1

LIQUID RETAINING STRUCTURES

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
SCOPE: Storage tanks, reservoirs, swimming pools, elevated tanks, ponds, basement
walls etc.

GENERAL DESIGN OBJECTIVE

The structure designed to retain liquids must fulfill the requirements for normal structures
like STRENGTH, DURABILITY, LIMITED DEFLECTION and CRACKING. In
addition, the liquid should not be allowed to LEAK or PERCOLATE though concrete
structures.
FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
The requirements for the structure without UNDUE MAINTENANCE and ADEQUATE
CONCRETE COVER to reinforcement are essential. Potable water from the moorland
areas may contain free carbon dioxide or dissolved salts, which attack normal concrete.
Similar difficulties may occur with tanks, which are used to store sewage or industrial
liquids. The concrete must be of good quality and it may be necessary to use increased
cement contents or special cements.
FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN METHODS
Historically the liquid retaining structures have been designed by elastic theory for
working loads. More recently limit state methods have been introduced, providing a more
realistic basis for determining factors of safety.
The liquid retaining structures designed by elastic theory are subjected to so small
material stresses that no flexural cracks are developed. But this is achieved at the cost of
too thick sections with excessive amounts of reinforcement. The probability of shrinkage
and thermal cracking is not dealt with properly.
The designer has choice to use either of the methods. The limit state design is more
logical and some saving in materials can be achieved. The elastic design is simple to
carry, but there should be no problems in using limit state theory as design chart and
tables are available.
BASIS OF DESIGN

STRUCTURAL ACTION
All liquid retaining structures are required to resist horizontal forces due to liquid
pressures. There are two ways in which the pressures can be contained:
i) By forces of direct TENSION or COMPRESSION

ii) By flexural resistance.

Structures designed using tensile or compressive forces are normally circular and may be
prestressed. Rectangular tanks or reservoirs, on the other hand, are designed using
flexural action as cantilever, propped cantilever walls or walls spanning in two direction.
 2

Structural element acting in flexure to resist liquid pressures reacts on the supporting
elements and causes direct forces to occur.
STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
The lay out of the proposed structure and the estimation of member sizes must be made
prior to detailed analysis. Structural schemes should be considered from the viewpoints of
STRENGTH, SERVICEABILITY, ease of CONSTRUCTION and COST. It may be
noted that sudden changes in sections must be avoided because they enhance the
possibility of cracking
It is preferable to design cantilever wall as tapering slabs rather then as counterfort walls
with slabs and beams. It is essential for the designer to consider the method of
construction and to specify on the drawings the location of all construction and
movement joints. Important considerations are the provision of KICKERS against which
formwork may be tightened, and the size of wall and floor panels to be cast in one
operation.
LOADING
Liquid retaining structures are subjected to loading by pressure from the retained liquid.
These values can be obtained readily from any handbook. The designer must consider
whether sections of the complete reservoir may be empty when other sections are full,
and design each structural element for the maximum bending moments and forces that
can occur. Several loading cases may have to be considered. Internal partition walls
should be designed for liquid loading on one side only.
External reservoir walls are often required to support soil fill. When the reservoir is
empty, full allowance must be made for the active soil pressure and any surcharge from
vehicles. It may be noted that when reservoir pressure is considered with the reservoir
full, no RELIEF is allowed from passive pressure of the soil fill.
FOUNDATION
It is desirable that a liquid retaining structure is founded on good uniform soil, so that
differential settlements can be avoided. On sites with non-uniform soils, it may be,
necessary to consider DIVIDING the structure into completely separate section.
The use of cantilever walls depends on passive resistance to the applied pressure,
resistance to sliding being provided by the foundation soil. If the soil under the
foundation is inundated by ground water, it may be possible to develop the necessary soil
pressure under the footing. In these circumstances, a cantilever design is not appropriate,
and the overturning forces should be resisted by a system of beams balanced by the
opposite wall. Or the walls must be designed as spanning horizontally if possible.
FLOTATION
As empty tank constructed in water bearing soil will tend to move upwards, in the ground
or float. Ensuring that the weight of the empty tank is greater than the uplift must
counteract this tendency. The factor of safety varies between 1.05-1.25. The weight of the
tank may be increased by thickening the floor or by providing a heel on the perimeter of
the floor.
 3

RECTANGULAR PANELS WITH TRIANGULARLY DISTRIBUTED

LOADS
The intensity of pressure on the walls of containers is uniform at any given level, but
vertically may very from zero near the top to a maximum at the bottom. If there is a
support along the top of a rectangular panel spanning in two directions, the curves and
expressions in the Chart 53, which are based on elastic analyses, enable the probable
maximum bending moment on vertical and horizontal strips of unit width to be calculated
whether the slab is fixed (Case 3) or freely supported (Case 2) along the top edge. Similar
curves are given in the Case 1 of Chart 53 for the condition when there is no support
along the top edge. In all cases it is assumed that the slab is continuous over the two
vertical edges and fixed along the bottom edge.
At a nominally freely supported top edge (Case2), resistance to negative bending moment
equal to two-thirds of the positive bending moment in the vertical span should be
provided.
If the slab is assumed to span entirely vertically or entirely horizontally, the amount of
reinforcement provided horizontally and vertically respectively, and in other cases at
sections where the calculated bending moment is small, should be not less than the
minimum amount required in a slab. Since it is common in a container to provide 45o
splays at the corners, it should be noted that the critical negative bending moments are
not necessarily at the edges of the splays.
A pressure, which is distributed trapezoidally, can be dealt with by adding the bending
moment due to a triangularly distributed load (Chart 53) to the bending moment due to a
uniformly distributed load (ACI Coefficients). This applies to the negative bending
moments exactly, but only approximately to the positive bending moments.
Example 1: Find the maximum service bending moments in a wall panel of
a rectangular tank that can be considered as simply supported along the top edge
and continuous along the bottom edge and along the two vertical sides. The height lz of
the panel is 10' and the horizontal span lx =15'. The intensity of pressure is 625 lb/ft
width along the bottom edge and decreases uniformly to zero at the top edge.
Ratio of spans: k =lx/lz= 15/10=1.5. For case 2 on the Chart 53-2, the bending moments
are as follows:
Maximum Positive Moment in Vertical Span: 0.023×625×102=1437.5 lb-ft. This
occurs at 0.45×10=4.5' height. (Read λ1 and C+V)
Maximum Negative Moment in Vertical Span: 0.042×625×102=2625 lb-ft, which
occurs at midpoint along the bottom of panel. (Read C-V)
Maximum Positive Moment in Horizontal Span: 0.0045×625×152=632.8 lb-ft, which
occurs at midspan and height λ3lz =0.48×10=4.8' (Read λ3 and C+H)
Maximum Negative Moment in Horizontal Span: 0.011×625×152=1546.9 lb-ft, which
occurs at height λ2lz =0.405×10=4.05' at supports of horizontal span.(Read λ2 and C-H)
(The above moments are calculated for a 12" wide strip of wall.)
 7

Example 2: Design of Rectangular Water Tank

2500

A A

200
75
50 350

3500 200

6000
Rotated Section AA

Material Properties: f'c=30 MPa, fy=300 MPa

 8

Design of Long Wall

ly 6.00
k= = = 2.4 > 2. The wall my

2500
lz 2.5
be designed as a one way slab spanning 6000
in vertical direction; fixed at base and
free at top. 2.5 γ

p= Pressure = 10 × 2.5 = 25 kN/m2

P= Force = 0.5 (25×2.5) = 31.25 kN
M=Moment = 31.25x2.5/3= 26 kN-m
Mu=1.7M=44.3 kN-m (per meter)
The moment causes tension on water
face
d=200-40-13-12=135 mm
b=1000 mm
Working Limit State:
2 6 ×1000 2
Rw = = 1.43 ⇒ ρ = 0.0115
1000 × 135 2
As = 1552 mm 2 / m
Check for Ultimate Conditions:
R=2.43 ⇒ ρ=0.0095 As=.0095×1000×135=1282 mm2 /m d

Shear: Vu=1.7×31.25=53.13 kN;

φVc=0.85/6× 30 × 1000 × 135 = 104752 N > 53.13 kN. OK
Horizontal Steel: (ACI 14.3.3b) ρ=0.0025
As=1000×200×.0025=500 mm2 /m ( 50% on water face at least)
Vertical Steel on exterior face: As=0.5(0.0015×1000×200) =300 mm2
Design of Short Wall:
l x 3 .6
k= = = 1.4 < 2. The wall will be designed as two-way slab subjected to uvl. The
l z 2 .6
slab is fixed (continuous) on three sides and free at top. (use case 1 of Chart 53.). The
spans have been increased by 100 mm for two-way action in wall.

p=Pressure =10×2.5=25 kN/m2 (max Pressure at base)

P=Force=0.5(2.5×25) =31.25 kN /m length of wall; Max Pressure Force on base
 9

Horizontal Steel

d-H
M H− =Moment at sides of Horizontal Span=0.031×25×3.62= 10.044 kN-m /m
−
M UH =1.7×10.044=17.075 kN-m /m (This moment causes tension on water face)

d H− =200-40-1/2×12= 154 mm
b=1000 mm gives Rw=0.423, ρ=0.0033 and R=0.72 , ρ=0.0027
−
AsH =0.0033×1000×154=510 mm2 /m (to be provided on water face near supports)

M H+ =Moment=0.016×25×3.62=5.184 kN-m /m
+
M UH =1.7×5.184=8.813 kN-m /m (This moment causes tension on exterior face)

d H+ = d H− =154 mm , b=1000 mm Rw=0.22, ρ=0.0016, R=0.37, ρmin

+
AsH =(ACI Minimum)=0.0015×1000×200= 300 mm2 and from Rw the required area is
As=.0016×1000×154=247
• Vertical Steel
Water face: M V− =0.058×25×2.62=10.26 kN-m /m, M UV
−
=17.442 kN-m /m

d V− = d H− -12=142 mm Rw=0.51, ρ =0.004 and R=0.87, ρ=.0033

−
AsV =0.004×1000×142= 568 mm2 . Provide minimum steel on exterior face.

The depth of water for maximum +ve bending moment in Floor Slab
l
Loading on floor is udl=γz, (on wall it is uvl)
α
Simple Span Moment = M 0 = γzl 2
8
M0
Moment at the Wall - Floor Joint = M - = − βγz 3
M+
αγzl 2 M-
M+ = − βγz 3
8
 10

∂M + αγl 2 α
= − 3βγz 2 = 0 ⇒ z c = l (where zc ≤ lz)
∂z 8 24 β

αγz c l 2
Therefor the Max positive moment in floor: M +
max = − βγz c3
8
Design of Floor Slab
3700
6.20
k= = 1.68 (the floor is a two way slab)
3.70
(Table 1 and Chart 53 are used) Mx
• Short Span
Maximum positive moment in span occurs at water

6200
0.89
level= z c = l = 0.4717l x = 1.745 m
1 x
24 ×

My
6
(Note:αx= 0.89 and αy=0.11 from Table 1.)

0.89
M ox = × 3.7 2 [1.745 × 10 + 0.2 × 25] = 26.577 + 7.615 = 34.192 kN − m
8
1.745 1.745
M x+ = 26.577 + 7.615 − (1.745 × 10) × × = 26.577 + 7.615 − 8.856 = 25.336 kN − m
2 3
M ux+ =1.7×26.577+1.4×7.615-1.7×8.856= .
. 40.787 kN-m
dy=200-40-9=151 and [dx=dy-18=133 mm]
Rw=1.43; ρ=0.0113 and R=2.31; ρ=0.009
(As=0.0113x1000x133 =1503 mm2) On Ground Face
Max Negative Moment: M x− = 26 kN - m (at the joint of long wall and floor)

With d x− =133, Rw=1.47 and ρ=.012. And R= 2.5 with ρ=..01

Therefore As= 0.012×1000×133=1596 mm2 This steel shall be provided on water face.
Shear in Short Span
3.5
Vu = 0.89 × [1.7 × 25 + 1.4 × 5] = 77.1 kN < .85 / 6 30 × 1000 × 133 = (103,200 N ) OK
2
Shear in long span (Not critical)
6
Vu = 0.11 × [1.7 × 25 + 1.4 × 5] = kN
2
 11

• Long Span
The maximum positive moment in the long span occurs at the water level=zc, where
0.11
zc = l y = 0.2811l y = 1.687 m (< 2.5 m)
24 × 0.058
0.11
M oy = × 6.2 2 [1.687 × 10 + .2 × 25] = 8.92 + 2.64 = 11.56 kN-m
8

M y+ = 8.92 + 2.64 − 0.058 × (1.687 × 10) × 1.687 2 = 8.92 + 2.64 − 2.78 = 8.78 kN-m

M uy+ =1.7×8.92+1.4×2.64-1.7×2.78=14.32 kN-m

dy=200-40-9=151 mm
Rw=0.385; ρ=0.003 and R=0.683; ρ=0.0027 (As=0.003x1000x151=453 mm2) > Asmin
(on ground face)
Max Negative Moment: M y− = 10.26 kN − m (at the junction of short wall and floor)

With d y− =151 Rw=0.45 and ρ=.0035. And R=0.765 with ρ=.003. Provide 529 mm2 on
water face.
DIRECT TENSION IN WALLS AND FLOOR
The direct tension in the short walls and
x-direction of the floor can be found
considering a free body of the tank
cutting a section along vertical plan
parrallel to long walls as shown in the
Figure on right. The calculations are
presented in the following table.

Description Area Ai zi Ai zi I0 Ai ( z i − z ) 2
2-Short wall 2×0.2×2.5=1.000 1.525 1.525 0.05208 0.6116
floor 6.5×0.2=1.300 0.175 0.227 0.0043 0.4194
2-Supports 2×0.4×0.075= 0.060 0.037 0.002 0.0003 0.0299
2.360 1.754 0.5254 1.0608

z=
∑Az i i
= 0.743 m with A= 2.36 m2 and I=I0+ Ai ( z i − z ) 2 =1.586 m4
∑A i

Max. Pressure on long wall=25 kN/m2. The total Pressure Force P=25×2.5/2×6=187.5kN
and it acts at 0.833+0.275 m from ground level. The eccentricty of this force from the
centroid of the section is 1.108-0.743=0.365m, which gives a moment =187.5x.365 kN-m
 12

The stress distribution at the top and bottom of the tank walls is obtained as follows:
187.5 187.5 × 0.365
f top = + = − − − − − kN / m 2 122.6 (167)
2.36 1.586
and

187.5 187.5 × 0.365

f bot = − = − − − − − kN / m 2 36.3 (59)
2.36 1.586
f top + f bot
f avg = , which gives Tension in each of the short wall equal to Twall, where
2
Twall=favg×0.20×2.5= kN (or favg×0.20 kN/m height of the wall)
The tension in the floor can be obtained from Tfloor=Total tension-2 Twall. This tension
acts along the short direction of the floor.
Similar calculation may be performed to obtain the tension in long walls and the floor in
y-direction. The steel areas required to meet these direct tensions can be calculated as:
As(Tension)=T/fs. The half of the area is to be provided on either face of the wall (or
floor). Therefore these areas can be superimposed with those obtained earlier from the
strength considerations. Where the strength area of steel was minimum, the superposition
is to made not with Amin but with actual As(strength) in the following way:
As=As(Strength)+0.5As(Tension), where As(Strength) is the actual area of steel required
for strength disregarding Amin. If As is still < Amin, provide the Amin.

The (section through walls) sketch showing steel in walls

Detail on last page.

 13

The (vertical section) sketch showing steel in walls and floor

Copper water bar

Short Span

Table 1. The fraction of load taken by short and long spans

ly
k= 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
lx
αx .500 .594 .674 .741 .793 .835 .867 .893 .913 .929 .941

αy .500 .406 .326 .259 .207 .165 .133 .107 .087 .071 .059

k4 1
Note: α x = and α y = lx
1+ k 4
1+ k 4
αi
Simple span moment= M 0i = wl i2
8
ly
 14

Crack Widths

The basic equation for relating crack width to strain in the reinforcement is
w = α acβ ε sγ 1
The effect of the tensile strain in the concrete between the cracks is neglected as
insignificant. αc is the crack spacing, εs the unit strain in the reinforcement, and α, β, and
γ are constants. As a result of this fracture hypothesis, the mathematical model in Eqn 1,
and the statistical analysis of the data of 90 slabs tested to failure, the following crack-
control equation emerged:
d b1 s 2
w = Kβf s 2
Qi1
where the quantity under the radical, G1=db1s2/Qi1, is termed the grid index and can be
transformed into
8s1 s 2 d c
G1 = 3
πd b1
where
K = fracture coefficient, having a value of K=2.8x10-5 for uniformly loaded, restrained,
two-way action square slabs and plates. For concentrated loads or reactions or
when the ratio of short to long span is less than 0.75, but larger than 0.5, a value
of K=2.1x10-5 is applicable. For a span aspect ratio of 0.5, K=1.6x10-5. Units of
coefficient K are in in2/lb. (may be interpolated linearly)
β = ratio of the distance from "the neutral axis to the tensile face of the slab" to "the
distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the reinforcement grid". A value
of 1.25 may be taken to simplify the calculations, although it varies between 1.20
and 1.35.
fs = actual average service load stress level, or 50%-40% of the design yield strength in
ksi.
db1 = diameter of the reinforcement in direction 1 closest to the concrete outer fibers
(inch)
dc = concrete cover to Centroid of reinforcement (inches)
s1, s2 = spacing of reinforcement in directions 1, 2. (inches) Direction 1 is the direction of
the reinforcement closest to the outer concrete fibers; this is the direction for
which crack control check is to be made.
Area of steel As per unit foot width
Qi1 = active steel ratio= , where c1 is the clear cover
12(d b1 + 2c1 )
measured from the tensile face of the concrete to the nearest edge of the
reinforcing bar in direction 1.
 14

Design of a Swimming Pool. Water table well below the base.

f c' = 30 MPa, f y = 280 MPa
Soil: γ = 16 kN/m 3 , φ = 30 o No danger of flooding. Complete Contraction Joints
Expansion Joints

15'
31
17
2

14 10 13 13 0.2

1.8
4.3

PCC and Subgrade

Design Procedure:

Stability: There are two critical zones for stability: North and South end zones. Consider two loading
conditions: (A) Empty pool with soil pressure from outside; (B) Full pool with no allowance for soil
pressure from outside. The stability against overturning and sliding with FOS=1.5 and 1.25 respectively
is just sufficient. For the present case, there is no danger of flooding and rise of water table hence
floatation is not a problem.
Bearing: The critical loading condition: when pool is full of water.
Strength: The pool will be designed for two loading conditions: (A) Empty pool with soil pressure from
outside; (B) Full pool with no allowance for soil pressure from outside.
Problem: Check the stability and design for strength the north and south end zone walls and floor slab.
 15

Joints: for liquid retaining structures (No concrete continuity)

Complete Contraction Joints: Maximum distance between joints = 15m (No continuity of steel)
Water Seal

Water Stop
Water Stop
Wall Floor Slab

Partial Contraction Joints: Maximum distance between joints = 7.5m (100% or 50% steel continuity)

Wall Floor Slab

Expansion joints should be avoided in liquid retaining structures. The construction joints should be
prepared for continuity and sealed properly on liquid side.
Design consideration: The floor slab between cracks may be designed as slab on grade. Extra care should
be taken for temperature changes during hydration and temperature rise or drop between seasons.
t
Slab on grade: T = 0.5µ w L where µ is friction between sub-grade and slab, w is unit weight of RC,
12
t is slab thickness in inches and L is length in ft between two contraction joints (partial or complete).
Provide steel for T using working stress theory or apply overload factor to the tension T and use ultimate
strength theory. In case of shallow depths the weight of water on slab may be neglected.
Temperature Changes: The estimated maximum crack spacing Smax is related to the direct tensile
strength ft, the bond strength fb, diameter of bar d, and steel ratio ρ as follows:
f d
S max = t
fb 2ρ
The maximum crack spacing is also governed by maximum crack width δmax, and fall from hydration
peak temperature to ambient temperature Th and seasonal fall in temperature Ts as :
δ max
S max = . The two equations may be combined to give a solution for ρ:
0.5α (Ts + Th )
α (Ts + Th ) f t f
ρ= d with α= 12×10-6/oC. However, ρ ≥ t in any case.(ft/fb may be taken=0.80). The
4δ max fb fy
effect of temperature Ts may be ignored if complete contraction joints are provided at not more than 50'
centers. The steel is provided in two layers.