Building Material & Construction 15CV36

Module- 1

Building Materials
Structure

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Objective

1.3 Stone as building material

1.4 Bricks

1.5 Cement Concrete blocks

1.6 Mortar: types and requirements.

1.7 Timber as construction material

1.8 Fine aggregate

1.9 Coarse aggregate

1.10 Questions

1.11 Outcome

1.12 Future Study

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1.1 Introduction

 Materials which are required for construction of buildings are referred as building materials.
 Building materials are classified into three types
 Natural Materials: - These are naturally occurring materials namely wood, stone, mud or
clay etc.
 Artificial materials: - These are man-made materials namely bricks, cement, glass & steel.
 Composite materials: - These are combination of two or materials namely concrete,
plywood etc.

1.2 Objective

 To study different types of building materials used for construction of buildings

1.3 Stones

Introduction

Stones are naturally occurring building materials which is widely use in construction of
buildings. Nowadays it has become an important source of aggregate (coarse & fine) for
manufacturing concrete. Most of the historic monuments that remain even today are made of
stones. These are permanent in nature and prices go up if you change the shape and texture of
stone.

Sources of stone are rock which is not homogeneous in nature, no definite chemical composition
and shape. Therefore we can conclude, stones are one of the important building materials that all
the Civil Engineers should be familiar with it.

Classification of rocks

Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways:

 Geological Classification
 Physical Classification
 Chemical Classification

Geological Classification

Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups
(i) Igneous rocks
(ii) Sedimentary rocks and
(iii)Metamorphic rocks
(i) Igneous Rocks: The inside portion of the earth‟s surface has high temperature so as to cause
fusion by heat at even ordinary pressures. The molten or pasty rock material is known as the

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magma occasionally tries to come out to the earth‟s surface through cracks or weak portions.
The rocks which are formed by cooling of magma are known as the igneous rocks.

Different types of igneous rocks are

Plutonic rocks, hypabyssal rocks and volcanic rocks.

(ii) Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are formed by the deposition of products of weathering
on the pre-existing rocks. All the products of weathering are ultimately carried away from
their place of origin by the agents of transport. Such agents are frost, rain, wind, flowing
water etc.
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks: These rocks are formed by the change in character of the pre-existing
rocks. The igneous as well as sedimentary rocks are changed in character when they are
subjected to great heat and pressure. The process of change is known as the metamorphism.

Physical Classification

Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:

i. Stratified rocks
ii. Unstratified rocks
iii. Foliated rocks
i. Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of
Stratification or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime
stones, slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones.
ii. Unstratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact
grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this
type of rocks.
iii. Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only. The
direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure
is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.

Chemical Classification

On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as:

1) Silicious rocks
2) Argillaceous rocks and
3) Calcareous rocks
1) Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable.
Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
2) Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are
hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are
examples of this type of rocks.

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3) Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a
calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic
origin.

Requirements of good building stones

1) Crushing Strength: For a good building stone, the crushing strength should be greater than
100N/mm2.
2) Appearance: The stones which are to be used for face work should be decent in appearance
and they should be capable of preserving their color uniformly for long time.
3) Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The various factors contributing to
durability of a stone are its chemical composition, texture, resistance to atmospheric and
other influences, location in structure etc.
4) Facility of dressing: The stones should be such that they can be easily carved, moulded, cut
and dressed.
5) Fracture: for a good building stone, its fracture should be sharp, even, bright and clear with
grains well cemented (means bonded) together.
6) Hardness: The co-efficient of hardness, as worked out in hardness test, should be greater
than 17 for a stone to be use in road work. If it is in between 14 and 17, the stone is said to be
medium hardness. If it is less than 14, stone is said to be poor hardness and such stones are
not fit for road work.
7) Percentage wear: If wear is more than 3%, the stone is not satisfactory. If it is equal to 3%,
stone is just tolerable. For a good building stone, the wear should be equal to or less than 3%.
8) Resistance to fire: The minerals composing stone should be such that shape of stone is
preserved when fire occurs. The failure of stone in case of fire may be due rapid rise in
temperature, sudden cooling and different coefficients of linear expansions of minerals.
9) Seasoning: the stones should be well seasoned before putting into use. Stones should be
dried or seasoned before they are used in structural work. A period about 6 to 12 months is
considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning.
10) Specific gravity: for a good building stone, its specific gravity should be greater than 2.7 or
so. The heavy stones are more compact and less porous and they can be used for various
engineering applications like dams, harbours etc.
11) Texture: A good building stone should have compact fine crystalline structure fre from
cavities, cracks or patches of soft or loose material.
12) Toughness index: In impact test, if the value of toughness index comes below 13, stone is
not tough. If it comes between 13 and 19, stone is said to be moderately tough. If it exceeds
19, the toughness of stone is said to be high.
13) Water absorption: All the stones are more or less porous, but for a good building stone,
percentage absorption by weigh after 24hrs should not exceed 0.6. The porous stones
seriously affect the durability of stones.

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14) Weathering: A good building stone should posses better weathering qualities. It should be
capable of withstanding adverse effects of various atmospheric and external agencies such as
rain, frost, wind etc.

Dressing of stones

Stones after being quarried are to be cut into suitable sizes and with suitable surfaces. This
process is known as the dressing of stones and is carried out for the following purposes.

 To get the desired appearance from stone work.

 To make the transport form quarry easy and economical
 To suit to the requirements of stone masonry
 To take advantage of local men who are trained for such type of work.

With respect to the place of work, dressing can be divided into two types namely

 Quarry dressing
 Site dressing

Advantages of dressing, if it is carried out @ quarry site.

1. At quarry site, it is possible to get chap labour for the process of dressing of stones.
2. It is possible to sort out stones for different works, if quarry dressing is practiced.
3. The irregular and rough portions of the stones are removed which decrease the weight of
stones and it also facilitates easy transportation of the stones.
4. The stones when quarried freshly contain quarry sap and hence they are comparatively soft
and can be easily dressed.

Following are various types of finishes that can be obtained by dressing.

1) Axed Finish: The surface of hard stones such as granite is dressed by means of an axe. Such
finish is termed as an axed finish.
2) Boasted or droved finish: In this type of finish, the boaster is used to make a non-
continuous parallel marks on the stone surfaces. These marks may be horizontal, vertical or
inclined. Boaster is chisel having an edge of width about 60mm.
3) Chisel-draughted margins: In order to obtain an uniform joints in stone work, the margins
are placed which may be either squared or pitched or chamfered.
4) Circular finish: In this type of finish, the surface of stone is made round or circular as in
case of a column.
5) Dragged or combed finish: In this type of finish, a drag or comb which is a piece of steel
with a number of teeth is rubbed on the surface in all directions. This is suitable for soft
stones.

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6) Furrowed finish: In this type of finish, a margin of about 20mm width, is sunk on all edges
of stone and the central portion is made to project about 15mm. a number of vertical or
horizontal grooves about 10mm wide are formed in this projected portion .
7) Moulded finish: The surface of stone can be moulded in any desired shape so as to improve
the appearance of the work. The mouldings can be made either by hand or machine.
8) Hammer-dressed finish: In this type of finish, stones are made roughly square or rectangle
by means of a Waller‟s hammer. The hammer dressed stones have irregular corners, no sharp
edges and have comparatively even surfaces so as to fit well in masonry.
9) Plain finish: In this type of finish, the surface is made approximately smooth with saw or
with a chisel.
10) Polished finish: The surface of the stones such as granites, marbles etc. can be polished
either with hand or with machine.
11) Punched finish: On the surface of stone, the depressions are made by using a punch. The
surface of the stone takes the form of a series of hallows and ridges.
12) Tooled finish: The surface of stone is finished by means of a chisel and parallel continuous
marks either horizontal, incline or vertical are left on the surface.

Deterioration of stones

The stones with exposed faces are acted upon by various atmospheric and external agents so as
to cause their deterioration. Following are the cause for deterioration of stones.

1) Alternative wetness and drying: The stones are made wet by various agencies such as rain,
frost, dew etc. Such wet surface is dried by sunlight. It is found that stones subjected to such
alternate wetness and drying wears out quickly.
2) Frost: In hill stations or very cold places, the moisture present in the atmosphere is deposited
in the pores of stones. At freezing point, this moisture freezes and it expands in volume
which causes the splitting of stone.
3) Impurities in atmosphere: The atmosphere contains various impurities which have adverse
effects on stones. For instance, the acids and fumes are predominant in industrial areas.
These impurities acts on carbonates of lime and causes deterioration.
4) Living organisms: Some living organisms like worms an bacteria act upon stones and
deteriorate them. The organisms make holes in stones and thus weaken them. They also
secrete organic acids which have a corrosive effect on stone minerals.
5) Movement of moisture: If stones of different variety such as limestone and sandstone are
used side by side in the same structure, the chemicals formed by the action of atmospheric
agents on one stone may move to the other and cause deterioration of both stones.
6) Nature of mortar: The nature of mortar used as a binding material in stone masonry may be
such that it may react chemically with any one of the constituents of stones and thus it may
lead to the disintegration of stones.
7) Rain water: The action of rain water on stones is two-fold – physical and chemical.

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The rain wets the surface of stone and it is dried by sunlight. Such alternate wetness and
drying results in the disintegration of stones. This is the physical action of water.
The rain water, as it descends through the atmosphere to the surface of earth, absorbs carbon
dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and other gases present in the atmosphere. These
gases acts adversely on stones and they cause decay of stones. This is the chemical action of
rain water.
8) Temperature variations: the rise of temperature results in expansion of stones. The fall of
temperature causes contraction of stones. If rise and fall of temperatures are frequent, the
stones are easily deteriorated because of the setting up internal stresses.
9) Vegetative growth: The creepers and certain trees develop on stone surface with their roots
in joints between stones. Such roots attract moisture and keep the stone surface damp. At the
same time they try to expand. Such actions accelerate the decay of stones.
10) Wind: The wind contains fine particles of dust. If is blowing with high velocity, such
particles will strike against the stone surface and thus the stones will be decayed. The wind
also allows rain water to enter pores of stones with force. Such water on freezing expands
and split the stones.

Preservation of stones

The decay of building stones of inferior is to some extent prevented if they are properly
preserved. For this purpose, the preservatives are applied on the stone surfaces. An ideal
preservative has the following properties:

1. It does not allow moisture to penetrate the stone surface.

2. It does not develop objectionable color.
3. It hardens sufficiently in order to resist the atmospheric agents.
4. It is easily penetrated in stone surface.
5. It is economical
6. It is non-corrosive and harmless.
7. It remains effective for long time after drying.
8. Its application on stone surface is easy.

The choice of a preservative depends on chemical composition and location of structure.

Following are the preservatives which are commonly adopted to preserve the stone:

(i) Coal tar: If coal tar is applied on stone surface, it preserves stone. But the color of coal tar
produces objectionable appearance and surface coated with color tar absorbs heat of the sun.
Hence this preservative is not generally adopted because it spoils the color of the stone.
(ii) Linseed oil: This preservative may be used either as raw linseed oil or boiled linseed oil.
The raw linseed oil does not disturb the original shade of stone. But it requires frequent
renewal, usually once in year. The boiled linseed oil lasts for a long period, but it makes the
stone surface dark.

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(iii) Paint: An application of paint on stone surface serves as a preservative. The paint changes
the original color of the stone. It is applied under pressure, if deep penetration is required.
(iv) Paraffin: This preservative may be used alone or it may be dissolved in neptha and then
applied on stone surface. It changes the original color of tone.
(v) Solution of alum & soap: The alum and soft soap are taken in proportion of about 0.75N
and 0.5N respectively and they are dissolved in a liter of water. This solution when applied
on stone surface it acts as preservative.
(vi) Solution of baryta: A solution of barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 when applied on stone surface
acts as preservative. This is used when the decay of stone is mainly due to calciumsulphate.
Ba(OH)2 + CaSO4 = BaSO4 + Ca(OH)2
The barium sulphate id insoluble and it is least affected by atmospheric agents. Ca(OH)2
absorbs CO2 from atmosphere and forms CaCO3 which adds to the strength to the stones.

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1.4 Bricks

Introduction

Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying
and brining these blocks.

As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged and further as they are light in
weight, no need of any lifting equipments for them. The bricks do not require any dressing and
the art of laying bricks is simple, so that it can be carried out with the help of unskilled labors.
Thus, at places where stones are not easily available and if plenty of clay is available we go for
manufacturing the bricks. Thus bricks replace stones.

Classification of brick earth

1) Loamy, mild or sandy clay: This type of earth consists of considerable amount of free
silica in addition to alumina. The presence of sand helps in preventing cracking,
shrinkage and warping of bricks. The addition of lime in such clay helps to fuse sand and
there by increases the hardness of bricks.
2) Marls, chalky or calcareous clay: This clay consists of considerable amount of chalk in
addition to alumina and silica. Such clay generally makes good bricks. But to avoid
undesirable effects of excess lime, the sand is sometimes added to such clay.
3) Plastic, strong or pure clay: This clay consists of alumina and silica which is sometimes
referred as strong or fat clay. The raw bricks will cracks, shrink and wrap during drying,
if pure clay alone is used in making of bricks. Hence such clay is corrected by the
addition of sand and ash. The sand prevents shrinkage and ash provides lime to act as
flux.

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Manufacturing of clay bricks

Following are the considerations which governs the selection of brick field for manufacturing of
bricks:

1. It should be linked up with communicating roads so that the materials can be conveyed
easily.
2. It should be situated on a plain ground
3. It should be selected in such a way that the earth required for manufacturing of bricks is
readily and easily available.
4. It should offer all the facilities to the workers employed in the manufacturing process.

In the process of manufacturing bricks, the following four distinct operations are involved.

a) Preparation of clay
b) Moulding
c) Drying
d) Burning

Preparation of clay: The clay for bricks is prepared in the following order

Unsoiling: The top layer of soil about 200mm in depth is taken out and thrown away. The clay in
top soil is full of impurities and hence is to be rejected for the purpose of preparing bricks.

Digging: The clay is then dug out from the ground. It is spread out on the leveled ground, just a
little deeper than the general level of ground. The height of heaps of clay is about 600mm to
1200mm.

Cleaning: The clay as obtained in the process of digging should be cleaned of stones, pebbles,
vegetative matter etc. If these particles are in excess, the clay is to be washed and screened. Such
a process naturally will prove to be troublesome and expensive. The lumps of clay should be
converted into powder form in the earth crushing roller.

Weathering: The clay is made loose and any ingredient to be added to it, is spread out at its top.
The blending indicates intimate or harmonious mixing. It is carried out by taking small portion of
clay every time and turning the mixture up and down in the vertical direction. The blending
makes clay fit for the next stage of tempering.

Tempering: In the process of tempering, the clay is brought to a proper degree of hardness and it
is made fit for the next operation of moulding. The water in required quantity is added to clay
and the whole mass is kneaded or pressed under the feet of men or cattle. The tempering should
be done exhaustively to obtain homogeneous mass of clay of uniform character.

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2) Moulding: The Clay which is prepared as above is then sent for the next operation of
moulding. Following are the two ways of moulding:

1) Hand Moulding: In case of hand moulding, the bricks are moulded by hand i.e., manually. It
is adopted where manpower is cheap and is readily available for the manufacture process of
bricks on a small scale. The moulds are rectangular boxes which are opened at both top and
bottom. They may be of wood or steel.
A typical wooden mould is shown in fig. it should be prepared from well seasoned wood. The
longer sides are kept slightly projecting to serve as handles. The strips of brass or steel are
sometimes fixed on the edges of wooden moulds to make them more durable.

A typical steel mould is shown in fig. It is prepared from the combination of steel plates and
channels. It may even be prepared from steel angles and plates. The thickness of steel mould
is generally 6mm. They are used for manufacturing bricks on large scale. The steel moulds are
more durable than wooden moulds and they turn out bricks of uniform size.

The bricks shrink during drying and burning. Hence the moulds are made larger than size of
fully burnt bricks. The moulds are therefore made longer by about 8 to 12 percent in all
directions.

The bricks prepared by hand moulding are of two types

 Ground-moulded bricks: The ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled over it.
The mould is dipped in water and placed over the ground. The lump of tempered cla is taken
and it is dashed into the mould. The clay is pressed or forced in the mould in such a way that
it fills all the corners of mould. The extra or surplus clay is removed either by wooden strike
or metal strike or frame with wire. A strike is a piece of wood or metal with sharp edge. It is
to be dipped in water every time.

The mould is then lifted up and the raw bricks are left on the ground. The mould is dipped in
water and it is placed just near the previous brick to prepare another brick. The process is
repeated till the ground is covered with raw bricks.

A brick moulder can mould 750 bricks per day with working period of 8hrs. When such
bricks become sufficiently dry, they are carried and placed in the drying sheds.

The bricks prepared by dipping the mould in water every time are known as the slop-
moulded bricks. The fine sand or ash may be sprinkled on the inside surface of mould
instead of dipping it water. Such bricks are known as sand-moulded bricks and they have
sharp and straight edges.

 Table moulded bricks: The process of moulding these bricks is just similar as above. But
in this case, the moulder stands near a table of size about 2m X1m. the clay, mould, water
pots, stock board, strikes and pallet boards are placed on this table. The bricks are moulded

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on the table and sent for the further process of drying. However the efficiency of moulder
decreases gradually because of standing at same place for long duration. The cost of brick
moulding also increases when table moulding is adopted.

2) Machine moulding: The moulding may also be achieved by machine. It proves to be

economical when bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured at the same spot in a short
time. It is also helpful for moulding hard and strong clay. These machines are broadly classified
into two categories:

a) Plastic clay machines: Such machines contain a rectangular opening of size equal to length
and width of a brick. The pugged clay is placed in the machine and as it comes out through
the opening, it is cut into strips by wires fixed in frames. The arrangement is made in such a
way that strips of thickness equal to that of the brick are obtained. As the bricks are cut by
wire, they are called wire cut bricks.
b) Dry clay machines: In these machines, he strong clay is first converted into powder form. A
small quantity of water is then added to form a stiff paste. Such paste is placed in mould and
pressed by machine to from a hard and well shaped bricks. These bricks are known as the
pressed bricks and they do not practically require drying. They can be sent directly to the
process of burning.
The wire cu bricks and pressed bricks have regular shape, sharp edges and corners. They have
smooth external surfaces. They are heavier, stronger and exhibit uniform dense texture than
ordinary hand-moulded bricks.
(i) Drying: The damp brick, if burnt, are likely to be cracked and distorted. Hence the moulded
bricks are dried before they are taken into next step of operation i.e., burning. For drying,
the bricks are arranged longitudinally in stacks (means racks) of width equal to two bricks.
A stack may contain 8 to 10 tires. The bricks are arranged along and across the stacks in
alternate layers. All bricks are placed on edge. The bricks are allowed to dry till they
become hard with moisture content of about 2% or so.
a. Artificial burning: The bricks are generally died by natural process. But when bricks
are to be rapidly dried on a large scale, the artificial drying may be adopted. In such
case, the moulded bricks are allowed to pass through dryers which are in the form of
tunnels or hot channels or floors. Such dryers are heated with the help of special
furnaces or by the hot flue gases. The tunnel dryers are more economical compared to
hot floor dryers.
b. Circulation of air: The bricks in stacks should be arranged in such a way that sufficient
air space is left between them for circulation of air.
c. Drying yard: For the drying purpose, special drying yards should be prepared. It should
be slightly on a higher level and it is desirable to cover it with sand. Such an
arrangement would prevent the accumulation of rain water.
d. Period for drying: The time required by moulded bricks to dry depends on prevailing
weather conditions. Usually it takes about 3 to 10 days for bricks to become dry.

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e. Screens: It is to be seen that bricks are not directly exposed to the wind or sun fo drying.
Suitable screens, if necessary, may be provided to avoid such situations.
(ii) Burning: This is a very important operation in the manufacturing process of bricks. It
imparts hardness and strength to the bricks and makes them dense and durable. The bricks
should be burnt properly. If bricks are over burnt, they will be brittle and hence break
easily. If they are under burnt, they will be soft and hence cannot carry loads.
When the temperature of dull red heat, about 6500C, is attained, the organic matter
contained in the brick is oxidized and also the water of crystallization is driven away. But
heating of bricks is done beyond this limit for the following purposes
1. If the bricks are cooled after attaining the temperature of about 6500C, the bricks formed
will absorb moisture from the air and gets rehydrated.
2. The reactions between the mineral constituents of clay are achieved at higher
temperature and these reactions are necessary to give new properties such as strength,
hardness, less moisture absorption, etc. to the bricks.

When the temperature of about 11000C is reached, the particles of two important
constituents of brick clay minerals namely, alumina and sand, binds themselves together
resulting in the increase of strength and density of bricks. Further heating is not desirable
and if the temperature is raised beyond 11000C, a great amount of fusible glassy mass is
formed and the bricks are said to be vitrified. The bricks begin to lose their shape beyond a
certain limit of vitrification.

The burning of bricks is done either in clamps or in kilns. The clamps are temporary
structures and they are adopted to manufacture bricks in small quantity to serve a local
demand or a specific purpose. The kilns are permanent structures and they are adopted to
manufacture bricks on a large scale.

Qualities of good brick

1. The bricks should be table-moulded, well-burnt in kilns, copper-colored, free from cracks and
with sharp and square edges. The color should be uniform and bright.
2. The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
3. The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when stuck with each other.
4. The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogenous and uniform compact
structure free from voids.
5. The bricks should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for I class brick and 22
percent by weight for II class brick when soaked in water for 24hrs.
6. The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface, when it
is scratched with finger nail.
7. The bricks should not break into pieces when it is dropped on hard ground from a height of 1
meter.
8. The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound-proof.

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9. The bricks when soaked in water for 24hrs should not show deposits of white salts when
allowed to dry in shade.
10. No brick should have the crushing strength less than 3.5 N/mm2.

Tests on Bricks

(1) Absorption: A brick is taken and it is weighed dry. It is then immersed in water for a period
of 16hrs. It is weighed again and the difference in weight indicates the amount of water
absorbed by brick. It should not in any case exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.
(2) Crushing strength: The crushing strength of a brick is found out by placing it in a
compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. As per the code IS: 1077-1970, the
minimum crushing strength should not be less than 3.5N/mm2. The brick with crushing
strength of about 7 to 14 N/mm2 are graded as A and those having greater than 14N/mm2 are
graded as AA.
(3) Hardness: In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of a finger nail. If no
impression is left on the surface, the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.
(4) Presence of soluble salts: the soluble salts, if present in bricks, will cause efflorescence on
the surface of bricks. For finding out the presence of soluble salts in a brick, it is immerse in
water for 24hrs. It is then taken out and allowed to dry in shade. The absence of grey or
white deposits on its surface indicates the absence of soluble salts.

If the white deposits cover about 10% surface, the efflorescence is said to be slight and it is
considered as moderate, when the white deposits cover about 50% o surface. If grey or
white deposits are found on more than 50% of surface, the efflorescence becomes heavy and
it is treated as serious.

(5) Shape and size: In this test, a brick is closely inspected. It should be of standard size and its
shape should be truly rectangular with sharp edges. For this purpose, 20 bricks (19cm X
9cm X 9cm) are selected at random and they are stacked lengthwise, along the width and
along the height.
For good quality bricks, the results should be within the following permissible limits.
Length: 3680mm to 3920mm
Breadth: 1740mm to 1860mm
Height: 1740mm to 1860mm

(6) Soundness: In this test, the two bricks are taken and they are strucked with each other. The
bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced.
(7) Structure: A brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous,
compact and free from any defects such as holes, lumps etc.

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Classification of bricks

He bricks can be broadly classified into two categories as follows:

1. The un-burnt or sun-dried bricks are dried with the help of heat received from sun after the
process of moulding. These bricks can only be used in the construction of temporary and
cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at places where they are exposed to heavy
rains.
2. The bricks used in construction field are burnt bricks and they are classified into following
four categories:

I Class Bricks:

 These bricks are table-moulded and of standard shape and they are burnt in kilns.
 The surface and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight.
 They satisfy all the qualities of good bricks which are mentioned earlier.
 These bricks are used for superior work of permanent nature.

II Class Bricks:

 These bricks are ground-moulded and they are burnt in kilns.

 The surface of these bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also straightly irregular.
 These bricks may have hair-cracks and their edges may not be sharp and uniform.
 These bricks are commonly used at places where brick work is to be provided with a coat of
plaster.

III Class Bricks:

 These bricks are ground-moulded and they are burnt in clamps.

 These bricks are not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges.
 These bricks give dull sound when strucked with each other.
 They are used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places where rainfall is not
heavy.

IV Class Bricks:

 These are over-burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colored.
 These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundations, floors, roads etc.
 Because of the fact that the over-burnt bricks have a compact structure and they are seems to
be stronger than I Class bricks.

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1.6 Mortar

The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required amount of water to a
mixture of binding material like cement or lime and fine aggregate like sand.

Classification of Mortar

Mortars are classified based on the following factors:

1. Bulk density: According to the bulk density, mortars are classified as

a. Heavy mortars: The mortars whose bulk density is greater than equal to 15KN/m 3 are
known as heavy mortars and they are prepared from heavy quartz or other sands.
b. Light-weight mortars: The mortars whose bulk density is less than 15KN/m3 are known
as light-weight mortars and they are prepared from light porous sands from pumice and
other fine aggregates.
2. Kind of binding material: The kind of binding material for a mortar is selected based on
working conditions, hardening temperature, moisture conditions etc. according to kind of
binding material, mortars are classified as follows:
i. Lime mortar: In this type of mortar, lime is used as binding material. The lime may be fat
lime or hydrated lime.
The fat lime shrinks to a great extent and hence it requires about 2 to 3 times its volume
than sand. The lime should be slaked before use. This mortar is undesirable for water-
logged areas or in damp situations.
For hydraulic lime, the proportion of lime to sand by volume is about 1:2 or so. This
mortar should be consumed within one hour after mixing. It possesses more strength and
can be used in damp situations.
The lime mortar has a high plasticity and it can be placed easily. It possesses good
cohesiveness with other surfaces and shrinks very little. It is sufficiently durable, but it
hardens slowly. It is generally used for lightly loaded structures above ground parts of
building.
ii. Surkhi mortar: This type of mortar is prepared by using fully Surkhi instead of sand or
by replacing half of sand in lime mortar. The powder off Surkhi should be fine enough to
pass BIS No 9 sieve and the residue should not be more than 10% by weight.
The Surkhi mortar is used for ordinary masonry works of all kinds in foundation and
super-structure. But it cannot be used for plastering or pointing works. Since Surkhi is
likely to disintegrate after some time.
iii. Cement mortar: In this type of mortar, the cement is use as binding material. Depending
upon the strength required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand by
volume various from 1:2 to 1:6 or more. It should be noted that Surkhi and cinder are not
chemically inert substances and hence they cannot be used as adulterants with matrix as
cement. Thus the sand only can be used to form cement mortar. The proportion of cement
wrt sand should be determined with due regard to the specified durability and working

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conditions. The cement mortar is used where a mortar of high-strength and water-resisting
properties is required such as underground constructions, water saturated soils etc.
iv. Gauged mortars: To improve the quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strength, the
cement is sometimes added to it. This process is known as gauging. It makes the lime
mortar economical, strong and dense. The usual proportion of cement to lime by volume is
about 1:6 to 1:8. It is also known as the composite mortar or lime-cement mortar and it
can also be formed by the combination of clay. This mortar may be used for bedding and
for thick brick walls.
v. Gypsum mortar: These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding materials such as
building gypsum and anhydrate binding materials.
3. Nature of application: According to the nature of application, the mortars are classified into
two categories:
1. Brick laying mortars: The mortars for brick laying are intended to be used for
brickwork and walls. Depending upon the working conditions and type of construction,
the composition of masonry mortars with respect to the kind of binding material is
decided.
2. Finishing mortars: These mortars include common plastering work and mortars for
developing architectural or ornamental effects. The cement or lime is generally used as
binding material for ordinary plastering mortars. For decorative finishing, the mortars
are composed of suitable materials with due consideration of mobility, water retention,
resistance to atmospheric actions etc.
4. Special mortars: Following are the various types of special mortars which are used for
certain conditions:
1. Fire resistant mortars: The mortar is prepared by adding aluminous cement to the fine
crushed powder of fire bricks. The usual proportion is 1 part of aluminous cement to 2
parts of powder of fire bricks. This mortar is fire resistant and it is therefore used with
fire bricks for lining furnaces, fire places, ovens etc.
2. Light-weight mortars: This mortar is prepared by adding materials such as sawdust,
wood powder etc., to the lime mortar or cement mortar. Other materials which may be
added are asbestos fibers, jute fibers, coir etc. This mortar is used in the sound-proof and
heat-proof constructions.
3. Packing mortars: To pack oil wells, special mortars possessing the properties of high
homogeneity, water-resistance, pre-determined setting time, ability to form solid water-
proof plugs in cracks and voids of rocks, resistance to sub-soil water pressure etc., have
to be formed. The varieties of packing mortars include cement-sand, cement-loam, and
cement-sand-loam. The composition of packing mortar is decided by taking into
consideration of hydro-geologic conditions, packing methods and type of timbering.
4. Sound absorbing mortars: To reduce the noise level, the sound absorbing plaster is
formed with the help of sound absorbing mortars. The bulk density of such a mortar
varies from 6 to 12 KN/m3 and the binding materials employed in its composition may be

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Portland cement, lime, gypsum, slag etc. The aggregates are selected from light-weight
porous materials such as pumice, cinders etc.
5. X-ray shielding mortars: This type of mortars is used for providing the plastering coat
to walls and ceiling of x-ray cabinets. It is heavy type of mortar with bulk density over 22
KN/m3. The aggregates are obtained from heavy rock and suitable admixtures are added
to enhance the protective property of such a mortar.

Properties of good mortar

The important properties of a good mortar mix are mobility, placeability and water retention.

 The term mobility is used to indicate the consistency of mortar mix which may range
from stiff to fluid. The mobility of mortar mix depends on the composition of mortar and
the mortar mixes to be used for masonry work, finishing work etc., are made sufficiently
mobile.
 The placeability or the ease with which the mortar mix can be placed with minimum cost
in a thin and uniform layer over the surface depends on the mobility of the mortar. The
placeability of the mortar mix should be such that a strong bond should be developed
with the surface of the bed.
 A good mortar mix should possess the ability of retaining adequate humidity during
transportation and laying over the porous bed. If water retention power of the mortar mix
is low, it separates into layers during transportation and when it comes into contact with
porous bed such as brick, wood etc., it gives away its water to the surface. Thus the
mortar becomes poor in amount of water and the remaining water proves to be
insufficient for its hardening. Hence the required strength of mortar will not be achieved
with such a mortar mix.
Following are the properties of good mortar

1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks,
stones etc.
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rain water.
4. It should be cheap.
5. It should be durable.
6. It should be easily workable.

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1.7 Timber

Introduction

The word timber is derived from an old English word “timbrian” which means to build. The
timber thus denotes wood which is suitable for building or carpentry or various other engineering
purposes and it is applied to the trees measuring not less than 600mm in girth or circumference
of the trunk.

Following are the three terms to be noted in connection with the timber:

 Converted Timber: This indicates timber which is sawn and cut into suitable
commercially sizes
 Rough timber: This indicates timber which is obtained after felling a tree.
 Standing timber: This indicates timber contained in living tree.

The timber or wood as a building material possesses a number of valuable properties such as low
heat conductivity, lower bulk density, relatively high strength. However it has also its own
drawbacks such as susceptibility to decay and inflammability. These drawbacks can be overcome
by adopting new wood processing techniques.

Classification of trees

For the engineering purposes, the trees are classified according to their mode of growth.

1. Exogenous trees: These tress increases in bulk by growing outwards and distinct consecutive
rings are formed in the horizontal section of tree. These rings are known as annual rings
because, one such ring is added every year & these rings are useful in predicting the age of the
tree.
a. Conifers trees: The conifers are also known as evergreen trees and leaves of these trees
do not fall till new ones are grown. As these trees bear cone-shaped fruits, they are given
the name conifers. These trees yield soft woods which are generally light colored, light in
weight and weak. They show distinct annual rings. The common examples are pine, chir
etc.
b. Deciduous trees: These types of trees are also known as broad-leaf trees and leaves of
these trees fall in autumn and new one appear in spring season. These trees yields hard
woods which are closely grained, strong, heavy, dark colored, durable and they do not
show distinct annual rings. The common examples are oak, sal and teak.
2. Endogenous trees: These trees grow inwards. The timber from these types of trees has
limited engineering application. The common examples are bamboo, cane etc.

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Qualities of a good timber

1. Appearance: A freshly cut timber should exhibit hard and shining appearance.
2. Color: The color of timber should be preferably be dark. The light color indicates timber
with low strength.
3. Defects: A good timber should be free from serious defects such as dead knots, flaws etc.
4. Durability: A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the actions
of fungi insects, chemicals, physical agencies and mechanical agencies.
5. Elasticity: This is the property by which timber returns to its original shape when load
causing its deformation is removed. This property would be essential when it is used for
bows, sport goods etc.
6. Fibres: The timber should have straight fibers.
7. Fire resistance: The timber is a bad conductor of heat. A dense wood offers good
resistance to the fire.
8. Hardness: a good timber should be hard i.e., it should offer resistance when being
penetrated by others.
9. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear
or abrasion. This type of timber would be more employed where it is subjected totraffic.
10. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during the conversion or
seasoning.
11. Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. An unpleasant smell indicates decayed
timber.
12. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability which is
measured by quantity of water filtered through the unit surface area of the wood
specimen.

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Aggregates
Introduction

Aggregates are defined as inert, granular and inorganic materials that normally consist of stone
or stone like solids. Aggregates can be used alone (in road bases and various types of fill) or can
be used with cementing materials (such as Portland cement or asphalt cement) to form composite
materials or concrete.

Since aggregates constitutes about 3/4th of the volume of concrete, it contributes significantly to
the structural performance of concrete especially strength, durability and volume stability.
Aggregates are formed from natural sources by the process of weathering and abrasion or by
artificially by crushing a large parent rocks.

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Classification of aggregates

Aggregates can be divided into several categories according to different criteria.

a) In accordance with size:

Coarse aggregate: if particle size is greater than 4.75mm are regarded as coarse aggregates

Fine aggregates: if particle size in between 75μ & 4.75mm are regarded as fine aggregates

b) In accordance with sources:

Natural aggregates: This kind of aggregates is taken from natural deposits without changing
their nature during the process of production such as crushing and grinding. Some examples in
this category are sand, crushed limestone and gravel.

Manufactured aggregates: This is a kind of man-made materials produced as main product or

an industrial by-product. Some examples are blast furnace slag, lightweight aggregate (e.g.
expanded perlite), and heavy weight aggregates (e.g. iron ore or crushed steel)

c) In accordance with unit weight:

Light weight aggregates: the unit weight of aggregates is less than 1120kg/m3. The
corresponding concrete has a bulk density less than 1800kg/m3. (Cinder, blast-furnace slag,
volcanic pumice).

Normal aggregates: The aggregates have unit weight of 1520-1680kg/m3. The concrete made
with this type of aggregates has a bulk density of bulk density of 2300-2400kg/m3.

Heavy weight aggregate: The unit weight is greater than 2100kg/m3. The bulk density of the
corresponding concrete is greater than 3200kg/m3. A typical example is magnesite limonite, a
heavy iron ore. Heavy weight concrete is used in special structures such as radiation shields.

1.8 Fine Aggregates

Grading of aggregates

 Particle size distribution of an aggregate is determined by sieve analysis is known as

„grading of the aggregate‟
 Aggregate comprises about 55% of the volume of mortar and about 85% of volume of
concrete. Mortar contains aggregates of size 4.75mm and the concrete contains aggregates
upto a max. size of 150mm.
 Strength of concrete is dependent upon water-cement ratio. One of the most important factors
for producing workable concrete is good grading of aggregates.
 Grading of aggregates are of 3 types

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Good graded or well graded: It implies that a given sample of aggregates contains all standard
fractions such there will be minimum number of voids.

Uniformly graded or poor graded: It contains aggregate particles that are almost of the same
size. This means that the particles pack together, leaving relatively large voids in the concrete.

Gap graded: It consists of aggregate particles in which some intermediate size particles are
missing.

A sample of good grading of aggregate containing min. voids will require min. paste to fill up
the voids in the aggregate and this will produce a higher strength, lower shrinkage and greater
durability.

Sieve: It is a circular disc consists of wire mesh of square apparture.

Sieve analysis: This is the name given to the operation of dividing the given sample of
aggregates into various fractions each consisting of particles of same size. The sieve analysis is
conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregates which is also
called as Gradation.

 The aggregates used for making concrete are normally of the maximum size 80 mm, 40 mm,
20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron and 150 micron.

 The aggregate fractions from 80 mm to 4.75 mm are termed as coarse aggregate and those
fractions from 4.75 mm to 150 micron are termed as fine aggregate.

Sieves are placed one above the other, maximum size is placed at the top and minimum size in
the bottom. Sieving can be done either manually or by mechanically with sieve shaker. From the
sieve analysis, the particle size distribution in a sample is found out; from this fineness modulus
can be determined.

Fineness Modulus: It is a relative index which indicates the particles are either coarser or finer.
The sum of cumulative percentage retained on the sieves divided by 100 gives fineness modulus
of given sample of aggregates.

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For sand the following limits are taken as guidelines

Fine sand → 2.2 – 2.6

Medium sand → 2.6 – 2.9

Coarse sand → 2.9 – 3.2

Tests on Fine aggregates

Specific Gravity:

 The specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of the mass of solid in a given volume of
sample to the mass of equal volume water at the same temperature.

 They are of two types 1) absolute specific gravity and 2) apparent specific gravity.

 Absolute specific gravity is defined as ratio of mass of solid to the mass of an equal void-
free volume of water. If the volume of aggregate includes the voids, then resulting specific
gravity is called apparent specific gravity.

 Average specific gravity of the rocks varies from 2.6 to 2.8.

 It‟s required for calculation of the quantity of aggregate for a given volume of concrete.

1) Determination of Specific gravity of fine aggregates by Pycnometer method

Procedure

1. Find the weight an empty Pycnometer with stopper. Let it be W1 gms.

2. Take about 1/3rd the volume of Pycnometer full of sand. Find the weight of Pycnometer with
sand and let it be W3 gms.

3. Now fill the Pycnometer to its half with water so as to submerge the sand inside. Allow the
entrapped air from sand to escape. Then fill the Pycnometer with water. Replace the stopper and
find the total weight Pycnometer with its constituents and let it be W3 gms.

4. Remove the constituents from the Pycnometer and clean it. Fill completely with water and
replace the stopper. Find the weight with water and let it be W4 gms.

( )
Specific gravity = (
)( )

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2) Bulking of sand

Bulking can be defined as that property of sand by virtue of which it expands in volume
when it is wet. This is because, when water is added to the sand, each particle will be coated by
a film of water and keeps far apart from each other due to surface tension. Hence it is necessary
to take the moisture content into account while measuring the sand by volume for proportioning
concrete. Bulking increases with the increase in water content up to 4% by weight and then
decreases. Bulking also increases with fineness of particles.

Procedure

1. Take about 300gms of dry sand and pour it into a measuring jar. Note down the initial volume
of sand.

2. Transfer the sand into a non absorbent pan and add 1% (by weight of sand) of water. Mix the
sand thoroughly with a glass rod so that a uniform color is obtained.

3. Then pour the wet sand into the measuring jar and note down the rise in volume.

4. Again transfer the san into the pan and add another 1% of water by weight of sand. Mix
thoroughly and pour back into the jar and note down the new volume.

5. Repeat this process by increasing the water content at the rate of 1% up to 3, 4, 5, 6% and so
on until the volume starts decreasing.

6. Plot a graph of % increase in volume V/S % of water added.

3) Measurement of moisture content for fine aggregate

Moisture content means free water held on the surface of aggregate which includes the
absorbed water and the water held in the interior portion of the aggregate.

1. Drying method: The drying method is carried out in a oven and the loss in weight before and
after drying will give the moisture content of the aggregate. If drying is done at high
temperature for long time, the loss in weight will include not only the surface water but also

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some absorbed water. A fairly quick result can be obtained by heating the aggregate in an
open pan and the process can be speed up by pouring inflammable liquid like acetone on the
aggregate and igniting it.

2. Displacement method: In the laboratory, the moisture content of aggregate can be determined
by means of Pycnometer. The principle made use of is that specific gravity of normal
aggregate is higher than that of water and that a given weight of wet aggregate will occupy a
greater volume than the same weight of dry aggregate. By knowing the specific gravity of dry
aggregate, specific gravity of wet aggregate can be calculated. From the difference between
specific gravity of wet and dry aggregates, the moisture content of the aggregate can be
calculated.

3. Calcium Carbide method: A quick and reasonably accurate method of determining the
moisture of fine aggregate is to mix with excess amount of calcium carbide in a strong air-
tight vessel fitted with pressure gas. Calcium carbide reacts with surface moisture in the
aggregate to produce acetylene gas. The pressure of acetylene gas generated depends upon
the moisture content of the aggregates. The pressure gauge is calibrated by taking a measured
quantity of aggregate of known moisture content and then such a calibrated pressure gauge
could be used to read the moisture content of aggregate directly. The method is often used to
find out the moisture content of fine aggregate at the site of work. The equipment consists of a
small balance, a standard scoop and container fixed with dial gauge. The procedure is as
follows; weigh 6gms of wet sand and pour it into the container. Take one scoop full of
calcium carbide powder and put it into the container. Close the lid of the container and shake
it rigorously. Calcium carbide reacts with surface moisture and produces acetylene gas, the
pressure of which drives the indicator needle on the pressure gauge. The pressure gauge is so
calibrated, that it gives directly the percentage of moisture present in the sample. The whole
job takes only less than 5mins and as such, this test can be done at very close intervals of time
at the site of work.

4. Electrical meter method: Recently electrical meters have been developed to measure
instantaneous or continuous reading of the moisture content of the aggregate. The principle
that the resistance gets changed with the change in moisture content of the aggregate has been
made use in some sophisticated batching plant. Electrical meters are used to find out the
moisture content and also to regulate the quantity of water to be added to the continuous
mixture.

5. Automatic measurement: In modern batching plants surface moisture in aggregates is

automatically recorded by means of some kind of sensor arrangements. The arrangement is
made in such a way that, the quantity of free water going with aggregate is automatically
recorded and simultaneously that much quantity of water is reduced. This sophisticated
method results in an accuracy of ± 0.2 to 0.6%.

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Alternatives to river sand

Sand is a vital ingredient in making two most used construction materials viz. Cement Concrete
and mortar. Traditionally River sand, which is formed by natural weathering of rocks over many
years, is preferred as fine aggregate. The economic development fuelling the growth of
infrastructure and housing generates huge demand for building materials like sand. The
indiscriminate mining of sand from riverbeds is posing a serious threat to environment such as
erosion of riverbed and banks, triggering landslides, loss of vegetation on the bank of rivers,
lowering the ground water table etc. Demand for sand is increasing day by day and at the same
time mining threats cannot be ignored. Hence, sand mining from riverbeds is being restricted or
banned by the authorities like National Green Tribunal, State Environmental Impact Assessment
Authority and Pollution Control Board

Some of the Alternatives to River sand

 Manufacture Sand
 Processes Quarry dust
 Processed Crushed rock fines
 Offshore Sand
 Processed glass
 Aluminum saw mill waste
 Granite fines slurry
 Washed soil (filtered sand)
 Fly ash (bottom ash/ pond ash)
 Slag sand
 Copper Slag sand
 Construction Demolition waste.

Manufacture Sand

Manufactured sand is crushed fine aggregate produced from a source material and designed for
use in concrete or for other specific products. Only source materials with suitable strength,
durability and shape characteristics should be used.

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1.9 Coarse Aggregates

Importance of size, shape and surface texture of aggregates on workability and strength

 Size of aggregate: Bigger the size of particles less will be the surface area and hence less
amount of water is required and also less cement paste required for lubricating the
surfaces of aggregates. So bigger the size, gives higher workability.
 Shape of aggregate: Angular, elongated or flaky aggregates make the concrete very
harsh when compared to rounded or cubical aggregates. Contribution to better
workability of rounded aggregate will come from the fact that for a given volume or
weight. It will have a less surface area and less voids. Not only is that being in rounded in
shape, the frictional resistance between the aggregates also reduced. Hence the
workability will be more in case of rounded than compared to flaky aggregates. Hence
the strength will be more by using rounded or cubical aggregates.
 Surface texture: Surface texture is the property, the measure of which depends upon the
relative degree to which particle surface are polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface
texture depends on hardness, grain size, pore structure and structure of the rock.

Total surface area of rough texture aggregate is more than that of surface area of smooth
rounded aggregates of same volume. Rough textured aggregates will show poor
workability and smooth textured aggregates will give better workability because of lesser
frictional resistance of inner surface particle.

Testing of Coarse Aggregates

 Test for determination of flakiness index

An aggregate having least dimension less than 3/5th of

mean dimension is termed as flaky. This test is not
applicable to aggregates less than 6.3mm. This test is
conducted by using a metal thickness gauge. A sufficient
quality of aggregates is taken ie, a minimum of 200 pieces
of any fraction to be tested. Each fraction is gauged in
terms of thickness on metal gauge. The total amount of
aggregate pieces passing through each gauge is weighed
accurately. Flakiness index is calculated by taking the ratio of total weight of materials
passing through the various thickness gauges to the total weight of aggregate sample taken.

 Test for determination of elongation index

The elongation index of an aggregate is the particle having largest dimension (length) is
greater than 9/5th of mean dimension. The elongation index is not applicable to sizes lesser
than 6.3mm. This test is conducted by using metal length gauge. A sufficient quantity of

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aggregate is taken to provide a minimum number of pieces of 200 of any fraction to be tested.
Each fraction shall be gauged individually for the length on metal gauge. The amount retained by
the gauge length shall be weighed to an accuracy of 0.1% of the weight of sample taken. The
elongation index is calculated in percentage by taking the ratio of total weight of materials
retained on various length gauges to the total weight of aggregate sample taken.

 Test to determine Specific Gravity of coarse aggregate by wire basket method

1. Take about 5kg of coarse aggregates passing through 4.75mm sieve.

2. Wash thoroughly to remove dust, dry to constant mass at a temperature of 105± 5ºC.

3. Immerse the sample in water in water at 22 to 32ºC for a period of 24±1/2 hours (30min in
practice).

4. Remove the aggregates from water & roll the same in a large piece of an absorbent cloth until
all visible films of water are removed, although the surface of the particles will still appears to
be damp.

5. Now, weigh 3kg of this sample in the in the saturated dry condition and note down the mass as
W1gm.

6. Place the weighed aggregate immediately in the wire basket & dip it water. Weigh this bucket
with aggregates, keeping it in water with the help of a balance. Note down the mass as W3 gm.

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7. Note down the weight of suspended empty wire basket in water without aggregates and note
down the mass as W2 gm.

8. Dry the sample to the constant weight at the temperature of 100 to 110ºC for 24±1/2 hours.

9. Cool to room temperature and weigh it & note down the mass as W4 gm.

10. Calculate specific gravity and repeat the procedure for fresh sample of aggregates.

Weight of oven dry aggregate (C) = W4 gm.

Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate (B) = W3 gm.

Weight of basket & aggregates in water (A1) = W2 gm.

Weight of empty basket submerged in water (A2) = W1gm.

Actual Specific gravity =

Apparent specific gravity =

Water absorption =

Where A = weight of saturated aggregate in water = A1 – A2.

Testing of mechanical properties of aggregates

A. Test for determination of aggregate crushing value

The aggregate crushing value gives a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to
crushing under a gradually applied compressive load.

Apparatus required for this test are as follows

1. Steel cylinder (dia-15.2cm, height-14cm)

2. Cylindrical measure (dia-11.5cm, height-18cm)
3. Steel tamping rod (dia-1.6cm, height- 40 to 60cm)
4. Balance
5. Compression testing machine

Procedure

1. Oven dry aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and

retained on 10mm IS sieve is selected for the test.

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2. The sample aggregates in filled three layers and each layer being tamped 25 blows by rounded
end of the tamping rod.

3. After tamping the third layer, the top surface is leveled using the tamping rod as straight edge.
The test sample weight is taken as W1 gms.
4. The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate and the test sample is
transferred into the cylinder in three layers and each layer is tamped with 25blows.

5. The surface of the aggregate is leveled and the plunger inserted.

6. The cylinder with the test sample and plunger in position is placed on CTM.

7. Load is then applied through the plunger at a uniform rate of 4tones/min until the total load of
40tones and then the load is released.

9. Aggregates including the crushed portion a re removed from the cylinder and sieved on a
2.36mm IS sieve, the materi al which passes this sieve is collected and taken W2 gms.

Aggregate crushing value =

Note: According to Indian road congress & ISI has specified that aggregate crushing value of the
coarse aggregate used for cement concrete pavements should not exceed 30% and used for
concrete other than wearing surface should not exceed 45%.

B. To determine the aggregate impact value

The aggregate impact value gives the relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to
sudden shock or impact.

Apparatus required for the experiment are as follows

1. Impact testing machine

2. Cylindrical measure
3. Tamping rod
4. Balance

Procedure

1. Oven dry aggregate passing through 12.5mm IS sieve and

retained in 10mm IS sieve are selected for the test.

2. The cylindrical measure is filled by the sample aggregates in three layers and each layer being
tamped by 25blows with rounded end of the tamping rod.

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3. After tamping the third layer, the top surface is leveled using the tamping rod as straight edge.
The test sample weight is taken as W1 gms.

4. The cup of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate and test sample is
transferred to the cup in a single layer and being tamped 25 blows and top surface is leveled.

5. The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38cm above the upper surface of the aggregate in
the cup, and allowed to fall freely on aggregate for 15 times at an interval not more than 2
seconds and not less than 1second.

6. The crushed aggregate is then removed from the cup and the whole sample is sieved on
2.36mm IS sieve, the mat erial which passes this sieve is collected and taken W2 gms.

Aggregate impact value =

Note: According to IS specification, the aggregate impact value

< 10% → exceptionally strong
10 – 20% → strong
20 – 30% → satisfactory for road surfacing
> 30% → weak for road surfacing

Recommended aggregate impact value for different types of pavements

No. Type of pavement surfaces Max. aggregate impact

value (percentage)

1 Bituminous surface dressing; penetration 30

macadam; cement concrete wearing course

2 Bitumen bound macadam 35

3 Cement concrete base course 45

Test for the determination of aggregate abrasion value

Apparatus required for the experiment are as follows

1. Los-Angeles machine
2. Steel balls (dia - 48cm, weight - 390 to 445g)
3. Balance
4. Sieves

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Procedure

1. Clean dry aggregate, confirming to any one of the grading A to G is used for the test.
Aggregate weighing 5kg for grading A, B, C or D and 10kg for grading E and for G may be
taken as test specimen and placed in the cylinder and is noted as W1 gms.

2. The abrasive charge is also chosen depending upon the aggregate and is placed in the cylinder
of the machine; the cover is then fixed dust tight.

3. The machine is rotated for 500 revolutions for grading A, B, C and D & for grading E, F and
G it shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions.

4. After the desired number of revolutions, machine is stopped and the material is discharged
from the machine taking care to take out entire stone dust.

5. Using 1.7mm IS si eve the material is sieved and the coarser material is retained on the sieve is
taken as W2 gms.

Percentage wear =
Specifications for L os-Angeles test

No. Sieve size Weight (in gms) and grading of test samples
Passing Retained A B C D E F G
on mm on mm
1 80 63 - - - - 2500 - -
2 63 50 - - - - 2500 - -
3 50 40 - - - - 5000 5000 -
4 40 25 1250 - - - - 5000 5000
5 25 20 1250 - - - - - -
6 20 12.5 1250 2500 - - - - -
7 12.5 10 1250 2500 - - - - -
8 10 6.3 - - 2500 - - - -
9 6.3 4.75 - - 2500 - - - -
10 4.75 2.36 - - - 5000 - - --
Number of spheres to be used 12 11 8 6 12 12 12
Number of revolutions 500 1000
Maximum allowable Los-Angeles abrasion values

No. Type of surface Maximum abrasion values

1 W.B.M subsurface course 60
2 W.B.M base course with bituminous surfacing 50
3 W.B.M surface course 40
4 Cement concrete surface course 35
5 Bituminous / Asphalt concrete surface course 30

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Building Material & Construction 15CV36

1.10 Questions

1. What is a stone?
2. What is timber?
3. Define aggregates
4. Define fine aggregates
5. Define coarse aggregate
6. Define cement
7. Define concrete

1.11 Outcome

Gives Knowledge about different building materials used for construction of buildings.

1.12 Future Study

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105102088/

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