1

DBMS & SQL queries

DBMS & SQL

Queries
Session - 2019 -20
 2
DBMS & SQL queries

Certificate

This is certified that the practical file belongs to Prabhat Kumar, Class roll no. 06
and Examination Roll no…………of session 2009-10 and has completed all the
practical in the college computer lab under our guidance and his behavior in the
college is good.
 3
DBMS & SQL queries

S. no. Name of practical Remarks

1. Database, DBMS definition
2. Introduction to SQL
3. Components of SQL, Data types
4. SQL Queries create, insertion
5. Create a table
6. Describe the table
7. Insert the values
8. To view the table
9. Sorting the data
10. To rename the table
11. Delete a particular row
12. Lower case
13. Upper case
14. Drop the table
15. Maximum
16. Minimum
17. Average
18. Like
19. Between
20. Primary key
21. Unique key
22. Count
23. Sum
24. Alter
25. Update
 4
DBMS & SQL queries

Database

A database is an organized collection of facts. In other words, we can say that it is

a collection of information arranged and presented to serve an assigned purpose.

An example of a database is a dictionary

Database Management System

Database management system, or DBMS, is a computer software program that is

designed as the means of managing all databases that are currently installed on a
system hard drive or network. Different types of database management systems
exist, with some of them designed for the oversight and proper control of databases
that are configured for specific purposes. Here are some examples of the various
incarnations of DBMS technology that are currently in use, and some of the basic
elements that are part of DBMS software applications.

As the tool that is employed in the broad practice of managing databases, the
DBMS is marketed in many forms. Some of the more popular examples of DBMS
solutions include Microsoft Access, FileMaker, DB2, and Oracle. All these
products provide for the creation of a series of rights or privileges that can be
associated with a specific user. This means that it is possible to designate one or
more database administrators who may control each function, as well as provide
other users with various levels of administration rights. This flexibility makes the
task of using DBMS methods to oversee a system something that can be centrally
controlled, or allocated to several different people.
 5
DBMS & SQL queries

Introduction to Structured Query Language (SQL)

Structured query language is a language that provides an interface to relational

database systems. SQL was developed by IBM in the 1970s for use in system R,
and is a de facto standard, as well as an ISO and ANSI standard. SQL is often
pronounced SEQUEL.

SQL has been a command language for communication with the oracle 9i server
from any tool or application. Oracle SQL contains many extensions. When an SQL
statement is entered, it is stored in a part of memory called the SQL buffer and
remains there until a new SQL statement is entered.

Features of Structured query language (SQL)

SQL can be used by a range of users, including those with little or no

programming experience.

 It is a nonprocedural language.

 It reduces the amount of time required for creating and maintaining systems.

 It is English like language.

 6
DBMS & SQL queries

Components of SQL
1) DDL (Data Definition Language):-
It is a set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete database
structures but not data. They are normally used by the DBA not by user to a
limited extent, a database designer or application developer. These
statements are immediate i.e. they are not susceptible to ROLLBACK
commands. It should also be noted that if several DML statements for
example UPDATES are executed then issuing any DDL command would
COMMIT all the updates as every DDL command implicitly issues a
COMMIT command to the database. Anybody using DDL must have the
CREATE object privilege and a table space area in which to create objects.

For example: - CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, COMMENT etc.

2) DML (Data Manipulation Language):-

It is the area of SQL that allows changing data within the database.

Examples:-INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE etc.

3) DCL (Data Control Language):-

It is the component of SQL statement that control access to data and to the
database. Occasionally DCL statements are grouped with DML statements.

Examples: - COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, ROLLBACK etc.

4) DQL (Data Query Language):-

It is the component of SQL statement that allows getting data from the
database and imposing ordering upon it. It includes the SELECT statement.
This command is the heart of SQL. It allows getting the data out of the
database perform operations with it. When a SELECT is fired against a table
or tables the results is compiled into a further temporary table, which is
displayed or perhaps received by the program i.e. a front-end.

Examples: - SELECT retrieve data from the database.

 7
DBMS & SQL queries

Oracle data types

Data types come in several forms and sizes, allowing the programmer to create
tables suited to the scope of the project. The decisions made in choosing proper
data types greatly influence the performance of a database. The information in the
database is maintained in the form of tables and each table consists of rows and
columns, which store data and therefore this data must have some data type i.e. the
type of data, which is stored in the table.

The different types of data types in Oracle are:-

 CHAR

 VARCHAR (size) or VARChAR2 (size)

 NUMBER

 DATE

 LONG.

 CHAR: -

 This data types is used to store character strings values of fixed

length. The size in brackets determines the number of characters
the cell can hold. The maximum number of characters (i.e. the
size) this data type can hold is 255 characters. The data held is
right- padded with spaces to whatever length specified.
 8
DBMS & SQL queries

 VARCHAR or VARCHAR2:-

This data type is used to store variable length alphanumeric data.

It is a more flexible form of the CHAR data type. The maximum
this data type can hold up to 4000 characters. One difference
between this data type and char data type is oracle compares
varchar values using non padded comparison semantics i.e. the
inserted values will not be padded with spaces. VARCHAR can
hold 1 to 255 characters. Varchar is usually a wiser choice than
char due to its variable length format characteristics but keep in
mind that char is much faster than varchar sometimes up to 50%.

 NUMBER: -

The number data type is used to store numbers (fixed or floating

point).The precision (P) determines the length of the data while(s),
the scale, determines the number of places after the decimal. The
NUMBER data type that is used to store number data can be
specified either to store integers or decimals with the addition of a
parenthetical precision indicator. If we do not use then the default
value is 0 and if we don’t use precision then by default value
stored can be of 38 digits.

 DATE:-

The DATE data type stores date and time information. Although
date and time information can be represented in both character and
number data types, the DATE data type has special associated
properties. For each DATE value, Oracle stores the following
information: century, year, month, date, hour, minute, and second.
 9
DBMS & SQL queries

 LONG:-

LONG columns store variable-length character strings containing

up to 2 gigabytes, or 231-1 bytes. LONG columns have many of the
characteristics of VARCHAR2 columns. You can use LONG
columns to store long text strings. The length of LONG values
may be limited by the memory available on your computer

The use of LONG values is subject to some restrictions:

 A table can contain only one LONG column.

 You cannot create an object type with a LONG attribute.
 LONG columns cannot appear in WHERE clauses or in integrity constraints
(except that they can appear in NULL and NOT NULL constraints).
 LONG columns cannot be indexed.
 A stored function cannot return a LONG value.
 You can declare a variable or argument of a PL/SQL program unit using the
LONG datatype. However, you cannot then call the program unit from SQL.
 Within a single SQL statement, all LONG columns, updated tables, and
locked tables must be located on the same database.
 10
DBMS & SQL queries

QUERY
A query is a concise memo submitted to an editor by a writer seeking publication.
It is basically an in query to see whether the writer’s work is of interest to a
particular publication. A query briefly details a writer’s experience and knowledge
of the subject matter, and gives a summary or synopsis of the article the writer
hopes to have published. An approximate word count for the proposed article or
feature is also generally included.

1) THE CREATE TABLE COMMAND :-

The CREATE TABLE command defines each column of the table uniquely.
Each column has a minimum of three attributes, a name, data type and size (i.e.
column width).

Syntax: - CREATE TABLE<table name>(<column Name 1> <data

type>(<size>), <columnname2> <data type>(<size>));

Example:
SQL> create table student(name varchar(23),roll_no number(12),class
varchar2(12),address varchar(23));

Table created.

2) THE INSERTION OF DATA INTO TABLE: -

Once a table is created, the most natural thing to do is load this with data to be
manipulated later i.e. to insert the rows in a table. The data in a table can be
inserted in three ways.
 11
DBMS & SQL queries

Syntax:-INSERT INTO <table name >(<columnname1>,<columnname2>)

VALUES(<expression1>,<expression 2>);

OR

INSERT INTO <tablename>VALUES(<expression1 >,<expression2> );

OR

INSERT INTO <tablename>

VALUES(‘<&columnname1>’ ,’<&columnname2>’);

Example:-
SQL> insert
intostudent(name,roll_no,class,address)values('Prabhat',06,'BCA',Hatlimore');

1 row created.

Or
SQL> insert into student values('kishore',01,'BCA','Nagri');

1 row created.

Or
SQL> insert into student values('&name','&roll_no','&class','&address');

Enter value for name: Amarjeet

Enter value for roll_no: 30

Enter value for class: BCA

Enter value for address: airwan

old 1: insert into student values('&name','&roll_no','&class','&address')

new 1: insert into studen values('Atinder','04','BCA','Sawan chack')

 12
DBMS & SQL queries

1 row created.

FOR inserting more values we use ‘/’ slash after SQL> as

below but after above syntax used:
SQL> /

Enter value for name: Vinay

Enter value for roll_no: 08

Enter value for class: BCA

Enter value for address: Barnoti

old 1: insert into student values('&name','&roll_no','&class','&address')

new 1: insert into studen values('Vinay','08','BCA','Barnoti')

1 row created.

3) FOR VIEWING DATA IN THE TABLE: -

Once data has been inserted into a table, the next most logical operation would
be to view what has been inserted. The SELECT SQL verb is used to achieve
this. The SELECT command is used to retrieve rows selected from one or
more tables.

Syntax: - SELECT * FROM <table name>;

If we want to see all the tables that are already exist in the database .we use

SELECT * FROM TAB;

Example:-
SQL> select * from student;
 13
DBMS & SQL queries

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

----------------------- ---------- ------------ ----------

Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore

Kishore 01 BCA Nagri

Amarjeet 30 BCA airwan

Vinay 08 BCA barnoti

1 row created.

When we use the command SELECT* FRM TAB; the output is

displayed as:-

SQL> select * from tab;

TNAME TABTYPE CLUSTERID

------------------------------ ------- ----------

ABC TABLE

ANKU TABLE

BONUS TABLE

DEPARTMENTS TABLE
 14
DBMS & SQL queries

DEPT TABLE

EMP TABLE

EMPLOYEE TABLE

EMPLOYEES TABLE

STUDENT TABLE

9 rows selected.

4) ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATE ROWS :-

A table could hold duplicate rows in such a case, only unique rows the
distinct clause can be used.

Syntax: - SELECT DISTINCT <column name 1>,<column name2>

FROM <table name> ;

This syntax will give the unique values of column 1 and column 2.

Example:-
SQL> select distinct name,roll_no from student;

NAME ROLL_NO

-------------------- ----------

Prabhat 06

Syntax:- SELECT DISTINCT * from <tablename>;

Example:-
 15
DBMS & SQL queries

SQL> Select DISTINCT * from student;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

------------------ -------- ------------ ----------

Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore

5) SORTING DATA IN A TABLE: -

Oracle allows data from a table to be viewed sorted order. The rows retrieve
from the table will be sorted either in ascending or descending order
depending on the condition specified in the select sentence.

Syntax: - SELECT * FROM <tablename>ORDER BY<column

name1>,<column name 2> <[sort order]>;

Example:-
SQL> SELECT * FROM STUDENT ORDER BY name;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

----------------------- ---------- ------ ---------------

Amarjeet 30 BCA airwan

Atinder 04 BCA sawanchak Dushyant

34 BCA jagatpur

Kishore 01 BCA Nagri

Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore

Vinay 08 BCA barnoti

 16
DBMS & SQL queries

6 rows selected

SQL> SELECT*FROM STUDENT ORDER BY name desc;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

----------------------- ---------- ------------ --------------

Vinay 08 BCA barnoti

Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore

Kishore 01 BCA Nagri

Dushyant 34 BCA jagatpur

Atinder 04 BCA sawanchak Amarjeet

Amarjeet 30 BCA Airwan

6 rows selected.
 17
DBMS & SQL queries

SQL> SELECT * FROM STUDEN ORDER BY roll_no desc;

NAME ROLL_NO CLASS ADDRESS

----------------------- ---------- ------------ ---------------

Kishore 01 BCA Nagri

Atinder 04 BCA sawanchak

Prabhat 06 BCA Hatlimore

Vinay 08 BCA barnoti

Amarjeet 30 BCA airwan

Dushyant 34 BCA jagatpur

6 rows selected.

6) MODIFYING THE STRUCTURE OF TABLES: -

The structure of a table can be modified by using the ALTER TABLE

command. ALTER TABLE allows changing the structure of an existing
table. With ALTER TABLE it is possible to add or delete columns, create or
destroy indexes, changes the data type of existing columns, or rename
columns or the table itself.
 18
DBMS & SQL queries

(a) ADDING NEW COLUMNS

Syntax: - ALTER TABLE <Table name> ADD(<New column Name>
<data type> (<size>),<new column name><data type>(<size>)….);

Example:- alter table prabhu add column name;

(b) DROPPING A COLUMN FROM A TABLE

Syntax: - ALTER TABLE<TABLE NAME>DROP
COLUMN<COLUMNNAME>;

Example:- alter table prabhu drop column name;

(c)MODIFYING EXISTING COLUMNS

Syntax: - ALTER TABLE<Table name>MODIFY(<COLUMN NAME>
<NEW DATATYPE>(<NEW SIZE>));

Example:- alter table prabhat modify(name varchar(22));

7) RENAMING TABLES: -

Oracle allows renaming of tables. The rename operation is done atomically,

which means that no other thread can access any of the tables while the rename
process is running.

Syntax: - RENAME <Table name> to <New Tablename>

 19
DBMS & SQL queries

Example:-
SQL> rename student to candidates;

Table renamed.

8) DESTROYING TABLES:-

 DROP COMMAND: -
By using the DROP TABLE statement with the table name we can destroy
a specific table .

Syntax: - DROP TABLE <table name>;

Example:-
SQL> Drop table student;

Table dropped.

 TRUNCATE COMMAND:-
The truncate command is much faster in comparison to delete statement
but similar to the drop command as to destroy a specific table.

Syntax:- TRUNCATE table <tablename>

Example:-
SQL> truncate table employees;

Table truncated.
 20
DBMS & SQL queries

9) DISPLAYING THE TABLE STRUCTURE:-

To display information about the columns defined in a table use the

following syntax.

Syntax: - DESCRIBE <table name>

This command displays the columns names, the data types and the special
attributes connected to the table.

Example: -
SQL> describe employees;

Name Null? Type

---------------------------------- -------- -----------

EMP_ID NUMBER(5)

EMP_NAME VARCHAR2(20)

DEPT_ID NUMBER(10)

DEPT_NAME NAME(12)

SALARY NUMBER(21)

10) UPDATING THE CONTENTS OF A TABLE: -

The update command is use change or modify data values in a table. The verb
UPDATE in SQL is used to either all the rows from a table or a select set of
rows from a table.
 21
DBMS & SQL queries

 UPDATING ALL ROWS:-

The update statement updates columns in the existing table’s rows with
new values .The SET clause indicates which column data should be
modifying and the new values that they should hold. The WHERE
CLAUSE specifies which rows should be updated. Otherwise all table
rows are updated.

Syntax: - UPDATE < Table name> SET <column

name1>=<expression1> , <column name2>=<expression2>;

 UPDATES RECORDS CONDITIONALLY:-

Syntax :- UPDATE <table name> SET <columnname1> =
<expression1>, <columnname2> = <expression2> WHERE <condition>;

CONSTRAINTS
11)NOT NULL:- The NOT NULL column constraint ensures that a table
column cannot be empty. When a column is defined as not null, then that
column becomes a mandatory column. It implies that a value must be
entered into the column if the record is to be accepted for storage in the
table.

Syntax:- <Column Name> <data type>(<size>) NOT NULL ;

Example:-name varchar(22) not null;
 22
DBMS & SQL queries

THE PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT: -

A primary is one or more column in a table used to identify each row in a
table. None of the fields that are part of the primary key can contain a null
value. A table can have only one primary

Syntax:- <Column name> <data type>(<size>) PRIMARY KEY

Example:-
SQL> create table student name varchar2(12), roll_no number(12)
primary key, class varchar2(21) NOT NULL, dob date);

or

SQL> create table student(name varchar2(12), roll_no number(12)

constraint pk_roll primary key ,class varchar2(21) not null, dob date);

12) THE FOREIGN KEY (SELF REFERENCE)

CONSTRAINT:-
Foreign key represent relationships between tables. A foreign key is a
column (or a group of columns) whose values are derived from the
primary key or unique key of some other table. The table in which the
foreign key is defined is called a FOREIGN TABLE or DETAIL TABLE.
The table that defines the primary or unique key and is referenced by the
foreign key is called the PRIMARY KEY or MASTER KEY.

Syntax: - Foreign key (<column name>) REFERENCES <table

name>(column name);

Example:-
 23
DBMS & SQL queries

SQL> create table department(dept_no number(10) primary

key,dept_name varchar2(25),dept_loc char(5,e_no number(11), foreign
key(e_no) references employee (e_no);

Table created

SQL> describe department;

Name Null? Type

-------------------------- -------- -------

DEPT_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(10)

DEPT_NAME VARCHAR2(25)

DEPT_LOC CHAR(5)

E_NO NUMBER(11).

13) THE UNIQUE KEY CONSTRAINT:-

The unique key constraint permits multiple entries of NULL into the
column. These NULL values are clubbed at the top of the column in the
order in which they were entered into the table. This is the essential
difference between the primary key and the unique constraints when
applied to table column(s). Key point about UNIQUE constraint:

 Unique key will not allow duplicate values.

 Unique index is created automatically.

 24
DBMS & SQL queries

 A table can have more than one unique key which is not possible in
primary key.

Syntax:- CREATE TABLE Table name (<columnName1>

<datatype>(<size>), <columnName2> <data
type>(<size>),UNIQUE(<columnName1>, <columnName2>));

Example:-
SQL> create table student1(roll_no number(12)primary key,dob
date,name varchar2(20),class varchar2(2),e_mail varchar2(20) constraint
un_st unique);

Table created.

To see the description of the table.

 25
DBMS & SQL queries

SQL> Describe student1;

Name Null? Type

--------------------------------- -------- ----------

ROLL_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(12)

DOB DATE

NAME VARCHAR2(20)

CLASS VARCHAR2(20)

E_MAIL VARCHAR2(20)

ORACLE FUNCTIONS

Oracle functions serve the purpose of manipulating data items and

returning a result. Functions are the programs that take zero or more
arguments and return a single value. Oracle has built a no. of functions
into SQL. These functions can be called from SQL statements.

14) COUNT (expr) function: - Returns the number of rows where

expression is not null.

Syntax: - COUNT ([<distinct>[<all>] <expr>)

Example:-
 26
DBMS & SQL queries

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------- -------------------- ---------- ----------

1 sourabh 21 55000

2 sonu 22 55000

3 anku 4 55000

5 anku 21 55000

3 panku 22 75000

SQL> select count(distinct name) from employees;

COUNT(DISTINCTNAME)

-------------------

SQL> select count(salary) from employees;

COUNT(SALARY)

----------
 27
DBMS & SQL queries

15) COUNT (*) function: -

Returns the number of rows in the table, including duplicates and those
with nulls.

Syntax: - COUNT(*)
Example:-
SQL> select count(*) from employees;

COUNT(*)

----------

SQL> select count(*)"salary" from employees;

salary

----------

16) THE SUM FUNCTION: -

Returns the sum of the values of ‘n’.

Syntax: - SUM ([<distinct>][<all>] <expr>)

Example:-
 28
DBMS & SQL queries

SQL> select sum (salary) from employees;

SUM(SALARY)

-----------

295000

17) THE MAX FUNCTION: -

Returns the maximum value of expression.

Syntax: - MAX([<distinct>][<all>] <expr>)

Example:-

SQL> select max(salary) from employees;

MAX(SALARY)

-----------

75000

18) THE MIN FUNCTION: -

Returns the minimum value of expression.

Syntax: - MIN ([<distinct>][<all>] <expression>)

Example:-
 29
DBMS & SQL queries

SQL> select min (salary) from employees;

MIN(SALARY)

-----------

55000

19) THE AVG FUNCTION: -

Returns an average value of ‘n’, ignoring null values in a column.

Syntax: - AVG ([<distinct>][<all>] <n>);

Example:-
SQL> select avg(salary) from employees;

AVG(SALARY)

-----------

59000

20) LIKE OPREATOR :- The LIKE predicate allows comparison of

one string value with another string value, which is not identical. This is
achieved by using wildcard characters. Two wildcard characters that are
available are:

 % allows to match any string of any length(including zero length)

 _allows to match on a single character.

 30
DBMS & SQL queries

Example:-
SQL> select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where name
like 'a%';

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

------ ------- ----------- ---------

3 anku 4 55000

5 anku 21 55000

NOT LIKE OPERATOR:-

Example:-
SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where name
not like 'a%';

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------- --------------- ---------- ----------

1 sourabh 21 55000

2 sonu 22 55000

3 panku 22 75000

SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where name

like '_n_u';
 31
DBMS & SQL queries

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY ----------

---------------- ---------- ----------

3 anku 4 55000

5 anku 21 55000

21) IN OPERATOR:- In case a value needs to be compared to a list of

values then the IN

predicate is used. The IN predicates helps reduce the

need to use multiple OR conditions.

Example:-

SQL> select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where dept_id

in(20,22);

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

---------- -------------------- ---------- ----------

2 sonu 22 55000

3 panku 22 75000

NOT IN OPERATOR:-
Example :-
SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where dept_id
not in(20,22);
 32
DBMS & SQL queries

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

-------- -------------------- ---------- ----------

1 sourabh 21 55000

3 anku 4 55000

5 anku 21 55000

22) BETWEEN OPERATOR:-

SQL> select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where dept_id
between 22 and 30;

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------- -------------------- ---------- ----------

2 sonu 22 55000

3 panku 22 75000

SQL>select emp_id,name,dept_id,salary from employees where dept_id

between 11 and 21;

EMP_ID NAME DEPT_ID SALARY

--------- -------------------- ---------- ----------

 33
DBMS & SQL queries

1 sourabh 21 55000

5 anku 21 55000

STRING FUNCTIONS

23) UPPER function :-

Returns char, with all letters forced to uppercase.

Syntax: - UPPER(char)
Example: -

SQL> select upper(name) from employees;

UPPER(NAME)

--------------------

SOURABH

SONU

ANKU

ANKU

PANKU
 34
DBMS & SQL queries

24) LOWER function: -

Returns char, with all letters in lowercase.

Syntax: - LOWER(char)
Example:-
SQL> select lower(name) from employees;

LOWER(NAME)

--------------------

sourabh

sonu

anku

anku

panku

25) INITCAP function: -

Returns a string with the first letter of each word in upper case.

Syntax:- INITCAP(char)
Example:-

SQL> select initcap(name) from employees;

 35
DBMS & SQL queries

INITCAP(NAME)

--------------------

Sourabh

Sonu

Anku

Anku

Panku