1

CHAPTER 1

HEAT ENGINE CYCLES

1.1 Carnot cycle

This cycle consists of two isothermal processes joined by two
adiabatic processes. It is most conveniently represented on a T-s and
p-v diagrams as follows:
Process 1-2 = isentropic expansion from T1 to T2
Process 2-3 = isothermal heat rejection
Process 3-4 = isentropic compression from T2 to T1
Process 4-1 = isothermal heat supply.

The cycle is completely independent of the working substance used.

T p
p4 4

P1 1
T1 4 1
P3
p2 3
T2 2
3 2
C
B D v
A s

The cycle efficiency is given by

net work output

heat supplied
heat supplied  heat rejected

heat supplied
 2

T1  s B  s A   T2  s B  s A 

T1  s B  s A 


 T1  T2  sB  s A  T
 1   2


T1  sB  s A   T1 
(1.1)
There is no attempt to use the Carnot cycle with gas as working
substance in practice because of two reasons:
1. The pressure of the gas changes continuously from p 4 to p1
during the isothermal heat supply and from p2 to p3 during the
isothermal heat rejection. But in practice it is much more
convenient to heat a gas at approximately constant pressure or at
constant volume.
2. The Carnot cycle, despite its high thermal efficiency, has a small
work ratio. [Work ratio is the ratio of the net work output (area
12341) to the gross work output of the system (area 412DC4);
the work done on the gas is given by 234CD2.]

Example 1.1
What is the highest possible theoretical efficiency of a heat engine
operating with a hot reservoir of furnace gases at 2000 oC when the
cooling water is available at 10oC?
Solution
T2
From Eq. (1.1)  Carnot  1 
T1
 3

10  273 283
So C  1   1  0.8754
2000  273 2273

Example 1.2
A hot reservoir at 800oC and a cold reservoir at 15oC are available.
Calculate the thermal efficiency and the work ratio of a Carnot cycle
using air as the working fluid, if the maximum and minimum
pressures in the cycle are 210 bar and 1 bar.
Solution
The cycle is shown below on T-s and p-v diagrams.

Using Eq. (1.1)

T2 288
 Carnot  1   1  0.732
T1 1073
In order to find the work output and the work ratio it is necessary to
find the entropy change (s1 – s4).
For an isothermal process from 4 to A,

p   210 
s A  s 4  R ln 4   0.287 ln  = 1.535 kJ/kg K
 p2   1 
 4

At constant pressure from A to 2,

T   1073 
s A  s 2  c p ln 1   1.005 ln  = 1.321 kJ/kg K
 T2   288 
Therefore
s1 – s4 = 1.535 – 1.321 = 0.214 kJ/kg K

Then
Net work output = area 12341
= (T1 – T2)(s1 – s4) = (1073 – 288) x 0.214 = 168
kJ/kg

Gross work output is

Work output 4 to 1 + work output 1 to 2

Now, for an isothermal process, Q + W = 0

i.e. –W4-1 = Q4-1 = area under the line 4-1 on Fig (a)
= (s1 – s4) x T1 = 0.214 x 1073 = 229.6 kJ/kg

For an isentropic process from 1 to 2, W = (u2 – u1), therefore for a

perfect gas
-W2-1 = cv(T1 – T2) = 0.718(1073 – 288) = 563.6 kJ/kg

Therefore
Gross work output = 229.6 + 563.6 = 793.2 kJ/kg
 5

i.e.
net work output 168
Work ratio    0.212
gross work output 793.2

1.2 The air standard cycle

- Cycles in which the fuel is burned directly in the working fluid
are not heat engines in the true meaning of the term since the
system is not reduced to its initial state.
- The working fluid undergoes a chemical change by combustion
and the resulting products are exhausted to the atmosphere.
- In practice such cycles are used frequently and are called internal-
combustion cycles; the fuel is burned directly in the working
fluid, which is normally air.
- By supplying fuel inside the cylinder, higher temperatures for the
working fluid can be attained; the maximum temperature of all
cycles is limited by the metallurgical limit of the material used
and the efficiency of the cooling system.
- Examples of internal combustion cycles are the open cycle gas
turbine unit, the petrol engine, the diesel or oil engine, and the gas
engine.
o In the open cycle gas turbine the working fluid flows at a
steady rate from one component to another round the cycle.
o In the petrol engine a mixture of air and petrol is drawn
into the cylinder, compressed by the piston, then ignited by
 6

an electric spark. The hot gases expand, pushing the piston

back, and are then swept out to exhaust, and the cycle
recommences with the introduction of a fresh charge of
petrol and air.
o In the diesel or oil engine, the oil is sprayed under pressure
into the compressed air at the end of the compression
stroke, and the combustion is spontaneous due to the high
temperature of the air after compression.
o In a gas engine a mixture of gas and air is induced into the
cylinder, compressed and then ignited as in the petrol
engine by an electric spark.
- To give a basis of comparison for the actual internal-combustion
engine the air standard cycle is defined.
- In an air standard cycle the working substance is assumed to be
air throughout, all processes are assumed to be reversible, and the
source of heat supply and the sink for heat rejection are assumed
to be external to the air.
- The cycle can be represented on any diagram of properties, and is
usually drawn on the p-v diagram, since this allows a more direct
comparison to be made with the actual engine machine cycle.
- Note that an air standard cycle on a p-v diagram is a true
thermodynamic cycle, whereas a record of the pressure variations
in an engine cylinder against piston displacement is a machine
cycle.
 7

1.3 Joule Cycle

This is also known as Brayton or Constant Pressure cycle and forms

the basis for the closed cycle gas turbine unit. In this cycle the heat
supply and heat rejection processes occur reversibly at constant
pressure. The expansion and compression processes are isentropic.
T p
p2
T3 3 p2 2 3

T2 2
p1
T4
T1 4 p1
1 1 4

A B s v

Heat
supplied

3
2 Heater

Net work
Compressor
output
Turbine
4
1 Cooler

Heat
rejected

Neglecting velocity changes and applying the steady-flow energy

equation to each part of the cycle gives:
Work input to compressor = (h2 – h1) = cp(T2 – T1)
 8

Work output from turbine = (h3 – h4) = cp(T3 – T4)

Heat supplied in heater = (h3 – h2) = cp(T3 – T2)
Heat rejected in cooler = (h4 – h1) = cp(T4 – T1)
Thus
c p  T3  T2   c p  T4  T1  T4  T1
  1 (1.2)
c p  T3  T2  T3  T2

Since process 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 are isentropic between the same

pressures p2 and p1, then
  1 / 
T2 T3  p 2 
    r p  1 / 
T1 T4  p1 

where rp is the pressure ratio, p2/p1.

  1 /    1 / 
i.e. T3  T4 r p and T2  T1 r p
  1 /   T  T 
so T3  T2  r p 4 1

Hence substituting in the expression for the efficiency gives

T4  T1 1
  1  1    1 /  (1.3)
 T4  T1  rp  1 /  rp

Thus for the Joule cycle the cycle efficiency depends only on the
pressure ratio.

The work ratio (rw) is:

net work output
rw 
gross work output
 9

c p  T3  T4   c p  T2  T1   T1  T2 
  1 (1.4)
c p  T3  T4   T3  T4 
Now, as previously
T2 T3
  r p  1 / 
T1 T4
Therefore
T3
T2  T1 r p  1 /  and T4 
r p  1 / 

Hence substituting


T1 r p  1 /   1  T1   1 / 
rw  1 
 
T3 1  1 / r p  1 /   1
T3
rp (1.5)

Thus the work ratio depends not only on the pressure ratio but also
on the ratio of the minimum and maximum temperatures. For a given
inlet temperature, T1, the maximum temperature, T3, must be made as
high as possible for a high work ratio.
For an open-cycle gas turbine unit the actual cycle is not such a good
approximation to the ideal Joule cycle, since fuel is burned with the
air, and a fresh charge is continuously induced into the compressor.
The ideal cycle nevertheless provides a good basis for comparison,
and in many calculations for the ideal open-cycle gas turbine the
effects of the mass of fuel and the charge in the working fluid are
neglected.

Example 1.3
 10

In a gas turbine unit, air is drawn at 1.02 bar and 15 oC, and is
compressed to 6.12 bar. Calculate the thermal efficiency and the
work ratio of the ideal cycle, when the maximum cycle temperature
is limited to 800oC.

Solution
The ideal cycle is shown below on a T-s diagram.

From Eq. (1.3)

1 ( 1.4 1 ) / 1.4
  1  1.02  = 0.401
 1  
r p(  1 ) /   6.12 

The net work output of the cycle is given by the work output of the
turbine minus the work input in the compressor,
i.e., Net work output = cp(T3 – T4) – cp(T2 – T1)
Now,
(  1 ) /  ( 1.4 1 ) / 1.4
T2  p 2  T3  6.12 
     = 1.669
T1  p1  T4  1.02 

Therefore
T2 = 1.669 x T1 = 1.669 x 288 = 480.5 K
 11

and
T3 1073
T4   = 642.9 K
1.669 1.669
Thus,
Net work output
= 1.005(1073 – 642.9) – 1.005(480.5 – 288) = 238.8 kJ/kg
Gross work output
= work output of the turbine
= cp(T3 – T4) = 1.005(1073 – 642.9) = 432.3 kJ/kg
Then
net work output
Work ratio 
gross work output

238.8
  0.553
432.3

1.4 The Otto cycle

This is the ideal air standard cycle for the petrol engine, the gas
engine and the high speed oil engine. It consists of the following
processes:
Process 1-2 = isentropic compression
Process 2-3 = reversible constant volume heating
Process 3-4 = isentropic expansion
Process 4-1 = reversible constant volume heating

3
 p
12

2
4

v2 v1 v

To give a direct comparison with an actual engine the ratio of the

specific volumes, v1/v2, is taken to be the same as the compression
ratio of the actual engine, i.e.
Compression ratio,
v1
rv 
v2

swept volume  clearance volume


clearance volume
The heat supplied at constant volume between T 2 and T3 is given by:
Q1 = cv(T3 – T2)
Similarly the heat rejected per unit mass at constant volume between
T4 and T1 is given by
Q2 = cv(T4 – T1)
Processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 are isentropic and therefore there is no
heat flow.
Thus

c v  T3  T2   c v  T4  T1  T  T1
  1 4 (1.6)
c v  T3  T2  T3  T2

Now for processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4, which are isentropic,

 13

 1  1
T2 T3  v1  v 
     4   rv 1
T1 T4  v 2   v3



Then T3  T4 rv 1 and T2  T1 rv 1

Hence substituting gives
T4  T1 1
  1  1 (1.7)
 
T4  T1 rv 1 rv 1

Thus the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle depends only on the
compression ratio, rv.

Example 1.4
Calculate the ideal air standard cycle efficiency based on the Otto
cycle for a petrol engine with a cylinder bore of 50 mm, a stroke of
75 mm and a clearance volume of 21.3 cm3.

Solution

Swept volume =  50 2  75 = 147200 mm3 = 147.2 cm3
4
Therefore,
Total cylinder volume = 147.2 + 21.3 = 168.5 cm3
i.e.,
168.5
Compression ratio, rv   7.914
21.3
 14

1 1
Then   1   1  0.563
rv 1 7.914 0.4

1.5 The Diesel Cycle

This is ideal air standard cycle for the original diesel engine and
consists of the following processes:
Process 1-2 = isentropic compression
Process 2-3 = reversible constant pressure heating
Process 3-4 = isentropic expansion
Process 4-1 = reversible constant volume cooling

p
p3 = p2 2 3

v2 v1 v

Heat supplied, Q1 = cp(T3 – T2)

Heat rejected, Q2 = cv(T4 – T1)
There is no heat flow in processes 1-2 and 3-4 since they are
isentropic.
 15

By substituting in the equation of thermal efficiency, i.e.,

Q1  Q2

Q1
and expressing each temperature in terms of T 1 and compression
ratio (v1/v2) or cut-off ratio (v3/v2) the following equation may be
derived:

  1
  1 (1.8)
   1 rv 1

where
 = v3/v2 = cut-off ratio
rv = v1/v2 = compression ratio
Thus the thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle depends not only on the
compression ratio but also on the heat supplied between 2 and 3,
which fixes the ratio v3/v2.

Example 1.5
A diesel engine has an inlet temperature and pressure of 15 oC and 1
bar respectively. The compression ratio is 12/1 and the maximum
cycle temperature is 1100 oC. Calculate the air standard thermal
efficiency based on the diesel cycle.
Solution

Referring to the figure below,

 16

T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K and T3 = 1100 + 273 = 1373 K

Now,
 1
T2  v1 
   rv 1  12 0.4 = 2.7
T1  v 2 
i.e., T2 = 2.7 x 288 = 778 K
At constant pressure from 2 to 3, since pv = RT for a perfect gas,
then
T3 v 3

T2 v 2

v 3 1373
i.e.,   1.765
v2 778
Therefore
v 4 v 4 v 2 v1 v 2 1
   12  = 6.8
v3 v 2 v3 v 2 v3 1.765
Also,
 1
T3  v 4 
   6.8 0.4 = 2.153
T4  v 3 
 17

1373
i.e., T4  = 638 K
2.153
Heat input, per kg of air, is
Q1 = cp(T3 – T2) = 1.005(1373 – 778) = 598 kJ/kg

Heat rejected, per kg of air, is

Q2 = cv(T4 – T1) = 0.718(638 – 288) = 251 kJ/kg

Therefore,
Q1  Q 2 598  251
  = 0.58
Q1 598

1.6 The dual-combustion cycle

This is also known as the limited-pressure or mixed cycle and is the
ideal air standard cycle of modern diesel and oil engines. It consists
of the following processes:
Process 1-2 = isentropic compression
Process 2-3 is reversible constant volume heating
Process 3-4 = reversible constant pressure heating
Process 4-5 = isentropic expansion
Process 5-1 = reversible constant volume cooling

3
p3 = p4 4

2
 p

18

5
1

v2 = v3 v1 v

The heat is supplied in two parts, the first part at constant volume
and the remainder at constant pressure, hence the name ‘dual-
combustion’. In order to get the thermal efficiency, three factors are
necessary. These are:
- The compression ratio, rv = v1/v2,
- The ratio of pressure, rp = p3/p2, and
- The ratio of volumes,  = v4/v3.
Then it can be shown that
rp    1
  1
 rp  1  rp    1 rv 1 (1.9)

Thus the thermal efficiency of a dual-combustion cycle depends not

only on the compression ratio but also on the relative amounts of
heat supplied at constant volume and at constant pressure.
Equation (8.9) is much too cumbersome to use, and the best method
of calculating thermal efficiency is to evaluate each temperature
round the cycle and then get the total heat supplied (Q1) and the total
heat rejected (Q2) as:
Q1 = cv(T3 – T2) + cp(T4 – T3)
Q2 = cv(T5 – T1)
Note that when rp = 1 (i.e. p3 = p2), then Eq (1.9) reduces to the
thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle.
 19

Example 1.6
An oil engine takes in air at 1.01 bar, 20oC and the maximum cycle
pressure is 69 bar. The compressor ratio is 18/1. Calculate the air
standard thermal efficiency and the mean effective pressure based on
the dual-combustion cycle. Assume that the heat added at constant
volume is equal to the heat added at constant pressure. [Mean
effective pressure is the height of a rectangle having the same length
and area as the cycle plotted on a p-v diagram.]

Solution
The cycle is shown below on a p-v diagram.

 1
T2  v1 
   18 0.4 = 3.18
T1  v 2 
i.e., T2 = 3.18 x T1 = 3.18 x (20 + 273) = 931 K
From 2 to 3 the process is at constant volume, hence
p 3 T3 p3 v3 p v
 since  2 2 and v3 = v2
p 2 T2 T3 T2
 20

p3 69  931
i.e., T3   T2 
p2 p2
To find p2, use the equation:

p 2  v1 
   181.4 = 57.2
p1  v 2 
i.e., p2 = 57.2 x 1.01 = 57.8 bar
69  931
Then substituting, T3  = 1112 K
57.8
Now the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at
constant pressure in this example, therefore
cv(T3 – T2) = cp(T4 – T3)
i.e., 0.718(1112 – 931) = 1.005(T4 – 1112)
0.718  181
Therefore, T4   1112 = 1241.4 K
1.005
To find T5 it is necessary to know the value of the volume ratio, v5/v4.

At constant pressure from 3 to 4

v 4 T4 1241.4
  = 1.116
v 3 T3 1112

v 5 v1 v v 1
Therefore,   1 3  18  = 16.14
v4 v4 v2 v4 1.116
 1
T v 
And 4   5   16.14 0.4 = 3.04
T5  v 4 
1241.4
i.e., T5  = 408 K
3.04
 21

Now the heat supplied, Q1, is given by

Q1 = cv(T3 – T2) + cp(T4 – T3)

Or Q1 = 2cv(T3 – T2)
since in this example the heat added at constant volume is equal to
the heat added at constant pressure.
Therefore
Q1 = 2 x 0.718 x (1112 – 931) = 260 kJ/kg
The heat rejected is given by
Q2 = cv(T5 – T1) = 0.718(408 – 293) = 82.6 kJ/kg

Then
Q1  Q 2 260  82.6
  = 0.682
Q1 260
The net work done,
- W = Q1 – Q2 = Q1 = 0.682 x 260 = 177 kJ/kg
From the definition of mean effective pressure,
- W = pm(v1 – v2)
Using pv = RT and rv = v1/v2 = 18, then

 v  17 17 RT1
v1  v 2   v1  1   v1 
 18  18 18 p1

17  287  293
 = 0.786 m3/kg
18  1.01  10 5
Then substituting,
- W = pm x 0.786
 22

or
pm = - W/0.786 kJ/m3
i.e.
177  10 3
Mean effective pressure  = 2.25 bar
10 5  0.786

1.7 The Stirling cycle

This has an efficiency equal to that of the Carnot cycle but has a
higher work ratio. It consists of the following processes
Process 1-2 = reversible constant volume heating
Process 2-3 = isothermal expansion
Process 3-4 = reversible constant volume cooling
Process 4-1 = isothermal compression

p 2

T2= T3
1

3
T1= T4
4
v

 p2 
Heat supplied, Q23  RT2 ln  and Heat rejected,

 p3 
 p 
Q41  RT1 ln 1 
 p4 
 23

Thus
p 
RT1 ln  2 
 1  p3 
(1.10)
p 
RT2 ln 1 
 p4 
p 2 T2
For the constant volume process 1-2, 
p1 T1

p 3 T3 T2
and for process 3-4,  
p 4 T4 T1

p2 p p p
Therefore  3 and 2  1
p1 p4 p3 p4

Hence
T1
  1 (1.11)
T2
= the Carnot efficiency

1.8 The Ericsson cycle

This also has an efficiency equal to that of the Carnot cycle but has a
higher work ratio. It consists of the following processes:
Process 1-2 = reversible constant pressure heating
Process 2-3 = isothermal expansion
Process 3-4 = reversible constant pressure cooling
Process 4-1 = isothermal compression
 24

p
1 2

T2= T3
T1= T4

3
4

Note: The Stirling and Ericsson cycles, although not extensively

used to model actual engines, are presented to illustrate the effective
use of a regenerator, a heat exchanger which utilises waste heat.
Note that for both the constant-volume processes of the Stirling cycle
and the constant-pressure processes of the Ericsson cycle the heat
transfer Q12 required by the gas is equal in magnitude to the heat
transfer Q34 discharged by the gas. This suggests the use of a
regenerator that will, internally to the cycle, transfer the otherwise
wasted heat from the air during process 3-4 to the air during process
1-2. The net result of this is that the thermal efficiency of each of
these two ideal cycles equals that of a Carnot cycle operating
between the same two temperatures.

Supplementary Problems
1. What is the highest cycle efficiency possible for a heat
engine operating between 800 and 15oC?
 25

2. Two reversible heat engines operate in series between a

source at 527oC and a sink at 17oC. If the engines have
equal efficiencies and the first rejects 400 kJ to the
second, calculate:
(a) the temperature at which heat is supplied to the second
engine;
(b) the heat taken from the source;
(c) the work done by each engine.
Assume that each engine operates on the Carnot cycle.
3. In a Carnot cycle operating between 307 and 17 oC the
maximum and minimum pressures are 62.4 bar and 1.04
bar. Calculate the cycle efficiency and the work ratio.
Assume air to be the working fluid.
4. A closed-cycle gas turbine unit operating with maximum
and minimum temperatures of 760 and 20oC has a
pressure ratio of 7/1. Calculate the ideal cycle efficiency
and the work ratio.
5. In an air standard Otto cycle the maximum and
minimum temperatures are 1400 and 15 oC. The heat
supplied per kg of air is 800 kJ. Calculate the
compression ratio and the cycle efficiency. Calculate
also the ratio of maximum to minimum pressures in the
cycle.
6. A four-cylinder petrol engine has a swept volume of
2000 cm3, and the clearance volume in each cylinder is
 26

60 cm3. Calculate the air standard cycle efficiency. If the

introduction conditions are 1 bar and 24 oC, and the
maximum cycle temperature is 1400 oC, calculate the
mean effective pressure based on the air standard cycle.
7. Calculate the cycle efficiency and mean effective
pressure of an air standard diesel cycle with a
compression ratio of 15/1, and maximum and minimum
cycle temperatures of 1650oC and 15oC respectively. The
maximum cycle pressure is 45 bar.
8. In a dual-combustion cycle the maximum temperature is
2000oC and the maximum pressure is 70 bar. Calculate
the cycle efficiency and the mean effective pressure
when the pressure and temperature at the start of
compression are 1 bar and 17oC respectively. The
compression ratio is 18/1.
9. An air standard dual-combustion cycle has a mean
effective pressure of 10 bar. The minimum pressure and
temperature are 1 bar and 17 oC respectively, and the
compression ratio is 16/1. Calculate the maximum cycle
temperature when the cycle efficiency is 60%. The
maximum cycle pressure is 60 bar.
10. Show that the thermal efficiency of the Ericcson cycle is
equal to that of the Carnot cycle. Note that heat transfers
in the constant-pressure processes cancel out and so they
are not considered.
27