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A General Overview of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), From Theory To Practice

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International Journal of Language and Linguistics

2014; 2(5-1): 1-11


Published online August 24, 2014 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijll)
doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.s.2014020501.11
ISSN: 2330-0205 (Print); ISSN: 2330-0221 (Online)

A general overview of task-based language teaching


(TBLT), from theory to practice
Fatemeh Ahmadniay Motlagh*, Alireza Sharif Jafari, Zohreh Yazdani
Faculty of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

Email address:
english.f.ahmadnia@gmail.com (F. A. Motlagh), a.sharif.tesol@gmail.com (A. S. Jafari), zohrehhyazdani@gmail.com (Z. Yazdani)

To cite this article:


Fatemeh Ahmadniay Motlagh, Alireza Sharif Jafari, Zohreh Yazdani. A General Overview of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT),
from Theory to Practice. International Journal of Language and Linguistics. Special Issue: Teaching English as a Foreign/Second
Language. Vol. 2, No. 5-1, 2014, pp. 1-11. doi: 10.11648/j.ijll.s.2014020501.11

Abstract: Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) as an innovative approach is the development of Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT). It has linguistic, philosophical and pedagogical bases, as well; however, its theories of learning
are more fundamental than those of language. TBLT focuses on language itself, language acquisition and language
performance, simultaneously. It is learner centered and promotes learners’ confidence and enthusiasm. Tasks are of
paramount importance since they facilitate learning and teaching activities. Even novice teachers who can engage learners
in communication can handle such a class. The teacher is expected to be open minded and creative. Pair work, group work
and teacher tailored tasks are done in classes. TBLT has all the four major skills within its domain and language is used in
order to be learnt. Such being the case, it trains autonomous learners who can use English outside the classroom in real life
circumstances. Learners are involved in classroom assessments and negotiation of meaning which increase teachers’ and
learners’ awareness of learning and test taking strategies, respectively.

Keywords: Task, Communication, Autonomous Learners, Negotiation of Meaning, Pre-task Phase, Task Phase,
Post-task Phase

language in various ways in comparison with previous


Background approaches; thus, it has been claimed that they are more
Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is a teaching interested in learning the target language. Teachers, too,
approach which is based on the use of communicative and can select and make innovatively helpful class activities.
interactive tasks in order to plan and deliver instruction. This approach provides learners with an authentic context
Task based language teaching is an extension of the in which they can use language. In such an approach, they
characteristics of communicative language teaching and an have abundant chances to interact with each other and
attempt by its supporters to apply principles of L2 to acquire the language as a result of attempting to understand
teaching. It has been regarded as an innovative approach. each other and to be understood.
Such an approach is “a development of CLT”. This
approach relies on three major notions in terms of tasks. 1. Approach (Theory)
Richards and Rogers (2002) introduce such criteria as:
“1.Activities involve real language communication are Like any other approach, TBLT has linguistic,
essential for language learning. philosophical and pedagogical bases. A chief underlying
2. Activities in which language is used for carrying out notion here is that theories of learning are more essential
meaningful tasks promote learning. than those of language. According to (Nunan, 2004) in
3. Language that is meaningful to the learner supports TBT “...the deployment of grammatical knowledge to
the learning process.” express meaning” reveals that in TBLT form and meaning
As a matter of fact, tasks gained importance as the most are closely interrelated; in other words, grammar is a great
major part of instruction since the 1970s to challenge asset to facilitate conveying meaning for interlocutors
traditional form based methods. In TBLT learners face (Xin-ming, 2010). Naturally, tasks greatly facilitate
2 Fatemeh Ahmadniay Motlagh et al.: A General Overview of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), from Theory to Practice

learning and teaching activities. TBLT adds to all the to make decision whether to use similar tasks in future
previous approaches and methods without discrediting classes or try to use other alternatives. It goes without
them. It actually emphasizes the notion of how to learn saying that getting learners involved in classroom
more than how to teach. It focuses on language itself, assessments increases both teachers and students’
language acquisition and language performance awareness of learning and test taking strategies. This
simultaneously (Jiangquin, Feng & Min, 2008). Yet another awareness includes both input and output processing. It
major plus point about TBT is its being learner centered. also provides them with promising opportunities to figure
This not only increases chances of meaningful out their weak points as well as their strengths. Another
communicative activities but also as a result of being chief underlying notion behind TBLT is believed to be”
centered around learners’ personal experiences and needs, negotiation of meaning.” in acquiring L2, meaning
they are much more likely to be interested and involved. In negotiation brings some specific parts of the learners’
other words, classroom activities are not pre determined by utterance (elements of form) into attention for further
teachers but instead are adopted, devised, adapted and revision and modification .This whole process, which
revised to meet needs of those specific groups. includes negotiation of meaning, revision, modification,
further rewording and experimenting with the new
1.1. Theory of Learning language items is a focal factor acquisition. In TBLT
As fundamental bedrock, it is believed that with TBLT, language acquisition takes place as a result of interaction
many people are provided with the confidence as well as and negotiation of meaning. These follow from
the willingness to interact with others effectively in a development of learners’ L2 interlanguage. Also, learners’
foreign language. This is true even for those who are not as attempt to co-construct meaning in groups facilitates the
proficient as they are expected to be in terms of grammar acquisition. (Tavakoli, 2009).
and form. In TBLT learners are provided with abundant 1.2. Theory of Language
opportunities to exploit the language they already know in
the classroom without being afraid of making mistakes. In Although TBLT is mostly concerned with theories of
other words, it promotes learners’ confidence and learning than theories of language, it regards language as a
enthusiasm. This is a result of both task activity and the means through which meaning is conveyed. In other words,
follow up achievement. TBLT, contrary to what many may meaning is of utmost importance. This approach is not”
believe, does not rule out form focused activities. Indeed, concerned with language display”. Language focus refers to
such activities are emphasized to develop oral use of the conscious thinking about language in the context of a
target language. In other words, in TBLT the main focus is meaning focused activity. In other words, as learners are
empowering meaningful interaction while students’ getting ready for a meaning focused activity, they think
attention is drawn to language form when and where about the language or work together to solve their language
necessary. It has been indicated by SLA research that problems. Based on the nature of the task and related texts,
developing a second language is not only a function of items are identified for a more precise focus on form. Here,
exposing learners to “comprehensible input” but mostly the parts that are to be dealt with are selectively decided for
depends on getting them involved in naturalistic and and chosen. This is done selectively because it is clearly
meaningful communication. A TBLT classroom revolves impossible or impractical to cover all the language of a text
around pair work, group work and teacher tailored tasks. or a task. Proponents of TBLT refer to language as
Such a teacher is supposed to be open minded; even an structure, function and a means of interaction. This means
inexperienced teacher who can engage learners in that TBLT benefits from all three models together and none
communication can handle such a class. Creativity, of them specifically in isolation. An underlying belief
however, can be a great asset for such a teacher. behind benefiting from tasks in ELT is that they can bring
TBLT has all the four major skills within its domain. As all other units of instruction such as syntactic, lexical and
a matter of fact, in such a class language is used in order to functional ones together. A fundamental belief here is that
be learnt. Naturally, the language which is practiced in lexical units of language are focal both in language
TBLT classroom is not predetermined but rises from the acquisition and language use. TBLT puts a stronger
specific projects and tasks that students are required to emphasis on vocabulary in comparison with traditional
fulfill. However, it must be emphasized that TBLT is not approaches.
basically designed for examinations. Its very first goal is to
train autonomous learners who can use English outside the 2. Design/Method
classroom in real life circumstances. Some of projects
encourage learners to move into the real world and have 2.1. Introduction
real life encounter with language. This way, the gap
between language study and language use can be made up Task based approaches start from the meaning; thus, they
for to a satisfactory extent. Here, final judgment is based contrast with the ones that have form in the center of
upon learners’ improvement to use the language for attention; TBLT casts doubt upon such assumption about
communication; for example, assessment helps the teacher the way language is learnt. Here, it is firmly believed that
International Journal of Language and Linguistics2014; 2(5-1): 1-11 3

language learning is not just an additive process; instead, it As went above, a major feature of TBLT is its
is a process of formulating and hypothesis checking. In dependence on needs analysis prior to selecting any
TBLT, objectives must be perfectly matched with the pedagogic materials. These needs can be approached as
specific needs of learners in real world contexts. Naturally, four major categories namely: cognitive, social, affective
the particular content skills and abilities that are acquired as and psychomotor (Xin-ming, et al., 2010). It is evident that
a result of task processes are less important than the process every individual learner has his or her own way of learning,
dimensions. In brief, the task-exercise distinction, the and it is due to their different knowledge set, past
construct validity of task and pedagogic outcomes are three experiences, motivation, communicative needs and cultural
major criteria that should be taken into consideration. Thus, and pedagogic values. This highlights the significance of
the main goal in TBLT is to provide learners with a usable well-planned needs analysis containing:
meaning system that can be used authentically based on a 1. Target situation analysis: the demands of the target
range of language to which they are exposed. A significant situation
departure point between TBLT and previous approaches is 2. Deficiency Analysis
placing focus on form at the end of a series of activities. 3. Strategy Analysis
This is significantly different from the traditional PPP 4. Means Analysis
method in which learners are conditioned to concentrate on 5. Language audits
a limited set of forms without having meaning in the center In the other theory four stages in developing language
of attention. In TBLT, however, a flexible attitude is taken program are stated, first of which is needs analysis. It is
with regard to instruction. This is mainly a function of believed that tasks determine a framework for classroom
learners’ needs and developmental readiness (Huang, teaching stages. He also believes that data about learners
2010). needs can be directly obtained from researchers in SLA
rather than people such as teachers. Another approach to
2.2. Syllabus needs analysis rises from the fact that tasks can be well
In more recently developed proposals on syllabus design used as units of analysis to analyze ones’ language skills. In
three approaches receive more emphasis, namely, other word, this can be considered as an innovative way of
procedural syllabus, process syllabus, and task based analyzing what goes or has taken place in classroom. In
language teaching. In TBLT, however, a significant doing so tasks are classified based on analysis and
departure point from procedural syllabus and process consequently needs analysis into three distinct levels. In the
syllabus is the necessity of conducting a thorough needs first level, tasks can be analyzed as target task which
analysis beforehand. In this regard, attention must be paid included people, daily interactions. These form the first
to recognizing possible difficulties that might tamper with criterion of needs. Second, needs analysis can be done with
or completely block the applicability of the syllabus in regard to task types. These results in tailoring courses to
terms of sources task complexity, grading and sequencing meet requirements of heterogeneous classes. Finally, it is
learners’ level and teaching materials. The last two items believed that another approach to analyze learners’ needs
are believed to be the most challengeable criteria ahead of and develop suitable tasks for them is to consider
syllabus designers in TBLT. Regarding learners, attention pedagogic tasks. By this he means class materials and
must be paid to language data, learners’ level, information, activities from another concern with regard to needs
age, cultural backgrounds, learners’ learning style and analysis. These tasks focus on various aspects of L2 skills
educational values in which TBLT is to be put into practice. which are necessary to cope with other tasks. A major
For instance, in terms of language data, the importance of factor in syllabus design for TBLT which is overlooked by
authenticity of language data is undeniable; this well many is cultural and social context of SLA. In this regard,
enables learners for real life situations. Unlike what many dominant pedagogic values in the target, learners’ learning
might suppose, the syllabus relies on sets of grammatical, styles and values must be carefully tended to.
phonological, lexical, functional and even notional items 2.3. Tasks
rather than just distinguishing a peculiar item. TBLT
benefits from a dynamic syllabus which is determined by TBLT benefits from innovation with regard to both
both teachers and learners. Such a syllabus is an outcome methodological and philosophical aspects. From a
of a careful needs analysis which is the base for devising methodological perspective, learners mostly resemble
and developing a curriculum. Multiple frameworks have language users than language learners in that a task based
been offered for syllabus design. These include authenticity, syllabus revolves around tasks and proceeds through them.
form function integration, and task dependency (Xin Ming, Task, is any activity which is designed to help achieve a
et al., 2010). Another consideration is learners’ level. Ellis particular learning goal. These can be categorized based on
(2004) believes that as learners advance, their main concern different dimensions of their use. These can be goals,
shifts from meaning and lexis to form. Hence, attention procedures, order, pacing, product, learning strategy,
must be paid to the fact that as learners further in their assessment, participation, resources and language. in other
language proficiency, they tend to work with usable words, task is as an activity with an outcome. In order to
language not explicit description of language. perform a task, learners must go through a process of
4 Fatemeh Ahmadniay Motlagh et al.: A General Overview of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), from Theory to Practice

thought which is monitored and organized by teachers. making task and problem solving tasks. Tasks can be
However, it must be mentioned that tasks, exercises and categorized based on skill, whether it requires speaking,
activities are different. Unlike an exercise, a task dose not writing, reading or listening. Text genre is another issue of
focus on a specific grammatical structure, but instead is an importance. Also tasks vary according to the level of
act of communication without a specifically linguistic information processing which they demand. Yet another
outcome. An exercise, on the other hand, has a limited factor can be the interlocutors (participants in the task).
focus on a particular language item and has a clear Theme and topic of the task are other factors. Finally,
linguistic outcome. An activity lies somewhere in the contextual support which is provided by the class materials
between, with some overlaps with both tasks and exercises. as well as linguistic features of the tasks must be taken into
A task is a manifestation of any sort of real life activity. consideration. Willis introduces three levels of representing
Exercises are great assets in pre task stages. A more real world. These can be based on level of meaning in
analytic probe of the differences between task, exercise and which meaning is produced based on its use in real world.
activity can lead us to the frame work which has been In the second level, which is called “level of discourse”
offered by (Little Wood, 2006). He has presented five learners are supposed to recognize the discourse and act
criteria. These spread over a spectrum which has solidly according. Finally, in “level of activity” learners take part
form based activities on the one end and purely in activities which represent real life and call for exploiting
communicative ones on the other end. These all can be whatever language they know. These can be looked upon
included in different stages of a TBLT class session. from a different angle too. ” Target tasks” which reproduce
As Little Wood (2006) believes, there are non discourse activities which are normally observed in daily
-communicative activities with a vivid focus on form, interactions. The other group is” facilitating tasks” which
pre-communicative language practice in which slightly a pave the way for the former group i.e. “target tasks”. Real
meaning oriented focus on form is observed, world tasks can be in a number of ways. For instance, in
communicative language practice form is exploited in order EAP approached (English for academic purposes) and ESP
to convey meaning and information, structured (English for specific purposes) learners are equipped with
communication in which a well-confined focus in what they will actually encounter in real world together
communication of meaning is sought, and finally authentic with the skills they need in real situations. These two can
communication is introduced as the most obvious form of greatly benefit from jigsaw tasks, role play activities and
communication in which having communication of prediction tasks (for EAP reading).
meaning in the center of attention, language forms cannot Another perspective can be tasks which are centered on
be anticipated nor pre dictated beforehand (Little Wood, everyday English. These can include conversation, story
2006). These can be of great help in planning, sequencing, telling, discussion, etc. learners’ attention must be raised
prioritizing and adapting a series of activities for a given regarding the link between the task and real life activity.
class with all its minute complexities. However, learners should be given the choice for the topics
of discussions. Another case for this perspective can be
2.3.1. Types of Tasks electronic communication in writing and reading, in a
A task based lesson goes far beyond a single task and sequence of mails. However, some other tasks, though real
incorporates a sequence of several overlapping tasks that world in nature is that they sometimes involve real world
back up one another. These fall into several classifications. meaning and discourse, can be called “artificial tasks”
From one perspective, tasks can be real world tasks and because they do not reflect the real world in which learners
pedagogical tasks. In a broader sense tasks, according to want to use English. For instance, describing or recalling
(Richards and Rogers, 2002: 234) can be: objects or asking partner to clarify what has been said are
“1. One way or two way tasks in terms of exchange of used as this type. Similar to real world tasks, pedagogic
information and ideas tasks are essential to any TBLT classroom. These are
2. Convergent or divergent tasks based on similarity of naturally derived from and designed and sequenced to lead
the final goal or goals to target tasks. These tasks are graded according to their
3. Single or multiple possible outcomes level of complexity.
5. Concrete or abstract language based on the use of
concrete or abstract language 2.3.2. Task Complexity
6. Simple or complex processing based on cognitive As went above, a chief issue in task design is level of
processing complexity. In broad terms, complexity can be defined as a
7. Simple or complex language composite measure of language use, which normally
8. Reaching based or not reality based” reflects the length of utterances and the amount of
From a more limited and traditional perspective, classes subordination used. In order to make basic decisions in
can be introduced in the form of listing, ordering and TBLT, possible sources of task complexity need to be
sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal anticipated and prepared for. The most promising guide to
experiences and creative tasks. These include jigsaw tasks, identify the level of difficulty of the task is the teachers’
information gap, tasks, opinion exchange tasks, decision intuition. Still, seven criteria can be introduced to increase
International Journal of Language and Linguistics2014; 2(5-1): 1-11 5

teachers’ awareness and strengthen his/her intuition. These planning, namely, pre-task and within-task planning. These
include open or closed outcome starting for the TBLT class are classified regarding time of the planning, either before
or task, pre task preparation and the amount of time and the task or during the performance. As went before, a
teachers ’ assistance, control demands of task structure and task-based class session includes a series of tasks which
agenda, interaction patterns and participant roles , pressure overlap and back up each other. It can be as simple as a
on language production ,and post task activities (Willis & teacher-led introduction in which learners are supposed to
Willis , 2007). However, Willis and Willis (2007) introduce process the input for its meaning. This priming paves the
more clarified features to judge task complexity in grading. way for the upcoming parts. Clearly, a TBLT classroom
These include cognitive familiarity of the topic and its can start from various points. These can be exemplified by
predictability, cognitive processing and the amount of watching a visual presentation, eliciting learners’
computation, the amount work and intellectual effort experiences or listening to some audio materials. During
required, communicative stress which involves timing the priming stage, input can be solidly authentic in the form
issues, code complexity which refers to linguistic of searching through websites. It can be preplanned and
complexity and variety and finally cognitive processing and prefabricated by the teacher. This can proceed through
the amount of computation, the amount of work and some parallel or serial tasks. This leads to analysis of the
intellectual effort required for understanding and form in the very final stages. In SLA, two alternative
conducting the task. (Westhoff, 2009). approaches with which class can be initiated have been
Generally speaking, it is a commonly held belief in introduced as form-focused start and meaning-focused start.
cognitive psychology that knowledge is acquired as a TBLT lies on the notion that encouraging learners to use
natural result of mental activity. This knowledge is the language to the extent possible disregard of some
believed to pile up in LTM (Long Term Memory) as possible shortcomings, slips, inaccuracies and information
records which derive from the activities in working gaps. In such meaning-based approaches learners are
memory (WM). Accordingly, tasks can be evaluated with offered opportunities to utilize and exploit language in class
regard to diversity, and strength of the mental processes for communication. Incidental focus on form naturally and
which are imposed on WM. Efficient SLA tasks activities inevitably takes place in such classes. In other words,
and exercise rely upon five major assumptions (Westhoff, during such sequences of activities, learners explore their
2009). These can be called “the SLA penta _pie, containing “language repertoire “(Willis and Willis, 2007) to find
all the basic ingredients of a complete and nutritious appropriate materials through which they can best express
“language meal”. At first, exposure to a comprehensively themselves. This focus on language can be occasionally led
rich language input is an indispensible factor, although not and intervened by the teacher, in order to refine their
exclusive for SLA. This exposure; however, must not be utterances and make it more comprehensible. This can
too far above the learners’ level of competence. Vygotsky continue by shifting learners’ focus on form more clearly.
puts it as” zone of proximal development ” and Krashen In brief, such a class starts with a focus on meaning,
names it ”i+1” .The next consideration is said to be followed by focus on language and finally focuses on form.
content oriented processing claiming that mere exposure to Evidently, this is a significant difference between TBLT
decent input is not enough, and input must be and former form-focused approaches. In TBLT, as just
comprehended and made into meaning input for WM. The mentioned, focus on form is put aside until final stages of
next criterion is form oriented processing in which form the class session. Such a classroom differs from
including grammar is focused on and processed. However, traditionally form-focused ones in a number of ways. First,
weak interface hypothesis puts emphasis on content learners’ utterances are not normally controlled nor limited
oriented input processing along with instruction on form. by the teacher. This way, learners can better feel and
The next consideration is pushed out put hypothesis. Here, comprehend the language they have been exposed to in
mention is made of benefits of such out put for raising context so far and ponder it more analytically later on.
learners’ awareness regarding their own weak point and Moreover, learners’ ability to utilize the language is the
drawbacks. This, in turn, leads to rise in their motivation. most major scales to evaluate the functionality of the
methodology. This actually emphasizes language which
will most probably be encountered or required in real life
3. Procedural/ Pedagogical Perspective/ circumstances. Unlike CLT, in TBLT it is believed that
Practice in Class studying form can increase chances of accuracy on
communication. In other words, such highlighting of form
Having discussed different aspects of task based teaching makes it more likely to be recalled later on. Another
so far, now it is time to bring all the theoretical knowledge justification is that during a meaning-focused sequence of
and frame works in to practice. Naturally, any class tasks, activities and exercises, focus on language and form
sessions needs a strategy point based upon which class naturally happens, since learners will seek possible ways to
continues through some themes, texts, activities and so on. make themselves understood as clearly as possible. In order
So, it is crucial to spend enough time on ways of devising to solve such shortage of knowledge, they consult their
tasks. (Ellis, 2004) introduces two approaches to TBLT peers or available sources to find what they lack. This
6 Fatemeh Ahmadniay Motlagh et al.: A General Overview of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), from Theory to Practice

incidental focus on form is believed to be of countless can increase students` consciousness with regard to minute
benefits. Last but not least, focusing on form at the end of complexities and aspects of the main performance.
the sequence is motivating for learners since they are However, SLA research indicates that a major
always curious to know why they have been studying what consideration in this kind of activity is enabling learners to
has been presented to them. This belief, disregarding of our scaffold one another during the main task phase. Another
method, learners need to be made aware of the learning concern here is that this type of activity might lead to
chances provided for them in a given lesson. Clearly, while focusing on one or two particular aspects of form and
students are struggling with the task and trying their best to consequently might be mistaken with an exercise. Yet
express all the meaning they have on mind, a focus on form another option in pre task phase can be Non-task
at the end of the sequence provides them with great relief preparation activities. These can greatly lower the linguistic
as they find proper answers to all possible questions and and cognitive complexity of the main task for the learners.
deficiencies of knowledge which they have encountered In terms of the linguistic aspects of activities of this type, is
during the sequence. This well justifies not starting the has been advised that vocabulary should receive much
class with grammar. more attention than grammar. Teachers can actually deal
with unfamiliar words or ones that can come in handy in
3.1. Planning a Task Sequence the main performance stage. By “strategic planning”
Evidently, a well planned sequenced of tasks is essential learners can be asked to decide how they will conduct the
to any TBLT classroom. This starts by identifying a topic task. Here, learners can be given the final goal and left
by the teacher. One which is a result of through needs alone to devise strategic steps to reach that goal. Another
analysis. This is followed by devising a series of target option can be providing them with guide lines which can be
tasks which are better to be authentic and real life. A major “detailed” or “undetailed”. In this sort of planning which
consideration is to decide how to warm learners up by can be done individually, in peers or in groups, attention
priming them. Priming can include introducing necessary must be paid to optimal time limit. Interestingly, the
vocabulary items, drawing students’ attention on the amount of time spent on this stage reveals no significant
ingredients of the series of tasks, and how to provide them influence on learners` fluency. In the main task stage SLA
with clearly explicitly guidelines on what they are supposed research advises one to ten minutes as practical timing for
to reach in the target task. This leads to facilitating tasks activities of this type. Another point which is worth
which in turn build up to target task. To introduce these all attention is that when strategic planning is guided by the
in detail, a TBLT class session can be divided into three teacher, it can be mostly form focused or content focused.
major phases namely opening (pre task phase), Generally speaking, pre task stage is aimed at
performance (task phase), and ending (post task phase) establishing schemata of any type in order to provide
learners with a grasp of the theme and expectations (goals)
3.1.1. Opening (pre-Task) Phase of the task. However, this stage should not be over loaded
This phase is aimed at preparing the learners, both since it is naturally supposed to take much less time than
cognitively and linguistically for the upcoming parts of the the main phase of task thus it is not necessary at all for the
lesson to enhance acquisition. A thoughtfully prepared and teacher to present and explain all the new vocabulary items
conducted opening phase greatly increases learners` of the real world must be at the service of the main task.
motivation to take part in the task. It also prepares them for Effects of such planning can be approached in terms of
the performance phase by providing them with knowledge accuracy, fluency and complexity. A study by Philip,
of language and appropriated knowledge of the words. Oliver and Mackey (2006: 550) indicates that effectiveness
Another consideration in this stage is “organizing the of such planning on learners’ accuracy is subject to
performance phase” (Van den Branden, 2006: 99).This is uncertainty. This is partly due to diversity of definition for
through vivid instructions regarding the objectives of the accuracy and partly due to variety of task related factors.
task and most probably useful guide lines on how the task However such pre task planning reveals improvement in
must or can be carried out. In order to bring these all into terms of complexity of the language which is produced by
practice, a number of acts can be done. As went above, in planning in comparison with non-planners.
this ‘stage ‘learners should be prepared both cognitively
and linguistically for the main task. According to Ellis 3.1.2. Performance (Main Task)
(2004) in this stage four alternatives are at teachers` As the title goes, in this stage learners are busy with the
disposal. First, a task similar to the main task can be done. task. As it was previously mentioned, in this stage students
In this trial performance the teacher leads this “smaller are given the opportunity to make use of all the language
version” of the main task so that learners` performance they already have. During this phase, the teacher keeps
during the main task can be scaffolded. This is believed to monitoring the students and provides them with guidelines
pave the way for “self-regulation” through “other and support. Although this phase can be done individually,
-regulation” (Ellis, 2004: 24). Another alternative in this it is highly advised that the task should be done in pairs or
phase can be offering a model. This not only can lower the groups. This can greatly lead to more spontaneous,
cognitive burden of the main task to a great extent but also confident and analytical talk. Moreover any kind of success
International Journal of Language and Linguistics2014; 2(5-1): 1-11 7

in fulfilling the goals of the task, increases learners’ Another way to tackle such situations is to integrate
motivation. In this phase two major procedural options can episodes of focus on form into the performance. This can
be utilized by the teacher. Ellis (2004) calls these “task be included right before initiating performance by eliciting
performance options”, which should be planned by the and directly focusing on the possible forms that are
teacher prior to the class. Here in performance options and essentials to the performance of given task. Another option
process options where on the spot decision making and can be incidental focus on form. This, which is of several
planning take place, while class is working on the task, benefits, can take place both on the teachers’ side and the
teacher can decide to give students limited time or let them learners’. A general notion here is that in task performance
be free. He or she can decide whether let learners have the content is directed by students, the form only by the
access to input data during task performance or not. This teacher. On the teachers’ side incidental correction and
has been a matter of debate for quite sometime. According feedback can take place. This kind of feedback, which is
to (Prabhu, 1987, as cited in Ellis, 2004:250) “borrowing” selective on the spot and occasional, is naturally different
from a set of input data is compatible with TBLT, since from systematic approaches to provide correction and
learners take over an available verbal formulation in order feedback. The teacher which monitoring the students must
to express some self-initiated meaning content instead of bear in mind that incidental focus on form during the
generating the formulation from one’s own competence. performance can greatly accelerate acquisition. So the
Clearly there is a difference between “borrowing” and teacher can either focus on form implicitly or explicitly
“reproduction” in which learners “take over” an input during the performance. These can range from negotiation
sample which is chosen by external authority such as the of meaning to negotiation of form during a performance.
teacher or the textbook. This “borrowing” which is well in This however, must be done with utmost care and caution
line with sociocultural theory can vividly lead to in order not to interfere with the performance which has
acquisition. Yet third option with regard to task been set on going. To meet this crucial need a number of
performance can be “introducing a surprise element”. This techniques have been suggested by Ellis (2004). These can
is done by providing some surprise or extra information be utilized both by the teacher (an interlocutor in the
halfway through the task performance. However research performance of the task) and the learners. A plus point
has not yet verified the effectiveness of this element on about these techniques is that they not only do not tamper
learners’ fluency, accuracy or language complexity. with the ongoing performance of the task, but also add to
According to Ellis (2004), the second procedural option this authenticity and naturalness. In other words, such
that can be taken into account by the teacher is called techniques are inherent to any daily conversation and
“process option”. These simply refer to all the activities, interaction. On the implicit side, request for clarification
planning and selection that take place in the course of and recast can be mentioned. On the explicit side, explicit
performance. These all are a function of both the teacher correction, metalingual comment /question, query and
and learners’ learning and teaching experience ,their advice are proposed as possible techniques. Implicitly or
philosophy of education, learning or teaching styles/habits, explicitly of the approach is largely a function of the level
and of course “practical knowledge”. In order to make this of proficiency and motivation. Naturally lower level
possible, in TBLT, texts need to be learner-centered and learners or ones with lower motivation require a selectively
chosen with utmost care to meet learners’ needs. This can controlled and structured agenda. On the contrary, as
greatly encourage their active participation in the process of factors such as level of the learners, level of motivation and
performance. In practice, in TBLT learners are assumed to level of complexity of the task rise, “a looser” agenda can
forget where they really are and disregard of the classroom, be opted. This will naturally leave some parts open to
learn language through utilizing it instead of being taught. learners to be devised and planed through negotiation and
This naturally can come to life through team work. Without intra group communication. This can be within a time limit.
feeling the teachers’ presence, learner’ risk taking behavior Though a flexible timing system is what actually takes
can improve. However, this ideally pure student-student place in a real classroom, when learners are given some
interaction can have some destructive rather than limited time, they feel more obliged and thus motivated to
constructive outcomes. A number of such major concerns act quickly.
are to be regarded cautiously and be headed off. One of However, it is largely a matter of goals of the task,
these can be mineralization. In brief mineralization refers to learners’ level, fluency, objectives and other factors.
students’ resorting to minimizing their utterances to get Timing can also be done in terms of fulfilling a number of
their message across. This way evidently, they can goals; i.e., if some assigned goals are fulfilled by the teams,
communicate what they want, but it is not of any benefit to it can be called a wrap. Still, for a “looser” agenda students
“stretch” their language, which is an underlying objective decide for such issues as timing through negotiation. With
in TBLT. This can partly rise from the fact that in a purely regard to what actually is put into practice , previously
TBLT classroom condition, language might be regarded mention was made of different task types, first a traditional
only a means to an end. Naturally, the simpler the means, classification includes, according to Willis and Willis
the better. Still, a well-planned and well-monitored task (2007), listing which can put into practice through
performance can prevent such concerns to a great extent. brainstorming, fact-finding, games based on listing( quizzes,
8 Fatemeh Ahmadniay Motlagh et al.: A General Overview of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), from Theory to Practice

memory challenge and guessing games). Next ordering and regarding form. Focus on form can be done in an oral or
sorting can be done as sequencing a series of pictures and written manner.
developing a story for it , rank ordering of a series of item, Yet another option is task repetition. This is proved to be
classifying some items or ideas and games based on of numerous benefits. Several scholars including Ellis,
classified sets. The next traditional criterion is comparing 2003; Pinter, 2005; Bygate, 2001; and Essig, 2005; as cited
and contrasting which can be brought into practice through in Willis and Willis (2007) all agree that repeating the same
comparison tasks and games. Fourth, problem-solving tasks task with the same goal leads to a more comprehensive
and puzzles. Next is sharing personal experience through lexical level with higher accuracy, fluency and structural
story telling, anecdotes and reminiscences. These can also complexity. However, in order to make it more challenging
be included in the pre-task phase. Last but not least, and fine, stricter time limits can be assigned. Besides, the
creative task can be mentioned. These students are teacher can include some language work during post task.
supposed to make projects or class presentation. Regarding Focus on form in this stage is more detailed and
interactional classification on task, jigsaw task, also called comprehensive in comparison with the pre task stage.
a split-information task are amongst the most popular. In Obviously, focus on form in this stage is mostly in an
such tasks different groups have different pieces of inductive manner. Obviously, this focus on form must be
information. Final conclusion is reached by putting these planned in advance. As a result of this attentive focus on
pieces together through negotiation and interaction. form, learners’ knowledge will be more systematized and
Another criterion is information gap tasks. These gaps that their consciousness regarding words and functions will
are formed in corrupted texts can require factual pieces of grow. In addition to this preplanned focus on form, there
information, linguistic information or be in need of being are other ways in which focus on form is rather done off
reordered. In order to fill the gaps, students are required to handedly. For instance, class can analyze task recordings or
go through interaction and negotiation. These can be teacher can collect examples by providing students with
regarded as a problem solving activity. In reordering a words and expressions they lacked or required in the
corrupted text, sentences and phrases are reordered in order performance stage. Finally, evaluation and feedback can be
to restore the text as it is supposed to be. Other criteria with included in the final stages of the sequence. To do so,
regard to interactional classification include problem students are asked to write anonymous notes on their
solving, decision making tasks and opinion exchange tasks. feelings regarding how the task went on. These can include
both ideas for and against the whole sequence. Interestingly,
3.1.3. Post Task this can be looked upon as a real life task in nature. These
Post task is the third phase in which learners’ look back data can be of great constructive outcomes for the teacher
at their activities up until this stage. Evaluation in this stage to orient, reorient, arrange and adapt his or her tasks and
is done both by the teachers and by the students while activities in order to have finer tuned tasks for the future.
students review what they have accomplished. Here, again
the teacher has the role of a counselor and a consultant. In 3.2. Evaluation/ Assessment/ Examination
this stage, a number of activities can be put into practice.
An approach at the teachers’ disposal in post task is to Several scholars have discussed micro and macro
recycle texts. A text, which has been exploited to a great evaluation in TBLT. These can be conducted in both
extent in pre task and task phases, has still a lot to offer. It formative and summarative formats. Generally speaking,
is inclusive of useful language items. In post task such assessment is done based on the degree of their
language items can be brought into attention for further demonstration and real life testing. Naturally, it evaluates
study. It simply provides learners with useful language the task outcome. As previously discussed, TBLT basically
from the already studied text. Recycling can be done aims at enabling learners to use the language in daily
through memory challenge, corrupted text, quizzes, group situations. However, nobody can deny the importance of
dictation, communal memory, summaries and personalizing testing in language teaching and learning. Tests today
tasks. These are aimed at persuading learners to process include both communicative and form focused sections. A
language in various ways. Another option in post task is good example for this can be introducing a short test on
reporting. It is proved to be of several benefits. For instance, vocabulary or structure right in the post task phase
less confident learners, by reporting to a partner, can gain compatible with the tests they have ahead of them. This can
more confidence in this kind of activity and to extend the be a very traditional multiple choice test or a gap filling one.
audience can increase accuracy as well as fluency. Another alternative, which seems more TBLT based, is to
According to a study by Johnston (2005) as cited in Willis ask students design their own tests on the materials they
and Willis (2007) following a planning and report stage, have just worked with. Here, students can be looked upon
level of syntactical accuracy showed improvement in as “question masters” (Willis & Willis, 2007). A major
learners. Their choice of vocabulary and functions was need to develop a medium to assess learning tasks was the
more native like and of more diversity in comparison with driving force behind the fact that a number of CFL teachers,
the main performance phase. This is first focused on especially in Europe, made a great effort to find realistic
reviewing content and later deals with more details tasks which were rich in real life content and linguistic
aspects. Accordingly, tasks should be evaluated regarding
International Journal of Language and Linguistics2014; 2(5-1): 1-11 9

the type, diversity and strength of the mental processing supposed to be open minded; even an inexperienced teacher
they impose on WM. who can engage learners in communication can handle such
a class. This is done by exposing learners to L2. However,
3.3. Snapshot of the Classroom there are several other roles associated with a TBLT
So far, different aspects of running a class session in teacher. Such a teacher is mostly a leader and organizer of
TBLT have been illustrated. However, the teacher, learners, tasks and class management in order to lead the whole class
class materials and class room language need more towards the objectives of tasks. This is much more than
clarification. being merely a supplier of knowledge. In broad terms, such
a teacher leads and organizes discussions, manages groups
3.3.1. Classroom Language and pairs, facilitates performance and acquisition,
As previously mentioned, TBLT provides learners with motivates learners by appropriate feedback and
abundant opportunities to deal with language in a less highlighting their achievements, advises learners on
confidence and less traditionally teacher dominated language and finally acts as a language teacher. Other roles
classroom. This is facilitated through getting learners of such a teacher can be selecting and sequencing tasks,
involved in a large arena of extended discourse for preparing learners for tasks, and finally
spontaneously daily interaction. Utterances can be consciousness-raising. These roles vary according to what
monologues, dialogues and class discussions. However, the part of the sequence the class is dealing with.
classroom is still confined to some extent in comparison
with a real life context. Still, the TBLT teacher is 3.3.3. Learners’ Role
responsible for preparing students to cope with a wide Being a learner centered approach, in TBLT it specific
range of daily circumstances they have ahead of them. A roles are assigned to each member of the team, more
major concern has always been use of L1 in TBLT balanced participation and a more well-organized flow of
classrooms. This is believed to be of both plus point, and tasks can be gained. These can include being a
minus points. On the upside, it can facilitate the pace of writer/secretary/reporter, a long wage consultant, a
class in dealing with social and cognitive functions. . In this leader/chairperson, a spokes person, and an observer of
regard, students’ use of L1 while working in group or pairs interaction/participation (Willis & Willis, 2007). Richards
can give rise to developing hypotheses about the target and Rodgers (2002) mention some other roles for learners
language. This can be justified according to principles of within the frame work of TBT. Learners can be group
CLT. Moreover, regarding learners’ identity, in cases use participants to fulfill the above mentioned roles. Also, they
of L1 eases communication of cultural values and beliefs are highly supposed to notice how language is used in real
they have in common. However, this can give learners’ the life communication. This monitoring can include both the
freedom of overusing L1. Evidently, this can gradually learner themselves as well as other peers. Another role
dilute the psycholinguistic rationale in a TBLT class. This which is assigned to learners is risk taker and innovator.
is dispiriting for the teacher as well. This can rise from at Here, learners are required to create and interpret utterances
least three reasons. According to Carless (2008) being beyond the domain of their linguistic resources and already
placed in a teacher oriented class, teachers’ inability to held experiences.
establish interaction among learners, and students’ concern 3.3.4. Class Materials
about making mistakes motivate them to resort to L1 use. In TBLT pedagogic materials are of great importance.
These all can be handled to a great extent through pair They carry the burden of many of the tasks within the frame
work and group work in TBLT. Also, task repetition can work of TBLT. These can vary from already existing
really encourage use of L2 instead of L1 in later materials to those which are by the teacher. These are greatly
performances. Some teachers set less strict rules with a function of tailored the intuition and experience of the task
regard to use of L1 at earlier stages of each sequence. designer. Many of such materials are highly used in other
These rules get stricter as the sequence goes on. Still, approaches such as CLT, collaborative learning as well as
benefits of selective and reasonable use of L1is undeniable. any kind of small group project or activity. Fortunately, a
In another study by (Lee, 2002) use of TBLT in teaching number of resource books are available to be exploited in
pronunciation. Through technological teaching aids in TBLT classrooms. Materials can greatly benefit from
order to provide a TBLT based model for handling multimedia, specifically tailored task cards as well as realia.
pronunciation in class. This model uses an authentic task as Realia is greatly emphasized by advocates of TBLT. This
a radio program. The most interesting part of this model is can be due to the fact that in order to practice authentic tasks,
that it is conducted over a period of 5weeks and includes a authentic materials are the best options. These can include
series of mini tasks which are put together to result in the the mass media (newspapers, television and the Internet).
final goal/task. However, the majority of text books are not flexible enough
3.3.2. Teachers’ Role to meet this approach. Thus, instructors in many cases are
In TBLT classes, the teacher retains his/her traditional supposed to produce self-access materials. Consequently,
role to a large extent. As went before, such a teacher is teacher, usually need to develop and devise course materials.
A highly new trend in TBLT is developing courses based on
10 Fatemeh Ahmadniay Motlagh et al.: A General Overview of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), from Theory to Practice

CALL and network based tasks. In order to utilize these, convey what they have on mind in order to tolerate less this
factors such as aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, interest issue heightens in lower levels. In many cases, learners find
and learning strategies must be considered. their L1 a good resort to handle the task in order to fulfill
the final target. Another challenge on the teachers' side is
4. Arguments against TBLT possibility of losing control over class. If the teacher is not
experienced enough, he or she will find the class off the
As any other approach, a number of short coming have track. Such teachers might fear any sort of unforeseen
been associated with TBLT. These have been put forward language needs that naturally arise during a task
by proponents and critics of TBT as justifications against performance; they simply do not feel prepared enough to
emphasizing tasks as the main medium of instruction. tackle such burden. In a study in some primary schools in
Willis provides a comprehensive list of such criticism. First, Hong Kong realized that many teachers could not let go of
it has been argued by many that a major reason to avoid their authority for a more learner -centered approach. In a
using TBT is lack of time. This includes both the time similar study, (Carless, 2004, as cited in Little Wood, 2006)
which is required for planning and compiling materials and argues that in TBLT, noise and discipline control are
the time spent on performing tasks. Another one can be matters of concern.
labeled as confusion. This is mostly at the teacher’s Still a major claim by those who try to question TBLT is
level. Many teachers are not well-familiar with TBLT, examination and assessment. On the one hand, it has been
though they do not deny the effectiveness of using tasks to proved that holding different types of tests during a course
teach English. Some of these teachers, being followers of can provide both the teacher and learners with some
more traditional approaches of TESOL, do not fined TBLT indexes that illuminate their progress. Another side of this
natural development of the previous approaches. In some claim is that exams are usually not compatible with TBT,
cases, they even do not regard it as an alternative to what here, the backwash effect casts hesitation on bringing TBT
they have already been doing in class. They argue that into practice or not. According to Little Wood, TBLT does
milder version of TBLT as task supported teaching can not not prepare learners for form-oriented tests which they
either serve them any good claiming that “If I’m not frequently face (Carless, 2003). Some other concerns
actually teaching, how they can be learning?” (Willis & include lack of course books which are developed based on
Willis, 2007). This, according to Westhoff (2009) a priori TBLT. Also, Lambert (2010) believes that TENOR
assessment of language learning should be handled by (Teaching English for No Obvious Reason) is another
raising teachers’ competence to evaluate the efficiency of challenge ahead of TBT advisors. In a fully TBLT based
learning materials. Another study by Ogilvie and Dunn class, learners might find themselves involved in an
(2010) shows that dealing with TBLT in TTCs can unfocused series of activities with no clear functional
potentially enhance teachers’ attitude towards the method. objective. Finally, SLA research still calls for
In TTCs it must be emphasized that TBLT is an innovation comprehensive research on providing a framework for task
both at the philosophical level and the methodological one. sequencing.
Another hindrance can be predominant beliefs about
learning and teaching in the given society. At the learners' 5. Conclusion
level, many cannot simply trust the potency of basing a
whole class session on tasks rather than grammar. Little As an innovative learner centered approach TBLT is
Wood (2006) in a study on Asian classrooms in Korea, mostly concerned with theories of learning than theories of
Japan, Main Land China and Hong Kong and Thailand language, and considers language as a means which
realized that although learning through tasks has been part conveys the meaning. A significant difference between
of the TESOL instruction in such countries, learners avoid TBLT and former form-focused approaches is the fact that
taking part in tasks actively either because it was in contrast TBLT classes begins with a focus on meaning and then are
with their mentality of a real class or it was not in line with followed by focus on language and eventually focuses on
pedagogic norms, objectives and traditions in those form. It involves learners in a meaning focused activity.
countries. However, teachers decided to adapt TBT with Compared with traditional approaches, it emphasizes on
their traditional educational values and use a modified vocabulary and its objectives are matched with the specific
version of it, they found this much better than totally needs of learners in real world contexts. Providing learners
avoiding TBLT. This study advocates merging TBT with with a usable meaning system is the main aim of the
local pedagogic systems through adapting and reforming it approach. It puts a strong emphasis on procedural syllabus,
so that it can well suit cultural and local norms. process syllabus, and task based language teaching. The
Moreover, empirical evidence shows that learners try to syllabus relies on sets of grammatical, phonological, lexical,
take a shortcut to get the tasks done by using minimal functional and notional items rather than just recognizing a
language. By producing merely a "modest linguistic out specific item. It is the result of an exact analysis depending
put" (Carless, 2004, as cited in Little Wood, 2006) to get it on the needs of the learners. As opposed to CLT, in TBLT
over with. Learners sometimes do not fully exploit their it is believed that studying form can enhance chances of
language resources. In other cases they opt simple ways to accuracy on communication. Level of complexity is of
International Journal of Language and Linguistics2014; 2(5-1): 1-11 11

great importance to design a task. Language Learners: A Task-Based Learning Framework,”


A TBLT class session is divided into three major Regent University. Journal of Adult Education Information
Series, No. 1 Vol. 39, 2010.
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[7] K. Lee, “Task-based learning for pronunciation,” University
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instance, it is not used since class hours are limited and University Press, 2004.
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TBLT and tasks using in their classes. Also, at the learners' utilization oftask-based language teaching,” University of
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Acknowledgements University of Auckland. Edith Cowan University,
Georgetown University, 2006.
We are deeply indebted and thankful to Dr. Mohammad [12] J. C. Richards and T. S. Rodgers, “Approaches and Methods
Rahimi whose insightful suggestions have always been a in Language Teaching. Cambridge,” University Press,
great assistance to us. 2002.
[13] P. Tavakoli, “Assessing L2 task performance: understanding
effects of task design,” Applied linguistics, London
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