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CHAPTER 2

LANGUAGE, CONCEPT, AND TERM

These three: language, concept, and term, are the fundamental

aspects in the study of logic because logic is substantially concerned with
arguments, judgments, and reasoning. But no argument, judgment and
reasoning are possible without the use of language, concept, and term.

LANGUAGE

Corazon L. cruz quotes Copi’s list of basic functions of language. They

are: informative, expressive, and directive (1995; p. 11-12).

Informative

This is the most common function of language that is being attested

by textbooks on any subject, magazine, newspaper, etc. This is so because
information is most of the time(though not absolute) given, sent or received
through language. In logic, we see this function at work in propositions and
arguments, where something is either affirmed or denied. That which is
affirmed or denied is either true or false, correct or incorrect. When we
say, “Mo. Ignatia del Spiritu Santo is the foundress of the congregation of
the Religious of the Virgin Mary”, we are giving a true information by
affirming Mo. Ignatia as the foundress of the RVM congregation. When we
say, “Rodrigo Duterte is not the present Mayor of Davao City”, we are again
giving a true information but by denying that Rodrigo Duterte is the present
mayor of Davao City. When we say, “GMA is the first president of the
Republic of the Philippines”, we are giving a false information by affirming
something which is not true. A false information can also be given by denying
something which is actually true like: “MT. Apo is not the highest mountain in
the Philippines”.

Expressive

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This function of language is commonly seen in the expression of

thoughts and feelings like that of poetry. This is also seen in common
exclamations like “Oh no!”, “right”, “Ah, Ha!”, etc. which express different
moods of feelings and emotions. This function of language therefore, is used
to express the speaker’s feelings or to evoke certain feeling on the part of
the author or, both. The examples for this function of language are
oratorical speeches, Sunday Homilies, etc.

Directive

This function of language is commonly seen in commands and request,

e.g. “get me a piece of chalk”; “may I have my pen”, and “ Please sing me the
song ‘Esperanza’”.

Note that the second and third functions of language cannot speak of
something as true or false. So, logic is concerned only with the first function
of language which is informative because only this function affirms or denies
something as true or false.

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EXERCISE N0. 6
Name _____________________Course/Yr._____ Date ____Score ___

Instruction: Give the functions of language (informative, expressive and

directive) involved in the following:

__________ 1. How horrible were the recent bombings in Mindanao!

__________ 2. Manila is the most populous city in the Philippines.

__________ 3. Vote according to the dictate of your conscience.

__________ 4. It is by going to Church on Sundays that we worship God in

the community.

__________ 5. He has lied to us!

__________ 6. Quiz again, oh, No!

__________ 7. Ben’s mother is a teacher.

__________ 8. Go to the cashier and get my salary.

__________ 9. You may dial my phone number tonight.

__________10. Is that a Christian teaching!

__________11. Love your neighbors as you love yourself.

__________12. Will you please leave your phone number before you leave

tonight?

__________13. Philippines is the only Christian country in Asia.

__________14. The present Mayor in Davao City is Rodrigo Duterte.

__________15. Wearing of IDs inside the campus is a must for all students.

Corrected by ___________________

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CONCEPT

A concept is a representation of an object by the intellect through

which a thing is understood or comprehended by man. It signifies what is
understood by the mind in so far as it is in the mind.

From this meaning of concept, we can now say that a concept is an idea
that is found in the mind not in a thing. However, the idea or concept usually
starts from outside reality and apprehended by the senses and is contained
in the intellect or mind. The concept of a “teacher” for instance, is found in
the mind of the one who understands the real nature or essence of a
teacher. The concept therefore, signifies the essence of a thing or being.
But usually this “one” has a concept of a teacher because his senses have
experienced of what a teacher is. So, this concept is from the object
(teacher) – through the senses – to the brain. There are different kinds of
concepts. We will only explain some of them.

Concrete and Abstract Concepts

Concrete concept is that which expresses a “form” and a “subject”.

This is a concept which can be perceived by the senses, e.g. table, classroom,
building, etc. because they have tangible, physical existence.

Abstract concept is that which has a “form” only. When we say “form”,
it refers to a nature, quality or formal features. Therefore, abstract
concept expresses only the nature, quality, or formal features without a
subject. This concept is not perceived by the senses because it is intangible
or has no physical existence. Example: Love, Kindness Democracy, Virtue,
etc.
Absolute and Relative Concept

Absolute concept is that which signifies the meaning of a complete

substance endowed with its independent reality. This concept expresses only
a nature or an object with no reference to another nature or thing. Example:

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Man, Tree, Dog, Sun, etc. These exist independently from other things or
objects.

Relative concept is that which expresses an object or nature with

reference to another object or subject. Example: Mother, Husband,
shepherd, Teacher, etc. These cannot exist by themselves. They are called
that way in relation to another thing or reality. A mother for instance is only
called “mother” because she has a child, without such, she cannot be called
mother. So, relative concept is that which exist in relation to another
concept.

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EXERCISE N0. 7
Name _____________________Course/Yr._____ Date ____Score ___

A. Classify the following as concrete or abstract concepts by writing

C (for concrete) and A (for abstract).

Ans. No. Concept Ans. No. Concept

1 Wisdom 6 Justice
2 Computer 7 Philosophers
3 Poverty 8 Philosophies
4 Religion 9 Educator
5 Urban poor 10 Politicians

B. Classify the following as absolute or relative concepts by writing A

(for absolute) and R (for relative).

Ans. No. Concept Ans. No. Concept

1 Compassionate 6 Computer Table
2 Organism 7 Plant
3 Animal 8 Student
4 Building 9 Society
5 Pediatrician 10 God

Corrected by: ______________________

TERM

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A term is an external representation of a concept and the ultimate

structural element of a proposition. A term may be oral or written/printed.
This definition can be understood from two points of view:

1. From the point of view of its being a sign or representation of a

concept; and
2. From the point of view of its being the ultimate structural element
of a proposition.

It should be noted that the term in logic is always a sign of a concept

or an idea – for logic does not deal with terms as mere sounds or written
words, but only when they stand as signs of thoughts and things. For
instance when we say that “Mr. Willy De Guzman is a philosophy teacher”, we
do not mean the words “Mr. Willy De Guzman”, but the person whom the
words “Mr. Willy De Guzman” represent.

As an ultimate structural element of a proposition, a term is

understood as a word or group of words that can serve as the subject or
predicate of a proposition. Example: “Some Students are rational animals”.
“Students” is the subject and “rational animals” is the predicate.

A term can be simple or complex. It is simple if it consists only of

single word like; “student”, “animal”, “teacher”, etc. It is complex when it
consists of a group of words that refer only to one thing. Example: “Little-
black-animal”, “seventy-year-old-teacher”, etc., even if they consist more
than a word, they constitute only a single unit.

A term may also be significant or non-significant. It is significant

when it signifies the essence of a thing. So, subjects, predicates and nouns
are significant terms. When a term only point out something without
signifying its essence, it is a non-significant term. Demonstrative pronouns
like; “this”, “these”, “that”, and “those” are examples of non-significant
terms.

Kinds of Term

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Univocal term

It is a term which can be predicated of ( or applied to ) two or more

individuals or things in exactly the same sense. Examples: “Glen is a man”;
“Ben is a man”; “Arman is a man”; and “ Alvin is a man”. “Man” in these
examples is a univocal term because it is applied to four subjects in exactly
the same sense.

Two terms having the same meaning are univocal terms even if they
are of different words. Examples: “Unmarried and Bachelor”; “Doctor of
Medicine and Physician”; etc.

Equivocal Term

It is a term which admits two or more meanings, or can be predicated

of (or applied to) many individuals or things in an entirely different sense.
Examples: the term “Bark” can be used to: “bark of a tree and bark of a
dog”; the term: “Light” can be used to: “light as opposite to heavy and light
which is produced by an electrical bulb”; etc.

Analogous Term

It is a term which is predicated of (or applied to) two or more

individuals or things in the sense that is partly the same and partly
different. This term has only similar (not exactly the same, nor entirely
different) meanings. This is usually seen in figure of speech like simile,
metaphor, parable, and paradox. Examples: “eyes and windows of the soul”,
“Foot of a man and foot of a mountain”; “angry man and angry sea”; etc.

EXERCISE N0. 8

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Name _____________________Course/Yr._____ Date ____Score ___

Instruction: Classify the underlined terms below. Write “U” for univocal, “E”
for equivocal, and “A” for analogous.

_____ 1. He is the president of the University of the Philippines.

He is the president of Ateneo de Manila University.
_____ 2. AIDS is a contagious disease.
Dr. Reyes’ visual aids are very effective for communicative
classroom instructions.
_____ 3. A student is lying on the teacher’s table.
A student is lying to his teacher.
_____4. This patient is suffering from unbearable pain due to incurable
illness.
The nurse does not take extra care of this patient.
_____ 5. He is a good robber.
He is a good man.
_____ 6. This student is very industrious.
This student is very studious.
_____ 7. A star is a heavenly body.
Sharon Cuneta is a star.
_____ 8. My teacher is cruel.
The sea is cruel.
_____ 9. This pen is good.
This ink eradicator is good.
_____10. Ben is a rational animal.
Glen is a rational animal.

Corrected by: ______________________

Supposition of terms

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The supposition of the term is the definite meaning of a term in a

given proposition. It is a property by which a term stands for a definite one
of various things that it can stand for.

The supposition of terms can be material and formal.

Material Supposition

Material supposition is the use of a term for the spoken or written

word itself but not for what it signifies or a term or word which does not
refer to its meaning.

Examples: Man is a three-letter word these suppositions

refer only to the
Man rimes with ban word “man”, not to
its meaning.
Man is one syllable word

Formal Supposition

Formal supposition is the use of the word for what it really means or
signifies. The supposition of man is formal in the proposition “man is a
rational animal” because “rational animal” stands for what man really is.
Formal supposition is either logical or real.

Logical supposition is the use of the term for the concept that it
signifies abstractly or mentally.
Examples: Man is a species these suppositions
signify the term “man”
Man is a universal concept not in its real or
actual existence but
Man has lesser extension only its existence
than animals in the mind.

Real Supposition is the use of the term or word for what it

really means or signifies.

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Examples: Man is a rational animal. These suppositions

signify the term “man”
Man is mortal. to what it can exist
in reality not only in
A man is running down the mind.
the street.

It must be noted that in logic, we are concerned with the term, which
carries a meaning that points to an object in reality.

EXERCISE N0. 9
Name _____________________Course/Yr._____ Date ____Score ___

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Instruction: Classify the following propositions as material by writing “M”,

formal and logical by writing “FL”, and formal and real by writing
“FR”.
_____ 1. Man is rational animal.

_____ 2. Man is written on the blackboard.

_____ 3. Man is not immortal.

_____ 4. “Pag-asa” has six letters.

_____ 5. Philosophy is derived from the two Greeks words Phillien and

Sophia.

_____ 6. He wishes to play basketball like the way the legendary Michael

Jordan plays.

_____ 7. Man has only one vowel.

_____ 8. “Beautiful” is a modifier in a sentence.

_____ 9. A square has four equal sides.

_____10. Classroom teachers are classroom managers.

_____11. Being is a universal concept.

_____12. Some men are singing beings.

_____13. One world government is the ultimate goal of American

Government.

_____14. Some dogs are animals

_____15. Riding a flying horse is usually the content of the child’s

imagination.

Corrected by _______________________

Comprehension and Extension of Terms

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The comprehension of a term is the sum - total of all intelligible

elements or notes (the elements that comprise the significance of an idea)
which constitute the meaning of a concept. In other words, comprehension is
that which can be applied to (or predicated of) an individual, thing or
concept. Example: “Man and Rational animal”. “Rational animal” is the
comprehension because it is applied to “man” but in the proposition: “Peter is
a man”, “man” is the comprehension because it is applied to “Peter”.

The extension of the term is the sum - total of the particular

subjects to which the comprehension of a concept can be applied. In our
first example, “man” is the extension because the comprehension “rational
animal” is applied to it. In the second example “Peter” is the extension
because the comprehension “man” is applied to it.

The greater the comprehension of a term, the lesser its extension,

and vice-versa.

EXTENSION

Substance AngelEEEEE
Mineral Plant Animal Man

Corporeal Substance Mineral Plant Animal Man

Animate Corporeal Substance Plant Animal Man

Sentient Animate Corporeal Substance Animal Man

Rational Sentient Animate Corporeal Substance Man

COMPREHENSION

EXERCISE N0. 10

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Name _____________________Course/Yr._____ Date ____Score ___

Instruction: Classify the following pair of terms into its proper column. In
column A, write the comprehension and in column B, write the
extension.
Column A Column B
1. Mt. Apo and Volcano _____________ , ____________

2. Davao and Province _____________ , ____________

3. University and Higher educational _____________ , ____________

Institution

4. Triangle and Figure _____________ , ____________

5. Trining and Typhoon _____________ , ____________

6. Natural calamity and Earthquake _____________ , ____________

7. Doctor of Philosophy and Miss Sayson _____________ , _________

8. Prawn and Seafood _____________ , ____________

9. Pediatrician and Doctor _____________ , ____________

10. Instrument and Guitar _____________ , ____________

11. Party-list and Akbayan _____________ , ____________

12. Branch of Philosophy and logic _____________ , ____________

13. Laity and Christian Faithful _____________ , ____________

14. Basic unit in a society and Family _____________ , ____________

15. Historical site and Rizal Park _____________ , ____________

Corrected by _______________________

Quantity of term

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Singular Term

It stands for one individual or group and designate that individual or

group definitely. The signs of singularity are:

1. Proper nouns
Examples: UIC, Davao City, James Cruz, etc.
Note: There might be other persons named James Cruz, but when
we use this name, we use it for one definite individual whom we intend to
designate definitely.

2. Superlatives
Examples: Highest, Tallest, First, Worst, etc.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns
Examples: This, That, These, Those
4. Collective nouns
Examples: Heard, Team, Army, Flock, etc.
5. Personal Pronouns
Examples: I, You, He, She, They, My, Your, Our, etc.

Particular Term

It stands for indeterminately designated portion of its absolute

extension. It can also stand for one individual or group without designating it
definitely. It can stand further for more than one, but not clearly for all of
the individuals or groups to which it can be applied. The signs of particularity
are:

1. Indefinite Pronouns and adjectives

Examples: Some, Several, Many, Few, Most, etc.
2. Use of Numbers
Examples: Five of those boys, Nine Candidates, etc.
3. Generalization
Examples: Filipinos are hospitable, Germans are good musicians,
etc.

Universal Term

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It stands for each of the subjects to which it can be applied – that is,
if it stands for each of the one of an unlimited class of subjects. The signs
for universality are:

1. Universal expressions

Examples: All, Every, Each, Whatever, Whoever, Whichever,

Without exception, etc.

2. Universal Ideas

Examples: Men are mortal, Horses are not people, etc.

Note: Article “The” is a prefixed to both singular and universal

terms.

Examples: The dog is barking loudly (singular)- can’t be applied to

all dogs.

The dog is an animal (universal) – can be applied to all dogs.

Articles “A and An” are indefinite articles and are prefixed

to both particular and universal terms.

Examples: A dog is barking (particular) – we don’t know which

dog.
A dog is an animal (universal) – can be applied to all
dogs.

EXERCISE N0. 11

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Name _____________________Course/Yr._____ Date ____Score ___

Instruction: State whether the subject terms are singular, particular, or

universal. Ignore the predicate except insofar as you must
consider them in order to recognize the quantity of the
subject.

_______ 1. My father is the present president of San Miguel corporation.

_______ 2. More than five millions of the Filipinos were denied of their

right to vote last national election.

_______ 3. A few of the first year students were absent during the

departmental meeting.

_______ 4. Those five students are my classmates in Philo. 1 class.

_______ 5. Five of those students in the corridor are my teammates.

_______ 6. Whoever is in this room is welcome.

_______ 7. The most gifted student is kidnapped by an unknown group.

_______ 8. A very intelligent student is seriously ill.

_______ 9. The present president of CBCP is attending a convention in

Rome.

_______10. Some teachers are very intelligent persons.

Corrected by ___________________________

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