyond the frost line

of the bubble, can spot imperfections
including gels, pinholes, fisheyes, flecks and
other impurities (Figure 40). The inspection
systems use cameras or lasers and can
be adapted to mark the web where
imperfections are detected.

Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co. Inc.

Figure 41: Surface winders have a rotating drum

that forces the film roll to turn and, thus, wind
up the film web.

25
Center Winders

With center winders, torque is applied

directly to the roll shaft. To form film rolls
on cores under constant tension, a center
winder must slow down at a rate inversely
proportional to the film roll’s constantly
increasing diameter. The cores onto which
the film winds are held by chucks inserted
in both ends.

Center winders do not rely on the layon

rolls to force air out from under the
web or to ensure optimum flat contact.
Some center winders run shaftless (film is
wound directly on the core) although most
commercial film lines will include air shafts
to inflate rubber bladders in expandable
metal shafts that fit inside the cardboard
cores. These air-supported shafts permit
different core diameters to be used and
enables the core to resist the pressure Courtesy of Filmaster Inc.
of the film winding. The latter benefit is
particularly important when separate film Figure 42: Turet winders are designed to rotate a full film roll out of contact with the lay-on roll and index a
widths are wound on a common core, i.e., new core into the winding position.
there is no overlapping. A lay-on roll often
is part of an assembly that also includes When the diameter of the final film roll is the winding position. These winders have
a pneumatically actuated slitting knife for greater than six times the diameter of the a magazine or turret with as many as 10
cutting the web into two or more narrower core (called the build-up ratio), it generally cores and six spindles. There are both
webs. A bowed or spreader roll also may is recommended to gradually reduce web single and dual turret winders (two units
be part of the assembly to slightly separate tension or to use taper tensioning. This on a common base). With automatic turret
the several slit webs. can be done by controlling the dancer winders, spindles are separately motor
Surface/Center Assist Winders roll assembly or the strain gauge roll. For driven in order to match required speed for
extensible or soft polyolefin films, taper automatic cut-off of the film.
Surface/center assist winders have center tensioning eliminates roll defects such as
drives added to the shaft of a surface Web Slitters
crowning and\or wrinkling.
winder. This type of winder separates When a film roll reaches its preset size a
winding tension from web positioning Automatic Roll Changers
slitter cuts the web. High-speed, in-line
requirements and roll hardness. Automatic roll changers deflate air shafts, slitters use either a razor blade or a rotating
Gap Winding remove the full roll, place the roll on a cart cutting knife. After being cut, the film web
or the floor, install empty cores into the is fed onto a new core.
A modification of the center winding ready position and inflate the shafts, all
technique is gap or proximity winding. Edge Cuffing System
automatically. They are particularly useful
A gap of about ¼ inch is maintained for stretch-film winding and other high- With cast film extrusion, the web coming
between the surface roll and the film roll speed applications that require relatively off the guide roll assembly following the
and there is a tension controlled drive for small roll diameters. cooling rolls has thick edges. Trimming
each roll. The film roll is gradually moved knives cut off the edges and the trim scrap
away as film builds up on it. Gap winding, Turret Winders
is automatically wound onto trim rolls or
with its air layer between film layers, is Turret winders (Figure 42) are designed to collected by a trim removal system.
particularly effective for tacky polyolefin rotate a full film roll out of contact with
films, e.g., stretch wrap. Taper Tensioning the lay-on roll and index a new core into

26
 Courtesy of HydReclaimCorp.

Figure 43: Edge trim, start-up waste, trim made during slitting, etc. can be recycled in-line, an important capability for source reduction programs.

Recycling System Controls

Edge trim, start-up waste, trim generated A film extrusion system includes a large
during slitting, etc., can be recycled number of elements that can affect film
inline, an important capability for source production and quality. However, today’s
reduction programs (Figure 43). The sophisticated microprocessors handle
scrap and waste are automatically fed to the complex problem of controlling the
granulator/pelletizing units. The product of many variables simultaneously (Figure 44).
these units can be mixed with virgin resin in These closed loop systems can constantly
the extruder hopper in preset proportions. monitor resin feeding, temperatures,
pressures, screw speed, line speed, film
gauge, output, etc., and make adjustments
when values drift outside preset limits.
Courtesy of Battenfeld Gloucester Engineering Co., Inc..
Monitors display operating conditions
and management information systems
Figure 44: Microprocessor controls handle many
generate shift reports, monthly reports, job film processing variables simultaneously.
summaries and other data.

27
Operation of a Blown Film Line

Start-Up of a Blown Film Line • Emergency shutdown procedures 1. Prior to start-up, check to see that
all safety devices are in place and
Quality film production starts before the • Lock-out procedures
operational. Walk around the machine to
extruder is turned on. The first step is a
• Line breaking procedures be certain that there are no obstructions
thorough examination of all components
to the machine’s movement and that
of the extrusion line. Starting at the hopper • Lifting procedures nobody is working too closely to the line.
and proceeding all the way to the take-up
unit, make sure that all the components are • Use of knives for cutting film 2. The first step in starting up a blown
clean. In particular, the die must be clean webs film line is to heat the equipment. It
and free from nicks, scratches or other is advisable to turn on the die heaters
• General housekeeping
deformities. first and allow them to heat 30 to 60
• Adequate clearances and minutes before turning on the barrel
The die must be levelled in all directions
accessability heaters. During the warm-up period, a
after the adapter has been tightly bolted to
temperature setting of 300°F/ 150°C is
the extruder barrel head. The nip rolls also • Ventilation
adequate for most polyolefin resins and
must be level. The die must be plumbed
Prior to starting up the extruder, be sure to minimizes degradation of the stagnant
from the center of the nip rolls for vertical
have the following items available: polymer.
centering.
• Safety glasses for all those assisting in Once both the die and barrel heating
Accident Prevention the start-up Loose fitting, heavy duty zones have reached 300°F, set the
work gloves required processing temperatures for
The conditions at each film extrusion each of the heating zones. It is desirable
plant are unique to that shop. Therefore, • A large metal container for collecting to let the machine continue to “soak”
each processor must be aware of the melt produced during the start-up an additional 30 to 60 minutes to
properties of polyolefin resins as detailed procedure equilibrate in temperature.
in the Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
• Soft metal tools for use in removing any 3. Determine whether the desired purge
available from resin suppliers and the
hardened plastic from the die area compound or resin is in the feed hopper.
potential mechanical hazards posed by the
equipment being used to extrude and wind If necessary, empty the hopper and
• A sharp knife for use in cutting film on
up the film. A comprehensive accident remove, clean and replace the hopper
the windup rolls
prevention program developed for a film magnets. Refill the hopper with the
extrusion shop should include, but not be • Check emergency stops and appropriate resin. This is also a good
limited to the following considerations: instrumentation time to locate insulated gloves for
handling hot polymer and cleaning tools,
• Combustibility of polyolefin resins Many different extruders are used to
such as brass putty knives, brass shim
produce film from polyolefins. Therefore,
stock, copper gauze and silicon grease.
• Decomposition products the following procedures for start-up and
shutdown are provided only as a general 4. Thread film through the winder, tower
• Personal protection equipment, including
guide. The operating manual for the idler rolls and nip rolls according to the
eye and face protection, respiratory
specific extruder being used should be manufacturer’s recommendations. Bring
protection and protective clothing
closely followed. a sturdy film tail back through the system
to nearly reach the floor in the die area.

28
5. Check to make sure the extruder screw and press the film tail into the molten monitoring adapter and die pressures
speed pot is completely down to zero. bubble, avoiding any excessively thick carefully to keep them comfortably
Start the extruder screw drive motor accumulation of polymer. below any automatic shutdown set-
and increase its speed to the minimum, points (usually around 6,000 psi, but
Start the upper nip rolls at a slow
carefully monitoring melt pressure on the can be any point below 10,000 psi).
to moderate speed (20-30 fpm).
adapter and die gauges. If the pressure If pressures are too high, you can
Be prepared to open the top nips
surges rapidly, turn off the extruder reduce them by lowering the RPM of
momentarily to pull the thick junction of
drive and allow the machine to soak an the extruder screw, but this action also
the film tail with the new resin bubble
additional 15 to 30 minutes. Then repeat necessitates decreasing line speed in
through the nips.
this step from the beginning. The screw order to maintain the gauge of the film.
should turn freely, without squeaks, 8. Adjust the input rate of bubble inflation
3. It may be difficult to lower the melt
grumbling or pressure surges. If all is air, as well as nip speed and extruder
temperature if high levels of output
well, increase screw speed to a rate so a speed to maintain a uniform bubble of
are maintained, because of shear heat
one to two inch “doughnut” drools onto about two mils in thickness while you
generated by the screw. Again, reducing
the die surface each minute. Turn on the continue the purge procedure. Once the
the RPM of the screw enables the
air ring blower so that it produces a light bubble is formed completely from the
temperature of the melt to go down
flow of air through the air ring, enough new resin and there is no evidence of
faster.
to keep the polymer from plugging the gels or the previous resin, adjust output,
air flow channels. Monitor the process line speed and blow-up ratio (BUR) to the 4. Once the temperatures are down to
and frequently remove the polymer required levels. 300°F, replace the run resin with a
doughnuts from the die, placing them in well-stabilized purge compound and
a nonflammable container or water bath 9. Check the film’s gauge around the
slow the extruder to a moderate output
to cool. bubble to ensure uniformity and
until the purge has fully replaced the
adjust the die as needed according to
run resin in the melt exiting the die. At
6. Continue the above purge procedure manufacturer’s instructions. Once the
this point, you should stop the extruder,
until the material coming out of the die film line has equilibrated at the desired
remove any die build-up, re-coat the die
appears to be 100% of the desired resin. conditions, measure output and record
surface with silicon grease and restart
Turn the screw off and quickly remove resin type, lot number and run conditions
the extruder slowly to build a small bead
any polymer that has accumulated on in appropriate logs.
of material, filling the die gap. Leave
the die face. Clean the die gap with an
this plug in the die gap to minimize
appropriately sized, brass shim stock
Shutdown Procedure for Blown Film oxidation during the remainder of the
blade. Coat the top die surface with a
Extruders cooling process. You may wish to shut
thin layer of silicon grease to prevent
down using the run resin, if you intend
die build-up. Make sure that no grease Cool shutdowns are essential for producing
to continue to use that product on the
gets on the air ring or in the air flow high quality film with minimum clean-up
next start-up. Discuss this practice with
channels. and purging.
your LyondellBasell sales representative
7. Set the extruder screw speed control 1. When possible, plan ahead for a or technical service engineer. Color and
pot to maintain a moderate output (50 shutdown and reduce the die block and additive concentrates should in many
pph on an 8” die; 150 pph on a 16” die, die zone temperatures to 300°F about an cases be removed from the blend before
etc.). Turn on blower air to a moderate hour before you plan to cool down the shutdown.
flow. Lift the doughnut slowly from the extruder.
5. Cooling can be accelerated if needed by
die and collect molten polymer to form
2. About 30 minutes before you shut directing a floor fan on the die, turning
a bubble. Quickly remove the heavy
down, you can reduce the extruder on barrel cooling fans and by leaving the
doughnut from the top of the bubble
barrel temperature to 300°F. You should air ring blower at a moderate speed.
and place it in the cooling container.
continue to run the extruder, while
Continue to lift the bubble slowly

29
Cleaning The Extruder and Its Parts

As has been emphasized several times in the preceding section on extruder startup
procedures, cleanliness is extremely important to producing quality polyolefin film.

Over long periods of continuous operation, How To Clean The Extruder To clean the barrel, run a brass brush at the
a layer of oxidized polymer slowly builds up end of a long handle through the barrel
The following disassembly steps are
on a polyolefin film extruder, particularly to remove any resin build up. Use a similar
recommended prior to cleaning the
on the inside barrel walls and the screw. tool for lubrication with silicone grease.
extruder:
Eventually, this degraded resin will begin
To clean the adapter, also use copper or
to flake off. This, in turn, will result in 1. Let the extruder run with resin, without
brass tools. Then lubricate with silicone
film defects such as gels or yellow-brown further feeding, until the screw can be
grease. Clean the collar. Clean and
oxidized particles. Such defects cause seen when the hopper is uncovered. Do
lubricate the seat of the adapter. The face
the film to have a poor appearance and, not let the screw run “dry.”
of both the adapter and the barrel will
especially in very thin film, can actually
2. Turn off all electricity and water. be clean and need no further treatment
cause holes or tearoff of the film as it
if they were fitted accurately during the
comes out of the extrusion die.
3. For a blown film line, remove the air previous run.
The inside surface of the die and especially ring while the machine is still hot; for
a cast film line, push away the windup To clean the breaker plate, burn away any
the lands must be kept well polished. The
equipment and remove anything else in oxidized polymer clinging to, and possibly
slightest surface irregularities will result in
line with the screw while the machine is clogging it. This can be done using a
gauge variations and die lines (lengthwise
still hot. propane torch. First clean one side and
parallel grooves). Occasionally, die lines
then the other. To prevent molten resin
may be caused by decomposed resin
4. Disconnect electrical and water lines. from dripping into the torch, hold it so
caught inside the die, sometimes because
that the flame hits the plate horizontally.
the inside of the die surface is poorly 5. Remove the die. If it is a blown film die,
Specially designed cleaning ovens also may
designed. If their size indicates that these loosen the hinged collar first. To remove
be used for breaker plates or small parts.
die lines are caused by small pieces of a die, use heavy-duty carrying equipment
decomposed resin, a brass shim should be (overhead crane or forklift truck). To clean the blown film die, first pull out
run through the die opening to remove the mandrel, or die pin. Manually remove
6. Remove the barrel cover and the adapter
the particles. If bigger pieces appear to most of the resin build-up. Silicone grease
from the barrel.
be the cause, the die must be cleaned. and a brass or wooden “knife” will help
A definite periodic cleaning schedule 7. Remove the breaker plate with the in removing stubborn resin. Next, use a
should be established. The time interval screens from the adapter. brass- or copper-wool cloth or brush to
between thorough cleanings can best be finish the cleaning. Finally, use silicone
determined by experience. If the extruder 8. Push the screw forward with a rod from
grease for lubrication.
is continuously in use over long periods, the back end of the barrel and remove it.
cleaning may be needed every two months, Now, you have access to all the extruder To clean the cast film die, first disassemble
although this can be extended by using parts to be cleaned or exchanged. it as much as possible. Use only copper
purge compounds and careful startup and or brass tools for cleaning all the parts.
To clean the screw, first use a copperor
shutdown procedures. Scrape the manifold, the lands and the
brass-bladed knife (putty knife) to remove
fixed and adjustable jaws free of the bulk
most of the molten resin adhering to the
of resin build-up with a brass or wooden
screw. Do not use a steel blade. Next, clean
“knife.” Then finish the cleaning job with
the screw with copper or brass wool. Use a
a copper-wool cloth or brush. Polish the
silicone grease spray to help remove tightly
curved surfaces of the manifold with a very
adhering resin. Finally, coat the screw with
fine grit polishing cloth, and hone its flat
a thin layer of silicone grease.
surface to remove any mars or scratches.
30
Optimizing The Film Extrusion Process

Cast or Flat Film Forming chill roll. When there is much neck-in, rise in one zone may indicate a defective
“beading” takes place. This is a thickening heater. A rise may point to a hot spot
The following are some suggestions on
at both edges of the film. When film with caused by a damaged screw rubbing on the
processing conditions that may improve
beading is wound up, the roll will sag in the barrel lining. Regular checks for burned-out
cast film properties:
middle, making it difficult to use later for or loose heaters is essential to good film
Temperatures packaging or bag making. In these cases, production.
the film must be trimmed at both edges.
Barrel temperatures in cast or flat film In blown film making, the pressure gauges
extrusion are generally higher than for The smaller the distance between the die should indicate pressures in the 1,000 to
tubular (blown) film extrusion: between and the chill roll and the narrower the die 5,000 psi (70 to 350 kg/cm²) range. In cast
280° and 375°F (140° and 190°C) just in opening, the less the neck-in with cast film film making, the pressures should be 1,000
front of the hopper to about 555°F (290°C) making. Neck-in will not occur in blown to 2,500 psi (70 to 175 kg/ cm²).
at the die lands (melt temperature). It film making since the bubble has no edges
For best film properties, use the highest
is important to keep melt temperatures which may shrink.
extrusion temperature which still permits
uniform across the die width. Each heating
Another cast film defect related to cooling adequate film cooling and good windup,
zone should not vary by more than 2°F
is “puckering,” a slight bulging across as well as the maintenance of a uniform
(11°C).
the film recurring at regular intervals. bubble or flat film web.
Screw speed Puckering can be reduced by increasing the
Screw Speed
temperature of the first chill roll.
In flat film extrusion, screw speed controls
While the extruder is running, the hopper
output more than any other machine Cooling
should be kept well filled with resin. Screw
factor. For efficient flat film machine
In flat film casting, the film frost line speed, measured in revolutions per minute
operation and comparatively high output
appears on the first chill roll. It should (rpm), varies greatly depending upon the
from a given machine, the screw should
appear as a level, straight line. An uneven type of polyolefin being extruded and
be run as fast as possible without pressure,
frost line indicates non-uniform cooling or whether blown or flat film is being made.
temperature or gauge fluctuations, or any
uneven film gauge on the chill roll. This can
specks or “applesauce” appearing in the Generally, the higher the screw speed,
cause the film to warp and wrinkle on the
film. If output is unsatisfactory under these the higher the output and the higher the
windup roll. Most often, the cause of an
conditions, an improved screw design may amount of internal heat created. More
uneven frost line is an improper adjustment
be needed. internal heat means that less external
of the die opening. This may also cause
heating is needed. Very high screw
Gauge Control variations in film thickness.
speeds can result in extreme temperature
There is no close relationship between fluctuations and “applesauce,” even with
Tubular Film Forming
die opening and film gauge in flat film a heavy screen pack and a long screw.
forming. Higher gauges generally require The following are some suggestions on Temperature and pressure fluctuations
large openings. For 1 to 3 mil (25 to 75 processing conditions that may improve usually are the first indication that screw
micron) film, the die opening is normally tubular film properties: speed is too high or design of the screw is
around 20 mils (0.5mm). not appropriate.
Temperatures
Width
Barrel temperatures in blown film extrusion
When the hot film is drawn down onto are generally low, between 280° and
the cooled first chill roll, it may “neck- 375°F (140° and 190°C) just in front of the
in” (shrink) at the edges. Neck-in is the hopper to about 430°F (220°C) near the
difference between the hot melt width screen pack. Temperature control of each
at the die lips and the film width on the heating zone is very important. A drop or

31
Blow-Up Ratio uneven frost line also may be caused by
non-uniform cooling around the air ring.
Bubble diameter is almost always greater
than the die diameter. The former divided Raising the frost line gives the film more
by the latter is called the blow-up ratio time to solidity. This results in a smoother
(BUR). The bubble diameter must not be surface and thus, higher clarity and gloss.
confused with the width of the flattened The frost line height is also essential in
double layer of film between the nip rolls controlling some physical properties of the
or on the windup roll. The width of this film, such as tear strength, tensile strength
double film layer is 1.57 times the bubble and impact strength.
diameter. The formulas,
However, too high a frost line may cause
Film lay flat width = the film to block (stick) when rolled
1.57 x die diameter x BUR up, to stick to the nip rolls and to lead
to problems in film gauge control. The
BUR = 0.637 x (blown film
latter two are minimized somewhat it
width/die diameter)
refrigerated air is used to cool the nip rolls
can be used to figure the width of the lay and it these rolls are located high above the
flat film on the windup roll or the BUR, if extruder.
either of them and the die diameter are
Thus, the height of the frost line above the
known. A larger BUR over a given die will
die in blown film extrusion is particularly
result in thinner gauge film and greater film
important. Increasing with the tube
width at constant output (screw rpm) and
diameter, it may vary between 4 and 24
take off.
inches (10 and 61 cm) above the die face
Cooling for tubing up to 3 feet (91 cm) in diameter.
The recommended range is 8 to 19 inches
Generally, it is quite easy to see on a blown (20 to 48 cm) above the die.
film bubble where the melt coming out
of the die changes from a viscous fluid to The height of the frost line changes as
solid form. The area of change is called the extruder output, take off speed, in chill roll
“frost line” because here the cooling film casting or the volume of cooling air blown
first appears “frosty.” With some types of against the bubble changes. When the
polyolefins however, the frost line may not screw speed goes up, the distance between
be visible. the die and the frost line is increased.
When more cooling air is blown against the
For practical purposes, the frost line in bubble, the frost line drops.
blown film can be defined as that line
around the film where the final tube However, if the frost line height needs to
diameter is reached. If visible, the frost line be adjusted purposefully to change the
should be a level, ring-shaped zone around properties mentioned earlier, alter the
the bubble. cooling air volume. Controlling the quantity
and direction of this air is important
The primary cause for a non-uniform frost because both are essential in film gauge
line can be improper adjustment of the control. Non-uniform gauge is often caused
die opening. This may cause variations in by an uneven flow of cooling air from the
film thickness and, thereby, nonuniform air ring around the blown tube.
film cooling and an uneven frost line. An

32
Process Variables Controlling Property
Improvement

Barrier Poor bubble stability, film wrinkling and Strength

take off problems are early indicators of
Thickness uniformity is the most important As with stiffness, the most important factor
uneven gauge. With thin films, uneven
processing factor affecting barrier controlling strength is the choice of resin.
gauge results in tears and snap-offs.
properties. With very thin film, blemishes BUR has only minimal effect of a film’s
Gusseting also is harder to control when
and imperfections (fisheyes, etc.) will strength. Strength can also be improved by
gauge variations are excessive.
reduce barrier properties. Further, some using less regrind in the resin stream.
additives and colorants also can reduce a Non-uniform melt temperature may result
film’s abilty to provide a barrier to moisture, in non-uniform film gauge and other Toughness
etc. defects. Overheated melt may come out of
the die too fluid and the resultant film may Film toughness generally is best with resins
be difficult to cool and wind up. that are more difficult to process, i.e., the
Clarity
low MI, high molecular weight grades.
Film clarity improves with increasing Poor mixing may also result in nonuniform Balancing orientation (MD vs. TD) is very
processing temperatures and faster film film thickness. Film of nonuniform gauge, important to film toughness: too much
cooling. However, if air velocity is too high, in turn, results in unevenly wound film orientation in one direction can result in
the bubble may chatter and clarity will rolls, as well as in weak sections wherever splitting under stress.
be affected. Antiblocking agents also can the film is thinner than specified. Film
reduce film clarity. thicker than specified is, of course, a
Slip
waste of resin. It is, therefore, essential to
periodically measure the gauge on a cut Film surface and additive packages are the
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance
piece of film or install a built-in electronic keys to slip performance. Higher gloss film
Other than minimizing the heat history gauge-measuring and recording device. also has a higher coefficient of friction.
of the resin i.e., reducing the amount of Therefore, lower stock temperatures may
regrind mixed with virgin resin, there is little Gloss give the film better slip properties, as will
that can be done via processing variables lowering the frost line.
to improve ESCR. Resin choice is the most Film gloss improves with increasing
important factor. operating temperatures and a rise in the
Shrink Wrap and Stretch Wrap
frost line. As with clarity, antiblocking
agents can reduce film gloss. For two-directional shrink wrap, the most
Gauge Uniformity
important process variable is a balanced
The problem of poor gauge uniformity in Heat Sealability BUR. Minimizing film imperfections is the
blown film is quite common. If variation most important processing factor affecting
in gauge around the circumference of Operating the film line at too high a stretch wrap: “gels don’t stretch.” LLDPE
extruded film is less than ±10%, there temperature can result in oxidation which resins are the main grades used for stretch
is no problem. If it exceeds this level, will reduce film heat sealability as will wrap. For stretch wrapping of pallets,
corrective steps should be taken because some additives, such as antistat, slip and coextruded films can be produced that will
film of uniform gauge looks better and has dispersion agents. have high cling on the surface in contact
generally superior physical properties. with the product packaged and an outer
Stiffness surface with high slip (low coefficient of
Heavier gauge areas on one side of a film
friction). Tackifiers may also be added to
appear as humps on a roll that not only Blown film is stiffer than cast film for any
increase cling.
impair film appearance, but may actually given resin. The main factor affecting
stretch it in the area of the hump. Film thus stiffness, however, is the resin choice:
“deformed” may be difficult to handle on higher density resins yield stiffer films. BUR
packaging equipment and to heat seal. has only minimal effect of a film’s stiffness.

33
Appendix 1:
Metric Conversion Guide

To Convert From To Multiply By

Area
square inches square meters 645.16
square millimeters square inches 0.0016
square inches square centimeters 6.4516
square centimeters square inches 0.155
square feet square meters 0.0929
square meters square feet 10.7639

Density
pounds/cubic inch grams/cubic centimeter 7.68
grams/cubic centimeter pounds/cubic inch 0.000036
pounds/cubic foot grams/cubic centimeter 0.016
grams/cubic centimeter pounds/cubic foot 62.43

Energy
foot-pounds Joules 1.3558
Joules foot-pounds 0.7376
inch-pound Joules 0.113
Joules inch-pounds 8.85
foot-pounds/inch Joules/meter 53.4
Joules/meter foot-pounds/inch 0.0187
foot-pounds/inch Joules/centimeter 0.534
Joules/centimeter foot-pounds/inch 1.87
foot-pounds/square inch kilo Joules/square meter 2.103
Joules/square meter foot-pounds/square inch 0.4755

Length
mil millimeter 0.0254
millimeter mil 39.37
inch millimeter 25.4
millimeter mil 0.0394

Output
pounds/minute grams/second 7.56
grams/second pounds/minute 0.1323
pounds/hour kilograms/hour 0.4536
kilograms/hour pounds/hour 2.2046

Power
kilowatts horsepower(metric) 1.3596
horsepower kilowatts 0.7376
voltage/mil millivolts/meter 0.0394
millivolts/meter voltage/mil 25.4

34
Appendix 1: (Continued)
Metric Conversion Guide

To Convert From To Multiply By

Pressure
pounds/square inch (psi) kilopascals (kPa) 6.8948
kilopascals (kPa) pounds/square inch (psi) 0.145
pounds/square inch (psi) bar 0.0689
bar pounds/square inch (psi) 14.51

Temperature
°F °C (°F-32)/1.8)
°C °F 1.8°C+32

Thermal Conductivity
Btu-in/hr, sq. ft.,°F W/(m-°K) 0.1442
W / (m-°K) Btu-in/hr,sq ft, °F 6.933

Thermal Expansion
inches/inch-°F meters/meter,°C I.8
meters/meter- °C inches/inch, °F 0.556

Viscosity
poise Pa-sec. 0.1
Pa-sec poise 10

Volume
cubic inch cubic centimeter 16.3871
cubic centimeter cubic inch 0.061
cubic foot cubic meter 0.0.83
cubic yard cubic meter 0.765

Weight
ounce gram 28.3495
kilogram ounce 0.03527
pound kilogram 0.4536
kilogram pound 2.2046
ton (US) ton (metric) 0.972
ton (metric) ton (US) 1.1023

Coating Weight
grams/meter² pounds/3,000 ft² 0.614

35
Appendix 2: Abbreviations

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials MDPE Medium density polyethylene

BOPP Biaxially oriented polypropyene film MFR Melt flow rate

Btu British thermal unit Ml Melt index

BUR Blowup ratio MIL Military, as in Military Standard (MIL STD)

deg Degree (angle) mod Modulus

E Modulus of elasticity mol% Mole percent

EEA Ethylene-ethyl acrylate copolymer MW Molecular weight

Elong Elongation N Newton

EMA Ethylene methyl acrylic copolymer PCR Post-consumer resin

ESCR Environmental stress cracking resistance PE Polyethylene

EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer PP Polypropylene

EVOH H Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer pphr Parts per hundred resin, parts per hour

FDA Food and Drug Administration ppm Parts per million

flex Flexural psi Pounds per square inch

g Gram RH Relative humidity

HDPE High density polyethylene rpm Revolutions per minute

HMW High molecular weight sp gr Specific gravity

IBC Internal bubble cooling SPE Society of Plastics Engineers

imp Impact SPI The Society of the Plastics Industry

IR Infrared TD Transdirectional

J Joule ten. Tensile

K Kelvin Tg Glass transition temperature (crystalline polymers)

kpsi 1,000 pounds per square inch Tm Melt temperature (amorphous polymers)

L/D Length to diameter ratio of screw ult Ultimate

lbf Pound-force UV Ultraviolet

LDPE Low density polyethylene VA Vinyl acetate

LLDPE Linear low density polyethylene WVTR Water vapor transmission rate

MD Machine direction yld Yield

36
Appendix 3: Astm Test Methods
Applicable To Polyolefin Film
Extrusion Resins

Property ASTM Method

1% Secant Modulus E 111

Density D 1505 or D 792

Dielectric Constant D 150

Disipation Factor D 150

Elongation D 882

Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance D 1693

Flexural Modulus D 790

Flow rates using extrusion rheometer D 1238

Gloss D 523

Hardness , Rockwell l D 785

Hardness Shore D 2240

Haze D 1003

Impact Strength, falling dart D 1709/A

Low Temperature Brittleness D 746

Melt Index D1238

Oxygen Permeability D 3985

Rheological Properties Using Capillary Rheometer D 3985

Specific Gravity D 792

Surface Resistivity D 257

Tear Resistance, Elmendorf D 1922

Tensile Strength D 882

Thermal Conductivity C 177

Vicat Softening Point D 1525

Volume Resistivity D 257

Water Absorption D 570

Water Vapor Transmission Rate F 372

37
Appendix 4: Trade Names
for Products of LyondellBasell
Chemicals

Alathon® HDPE Polyethylene Resins

Aquathene® Ethylene vinylsilane compounds for wire and cable

Flexathene® Thermoplastic Polyolefin Resins

Integrate™ Functionalized Polyolefins

Microthene® Powdered polyethylene resins

Petrothene® Polyethylene and polypropylene resins

Plexar® Tie-layer resins

Ultrathene® Ethylene vinly acetate (EVA) copolymer resins

38
Houston, TX
LyondellBasell Tower, Suite 700
1221 McKinney Street
Houston, TX 77010
P.O. Box 3646 (77253-3646)
Tel: +1 713 309 7200

Cincinnati, OH
Cincinnati Technology Center
11530 Northlake Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45249
Tel: +1 513 530 4000

Before using a product sold by a company of the LyondellBasell family of companies, users should make their own independent determination
that the product is suitable for the intended use and can be used safely and legally. SELLER MAKES NO WARRANTY; EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
(INCLUDING ANY WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR ANY WARRANTY) OTHER THAN AS
SEPARATELY AGREED TO BY THE PARTIES IN A CONTRACT.
LyondellBasell prohibits or restricts the use of its products in certain applications. For further information on restrictions or prohibitions of use,
please contact a LyondellBasell representative.
Users should review the applicable Safety Data Sheet before handling the product.
Adex, Adstif, Adsyl, Akoaoor, Akoalit, Alathon, Alkylate, Amazing Chemistry, Aquamarine, Aquathene, Arcopure, Arctic Plus, Arctic Shield,
Avant, Catalloy, Clyrell, CRP, Crystex, Dexex, Duopac, Duoprime, Explore & Experiment, Filmex, Flexathene, Glacido, Hifax, Hiex, Histif,
Hostacom, Hostalen, Ideal, Integrate, Koattro, LIPP, Lucalen, Luexen, Lupolen, Lupolex, Luposim, Lupostress, Lupotech, Metocene, Microthene,
Moplen, MPDIOL, Nerolex, Nexprene, Petrothene, Plexar, Polymeg, Pristene, Prodex, Pro-Fax, Punctilious, Purell, SAA100, SAA101, Sequel,
Softell, Spherilene, Spheripol, Spherizone, Starex, Stretchene, Superex, TBAc , Tebol, T-Hydro, Toppyl, Trans4m, Tuo, Ultrathene, Vacido and
Valtec are trademarks owned or used by the LyondellBasell family of companies.
Adsyl, Akoaoor, Akoalit, Alathon, Aquamarine, Arcopure, Arctic Plus, Arctic Shield, Avant, CRP, Crystex, Dexex, Duopac, Duoprime, Explore
& Experiment, Filmex, Flexathene, Hifax, Hostacom, Hostalen, Ideal, Integrate, Koattro, Lucalen, Lupolen, Metocene, Microthene, Moplen,
MPDIOL, Nexprene, Petrothene, Plexar, Polymeg, Pristene, Pro-Fax, Punctilious, Purell, Sequel, Softell, Spheripol, Spherizone, Starex, Tebol,
T-Hydro, Toppyl, Tuo and Ultrathene are registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. 6047/1004

lyb.com