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Computer Memory, Applications and Management

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 Computer Memory, Applications and Management

Nikola Zlatanov*

In computing, memory refers to the computer hardware devices used to store information for
immediate use in a computer; it is synonymous with the term "primary storage". Computer memory
operates at a high speed, for example random-access memory (RAM), as a distinction from storage that
provides slow-to-access program and data storage but offers higher capacities. If needed, contents of
the computer memory can be transferred to secondary storage, through a memory management
technique called "virtual memory". An archaic synonym for memory is store.
The term "memory", meaning "primary storage" or "main memory", is often associated with
addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used
for example as primary storage but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices.
There are two main types of semiconductor memory, volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile
memory are flash memory (used as secondary memory) and ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM
memory (used for storing firmware such as BIOS). Examples of volatile memory are primary storage,
which is typically dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory, which is
typically static random-access memory (SRAM) that is fast but energy-consuming, offering lower
memory areal density than DRAM.
Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or bistable flip-flops, each storing
one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multiple bits per
cell (called MLC, Multiple Level Cell). The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for
example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit,
making it possible to store 2 raised by N words in the memory. This implies that processor registers
normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an
addressing mechanism. Typical secondary storage devices are hard disk drives and solid-state drives.
It is amazing how many different types of electronic memory you encounter in daily life. Many of
them have become an integral part of our vocabulary: RAM, ROM, Cache, Dynamic RAM, Static
RAM, Flash memory, Memory Sticks, Virtual memory, Video memory, BIOS.
Computer Memory Basics
Although memory is technically any form of electronic storage, it is used most often to identify fast,
temporary forms of storage. If your computer's CPU had to constantly access the hard drive to retrieve
every piece of data it needs, it would operate very slowly. When the information is kept in memory, the
CPU can access it much more quickly. Most forms of memory are intended to store data temporarily.
As you can see in the diagram above, the CPU accesses memory according to a distinct hierarchy.
Whether it comes from permanent storage (the hard drive) or input (the keyboard), most data goes in
random access memory (RAM) first. The CPU then stores pieces of data it will need to access, often in
a cache, and maintains certain special instructions in the register. We'll talk about cache and registers
later.
All of the components in your computer, such as the CPU, the hard drive and the operating system,
work together as a team, and memory is one of the most essential parts of this team. From the moment
you turn your computer on until the time you shut it down, your CPU is constantly using memory. Let's
take a look at a typical scenario:
• You turn the computer on.
• The computer loads data from read-only memory (ROM) and performs a power-on self-test
(POST) to make sure all the major components are functioning properly. As part of this test, the memory
controller checks all of the memory addresses with a quick read/write operation to ensure that there are
no errors in the memory chips. Read/write means that data is written to a bit and then read from that bit.
• The computer loads the basic input/output system (BIOS) from ROM. The BIOS provides the
most basic information about storage devices, boot sequence, security, Plug and Play (auto device
recognition) capability and a few other items.
• The computer loads the operating system (OS) from the hard drive into the system's RAM.
Generally, the critical parts of the operating system are maintained in RAM as long as the computer is
on. This allows the CPU to have immediate access to the operating system, which enhances the
performance and functionality of the overall system.
• When you open an application, it is loaded into RAM. To conserve RAM usage, many
applications load only the essential parts of the program initially and then load other pieces as needed.
• After an application is loaded, any files that are opened for use in that application are loaded into
RAM.
• When you save a file and close the application, the file is written to the specified storage device,
and then it and the application are purged from RAM.
In the list above, every time something is loaded or opened, it is placed into RAM. This simply means
that it has been put in the computer's temporary storage area so that the CPU can access that
information more easily. The CPU requests the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new
data back to RAM in a continuous cycle. In most computers, this shuffling of data between the CPU and
RAM happens millions of times every second. When an application is closed, it and any accompanying
files are usually purged (deleted) from RAM to make room for new data. If the changed files are not
saved to a permanent storage device before being purged, they are lost.
One common question about desktop computers that comes up all the time is, "Why does a computer
need so many memory systems?"
Types of Computer Memory
A typical computer has:
Level 1 and level 2 caches
Normal system RAM
Virtual memory
A hard disk
 Fast, powerful CPUs need quick and easy access to large amounts of data in order to maximize
their performance. If the CPU cannot get to the data it needs, it literally stops and waits for it. Modern
CPUs running at speeds of about 1 GigaHertz can consume massive amounts of data -- potentially
billions of bytes per second. The problem that computer designers face is that memory that can keep up
with a 1-gigahertz CPU is extremely expensive -- much more expensive than anyone can afford in large
quantities.
Computer designers have solved the cost problem by "tiering" memory -- using expensive memory in
small quantities and then backing it up with larger quantities of less expensive memory.
The cheapest form of read/write memory in wide use today is the hard disk. Hard disks provide
large quantities of inexpensive, permanent storage. You can buy hard disk space for pennies per
megabyte, but it can take a good bit of time (approaching a second) to read a megabyte off a hard disk.
Because storage space on a hard disk is so cheap and plentiful, it forms the final stage of a CPUs
memory hierarchy, called virtual memory.
The next level of the hierarchy is RAM. We discuss RAM in detail in How RAM Works, but several
points about RAM are important here.
The bit size of a CPU tells you how many bytes of information it can access from RAM at the same time.
For example, a 16-bit CPU can process 2 bytes at a time (1 byte = 8 bits, so 16 bits = 2 bytes), and a 64-
bit CPU can process 8 bytes at a time.
Megahertz (MHz) is a measure of a CPU's processing speed, or clock cycle, in millions per second.
So, a 32-bit 800-MHz Pentium III can potentially process 4 bytes simultaneously, 800 million times per
second (possibly more based on pipelining)! The goal of the memory system is to meet those
requirements.
A computer's system RAM alone is not fast enough to match the speed of the CPU. That is why
you need a cache (discussed later). However, the faster RAM is, the better. Most chips today operate
with a cycle rate of 50 to 70 nanoseconds. The read/write speed is typically a function of the type of RAM
used, such as DRAM, SDRAM, RAMBUS. We will talk about these various types of memory later.
First, let's talk about system RAM.

System RAM
System RAM speed is controlled by bus width and bus speed. Bus width refers to the number of
bits that can be sent to the CPU simultaneously, and bus speed refers to the number of times a group of
bits can be sent each second. A bus cycle occurs every time data travels from memory to the CPU. For
example, a 100-MHz 32-bit bus is theoretically capable of sending 4 bytes (32 bits divided by 8 = 4
bytes) of data to the CPU 100 million times per second, while a 66-MHz 16-bit bus can send 2 bytes of
data 66 million times per second. If you do the math, you'll find that simply changing the bus width from
16 bits to 32 bits and the speed from 66 MHz to 100 MHz in our example allows for three times as much
data (400 million bytes versus 132 million bytes) to pass through to the CPU every second.
In reality, RAM doesn't usually operate at optimum speed. Latency changes the equation
radically. Latency refers to the number of clock cycles needed to read a bit of information. For example,
RAM rated at 100 MHz is capable of sending a bit in 0.00000001 seconds, but may take 0.00000005
seconds to start the read process for the first bit. To compensate for latency, CPUs uses a special
technique called burst mode.
Burst mode depends on the expectation that data requested by the CPU will be stored in
sequential memory cells. The memory controller anticipates that whatever the CPU is working on will
continue to come from this same series of memory addresses, so it reads several consecutive bits of
data together. This means that only the first bit is subject to the full effect of latency; reading successive
bits takes significantly less time. The rated burst mode of memory is normally expressed as four
numbers separated by dashes. The first number tells you the number of clock cycles needed to begin a
read operation; the second, third and fourth numbers tell you how many cycles are needed to read each
consecutive bit in the row, also known as the wordline. For example: 5-1-1-1 tells you that it takes five
cycles to read the first bit and one cycle for each bit after that. Obviously, the lower these numbers are,
the better the performance of the memory.
Burst mode is often used in conjunction with pipelining, another means of minimizing the effects
of latency. Pipelining organizes data retrieval into a sort of assembly-line process. The memory controller
simultaneously reads one or more words from memory, sends the current word or words to the CPU and
writes one or more words to memory cells. Used together, burst mode and pipelining can dramatically
reduce the lag caused by latency.
So why wouldn't you buy the fastest, widest memory you can get? The speed and width of the
memory's bus should match the system's bus. You can use memory designed to work at 100 MHz in a
66-MHz system, but it will run at the 66-MHz speed of the bus so there is no advantage, and 32-bit
memory won't fit on a 16-bit bus.
Even with a wide and fast bus, it still takes longer for data to get from the memory card to the
CPU than it takes for the CPU to actually process the data. That's where caches come in.

Cache and Registers

Caches are designed to alleviate this bottleneck by making the data used most often by the CPU
instantly available. This is accomplished by building a small amount of memory, known as primary or
level 1 cache, right into the CPU. Level 1 cache is very small, normally ranging between 2 kilobytes (KB)
and 64 KB.
The secondary or level 2 cache typically resides on a memory card located near the CPU. The
level 2 cache has a direct connection to the CPU. A dedicated integrated circuit on the motherboard, the
L2 controller, regulates the use of the level 2 cache by the CPU. Depending on the CPU, the size of the
level 2 cache ranges from 256 KB to 2 megabytes (MB). In most systems, data needed by the CPU is
accessed from the cache approximately 95 percent of the time, greatly reducing the overhead needed
when the CPU has to wait for data from the main memory.
Some inexpensive systems dispense with the level 2 cache altogether. Many high performance CPUs
now have the level 2 cache actually built into the CPU chip itself. Therefore, the size of the level 2 cache
and whether it is onboard (on the CPU) is a major determining factor in the performance of a CPU. For
more details on caching, see How Caching Works.
A particular type of RAM, static random access memory (SRAM), is used primarily for cache.
SRAM uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell. It has an external gate array
known as a bistable multivibrator that switches, or flip-flops, between two states. This means that it
does not have to be continually refreshed like DRAM. Each cell will maintain its data as long as it has
power. Without the need for constant refreshing, SRAM can operate extremely quickly. But the
complexity of each cell make it prohibitively expensive for use as standard RAM.
The SRAM in the cache can be asynchronous or synchronous. Synchronous SRAM is
designed to exactly match the speed of the CPU, while asynchronous is not. That little bit of timing
makes a difference in performance. Matching the CPU's clock speed is a good thing, so always look for
synchronized SRAM. (For more information on the various types of RAM, see How RAM Works.)
The final step in memory is the registers. These are memory cells built right into the CPU that contain
specific data needed by the CPU, particularly the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). An integral part of the
CPU itself, they are controlled directly by the compiler that sends information for the CPU to process.
Volatility
Memory can be split into two main categories: volatile and nonvolatile. Volatile memory loses any
data as soon as the system is turned off; it requires constant power to remain viable. Most types of RAM
fall into this category.
Nonvolatile memory does not lose its data when the system or device is turned off. A number of
types of memory fall into this category. The most familiar is ROM, but Flash memory storage devices
such as CompactFlash or SmartMedia cards are also forms of nonvolatile memory.
Types of Memory
Volatile Memory
Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most
modern semiconductor volatile memory is either static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM
retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy for interfacing, but uses six transistors
per bit. Dynamic RAM is more complicated for interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to
prevent losing its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach
much higher densities and much cheaper per-bit costs.
SRAM is not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM dominates, but is used for
their cache memories. SRAM is commonplace in small embedded systems, which might only need tens
of kilobytes or less. Forthcoming volatile memory technologies that aim at replacing or competing with
SRAM and DRAM include Z-RAM and A-RAM.
Non-Volatile Memory
Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not
powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM), flash memory, 3D
XPoint, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disk drives, floppy disks
and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape
and punched cards.
Forthcoming non-volatile memory technologies
include FeRAM, CBRAM, PRAM, SONOS, RRAM, racetrack memory, NRAM and millipede memory.

Memory Management
Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly. Modern operating
systems have complex systems to properly manage memory. Failure to do so can lead to bugs, slow
performance, and at worst case, takeover by viruses and malicious software.
Nearly everything a computer programmer does requires him or her to consider how to manage memory.
Even storing a number in memory requires the programmer to specify how the memory should store it.

Memory management bugs

Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs, including the following types:
In an arithmetic overflow, a calculation results in a number larger than the allocated memory permits.
For example, a signed 8-bit integer allows the numbers −128 to +127. If its value is 127 and it is
instructed to add one, the computer cannot store the number 128 in that space. Such a case will result in
undesired operation, such as changing the number's value to −128 instead of +128.
A memory leak occurs when a program requests memory from the operating system and never returns
the memory when it's done with it. A program with this bug will gradually require more and more memory
until the program fails as it runs out.
A segmentation fault results when a program tries to access memory that it does not have permission
to access. Generally a program doing so will be terminated by the operating system.
A buffer overflow means that a program writes data to the end of its allocated space and then continues
to write data to memory that has been allocated for other purposes. This may result in erratic program
behavior, including memory access errors, incorrect results, a crash, or a breach of system security.
They are thus the basis of many software vulnerabilities and can be maliciously exploited.
Early computer systems
In early computer systems, programs typically specified the location to write memory and what data to
put there. This location was a physical location on the actual memory hardware. The slow processing of
such computers did not allow for the complex memory management systems used today. Also, as most
such systems were single-task, sophisticated systems were not required as much.
This approach has its pitfalls. If the location specified is incorrect, this will cause the computer to write the
data to some other part of the program. The results of an error like this are unpredictable. In some cases,
the incorrect data might overwrite memory used by the operating system. Computer crackers can take
advantage of this to create viruses and malware.
Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is controlled by the operating system. When a
program needs memory, it requests it from the operating system. The operating system then decides
what physical location to place the memory in.
This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where the
memory is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory. It also allows
multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some memory can be stored in physical RAM chips
while other memory is stored on a hard drive. This drastically increases the amount of memory available
to programs. The operating system will place actively used memory in physical RAM, which is much
faster than hard disks. When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can
result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving memory from RAM to disk and back
than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing.
Virtual memory systems usually include protected memory, but this is not always the case.
Memory protection
Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is not
permitted to go outside that range. Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the reliability and
security of a computer system.
Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another
program. This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results. If
the operating system's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need to be
rebooted. At times programs intentionally alter the memory used by other programs. This is done by
viruses and malware to take over computers.
Protected memory assigns programs their own areas of memory. If the operating system detects that a
program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated. This way, only
the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the error.
Protected memory systems almost always include virtual memory as well.
Memory Hierarchy
The term memory hierarchy is used in computer architecture when discussing performance
issues in computer architectural design, algorithm predictions, and the lower level programming
constructs such as involving locality of reference. A "memory hierarchy" in computer storage
distinguishes each level in the "hierarchy" by response time. Since response time, complexity, and
capacity are related, the levels may also be distinguished by the controlling technology.
The many trade-offs in designing for high performance will include the structure of the memory
hierarchy, i.e. the size and technology of each component. So the various components can be viewed as
forming a hierarchy of memories (m1,m2,...,mn) in which each member mi is in a sense subordinate to
the next highest member mi+1 of the hierarchy. To limit waiting by higher levels, a lower level will
respond by filling a buffer and then signaling to activate the transfer.
There are four major storage levels.
Internal – Processor registers and cache.
Main – the system RAM and controller cards.
On-line mass storage – Secondary storage.
Off-line bulk storage – Tertiary and Off-line storage.
This is a general memory hierarchy structuring. Many other structures are useful. For example, a paging
algorithm may be considered as a level for virtual memory when designing a computer architecture,
and one can include a level of nearline storage between online and offline storage.

• Adding complexity slows down the memory hierarchy.

• CMOx memory technology stretches the Flash space in the memory hierarchy
• One of the main ways to increase system performance is minimizing how far down the memory
hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
• Latency and bandwidth are two metrics associated with caches and memory. Neither of them is
uniform, but is specific to a particular component of the memory hierarchy.
• Predicting where in the memory hierarchy the data resides is difficult.
• The location in the memory hierarchy dictates the time required for the prefetch to occur.
The number of levels in the memory hierarchy and the performance at each level has increased over
time. For example, the memory hierarchy of an Intel Haswell Mobile processor circa 2013 is:
• Processor registers – the fastest possible access (usually 1CPU cycle). Few thousand bytes in size
• Cache
 Level 0 (L0) Micro operations cache – 6 KiB in size
 Level 1 (L1) Instruction cache – 128 KiB in size
 Level 1 (L1) Data cache – 128 KiB in size. Best access speed is around 700 GiB/second
 Level 2 (L2) Instruction and data (shared) – 1 MiB in size. Best access speed is around
200 GiB/second
 Level 3 (L3) Shared cache – 6 MiB in size. Best access speed is around 100 GB/second
 Level 4 (L4) Shared cache – 128 MiB in size. Best access speed is around 40 GB/second
• Main memory (Primary storage) – Gigabytes in size. Best access speed is around 10 GB/second.
In the case of a NUMA machine, access times may not be uniform
• Disk storage (Secondary storage) – Terabytes in size. As of 2013, best access speed is from a solid
state drive is about 600 MB/second
• Nearline storage (Tertiary storage) – Up to exabytes in size. As of 2013, best access speed is about
160 MB/second
• Offline storage
The lower levels of the hierarchy – from disks downwards – are also known as tiered storage. The formal
distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is:
• Online storage is immediately available for I/O.
• Nearline storage is not immediately available, but can be made online quickly without human
intervention.
• Offline storage is not immediately available, and requires some human intervention to bring online.
For example, always-on spinning disks are online, while spinning disks that spin-down, such as massive
array of idle disk (MAID), are nearline. Removable media such as tape cartridges that can be
automatically loaded, as in a tape library, are nearline, while cartridges that must be manually loaded are
offline.
Most modern CPUs are so fast that for most program workloads, the bottleneck is the locality of
reference of memory accesses and the efficiency of the caching and memory transfer between different
levels of the hierarchy. As a result, the CPU spends much of its time idling, waiting for memory I/O to
complete. This is sometimes called the space cost, as a larger memory object is more likely to overflow a
small/fast level and require use of a larger/slower level. The resulting load on memory use is known as
pressure (respectively register pressure, cache pressure, and (main) memory pressure). Terms for data
being missing from a higher level and needing to be fetched from a lower level are, respectively: register
spilling (due to register pressure: register to cache), cache miss (cache to main memory), and (hard)
page fault (main memory to disk).
Modern programming languages mainly assume two levels of memory, main memory and disk storage,
though in assembly language and inline assemblers in languages such as C, registers can be directly
accessed. Taking optimal advantage of the memory hierarchy requires the cooperation of programmers,
hardware, and compilers (as well as underlying support from the operating system):
• Programmers are responsible for moving data between disk and memory through file I/O.
• Hardware is responsible for moving data between memory and caches.
• Optimizing compilers are responsible for generating code that, when executed, will cause the
hardware to use caches and registers efficiently.
Many programmers assume one level of memory. This works fine until the application hits a performance
wall. Then the memory hierarchy will be assessed during code refactoring.
The New Generation of Memory
Typically, memory chips store information in transistors, tiny three-pronged devices that can
house electrons. Some memory company, like Intel and Micron have done away the transistor, storing
information in what is really just a lattice of wires. Each piece of information sits where two wires cross.
The Third Dimension
The “3D” bit indicates that those cross-point wire lattices can be stacked on top of each other. Basically,
these chips store data by changing the electrical resistance at those many cross points. This is done with
a tiny contraption that Fazio calls a “selector.” This is similar to a diode, which can switch from low
resistance to high.
That’s quite different from memory technologies like DRAM and Flash, which use transistors.
A transistor is essentially a switch made from three basic components: a source, gate, and drain. When a
certain voltage is applied to the gate, current flows from the source to the drain, and the transistor is “on.”
Apply another voltage, the current stops, and the transistor is “off.” 3D XPoint doesn’t move current like
this. It changes the property of the material. It doesn’t try to store an electron.
This simple architecture is what allows the chips to store so much more data than DRAM (per
area). They still aren’t as fast as DRAM, but unlike DRAM, they’re “non-volatile,” meaning they can retain
data even when a machine is powered down. Flash is non-volatile too, but 3D XPoint is significantly
faster than flash. That extra speed comes from the unique combination of materials that chip
manufacturers use to build the lattice and the selector.
A Real Need For Speed
3D XPoint will be great for gaming machines. Today, game designers are restricted in what they
can do by the capabilities of the system and that may well be the case. But the real need is inside the
massive computer data centers that power the most popular web services Google, Facebook, Amazon.
In the data center, these companies must spread information across thousands of machines. In
an effort to speed the storage and retrieval of this data, they’re replacing traditional hard drives with
faster flash memory, and in some cases, they’re running databases that keep data in DRAM,
sidestepping both hard drives and flash. As described 3D XPoint can provide still more performance
inside these warehoused-sized computing centers—something the Facebooks and the Googles are
always hungry for.
At the same time the new tech can help more traditional businesses. The typical enterprise
doesn’t store data across thousands of machines the way Facebook or Google does. But smaller outfits
are running “in-memory databases”—i.e. in-DRAM databases—on individual machines or small numbers
of machines. 3D XPoint can potentially help here as well. It can provide more memory per machine.
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* Mr. Nikola Zlatanov spent over 20 years working in the Capital Semiconductor Equipment Industry. His work at Gasonics, Novellus,
Lam and KLA-Tencor involved progressing electrical engineering and management roles in disruptive technologies. Nikola received his
Undergraduate degree in Electrical Engineering and Computer Systems from Technical University, Sofia, Bulgaria and completed a
Graduate Program in Engineering Management at Santa Clara University. He is currently consulting for Fortune 500 companies as well
as Startup ventures in Silicon Valley, California.

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