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Chapter one
CRIME AND GEOGRAPHY

Human behaviour, perhaps the most interesting subject of study not only as an intellectual exercise but it

is important for many practical reasons also. In this chapter one of the darker sides of human behaviour

will be scrutinized that is crime which is an intractable internal social problem in culturally diverse

society. Crime is such an interesting act which is in many ways the obverse of altruism. In that sense

crime is the flip side of altruism. Crime is a kind of deviant behaviour where a person gains some

resource (tangible and non tangible both) via force, fraud and stealth. Here with the expression of crime,

the collective gain of society is often being sabotaged with selfish individual goals. People by

committing acts of crime intentionally harm others for the sake of their own gain. This chapter will

highlight the various definitions and classification of crime. It will be helpful to understand how crime

harms the society in a collective way and why it is necessary to take a long term integrated approach for

understanding and controlling crime.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:

Crime is a major social problem which affects all sections of people in society. Crime is essentially the

breaking of rules or laws for which some governing authority (via mechanisms such as legal systems) can

ultimately prescribe a conviction. There are different opinions about the definition of crime in

contemporary schools of criminology and sociology. With varying social cultural traits, the concept of

crimes also changes. Thus crime is an act of outward manifestation of the dark side of human nature as it

acts like an instinct in man. Thus crime is called beast like instinct for his own survival; which is very

much contrary to human nature and humanism, as well as extremely opposite to the practice of ‘’Ahimsä

paramo dhammo’’ which can be translated as ahimsä, that is, non- violence is the highest truth. So it is

undeniable that the human society was never being crime free in the past and it will continue to take place

in future for the sake of greed, anger, desire, hatred, fear and anxiety. Crime is a major field of interest
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within various disciplines of study like anthropology, sociology, criminology, law, psychology. Even

subject like geography also deals with some aspects of crime. Theories of crime originate from various

perspectives of research. The present paper tries to identify the major trends of research in crime with a

special emphasis on geography or spatiality of crime. Crime is always connected to geography because

every criminal incident has a place of occurrence and has an adverse effect on the local environment. In

many cases the environmental traits of a place lead towards some special types of crimes. Crimes were

being related to geographical factors like climate, temperature, humidity etc. from the preceding

statements it is inferred that crime is an act of violation of laws, it has to be an intentional act, the intent

can be general and it should be committed without justification.

This research in depth will cover some major aspects like social, economic, ethnic,

demographic as well as geographical aspects of crime in South 24 Parganas. It is identified from the

Human Development Report 2009 that West Bengal ranks the fourth lowest position among the 29 states

of India in terms of occurrence of crimes. But in case of crime against women, the situation is worst. In

the state of West Bengal, districts which were ranked highest in this unethical activity were Murshidabad,

North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas. In the year 2000 and 2003 South 24 Parganas reported the

highest number of crime against women among all other districts of West Bengal. The number of

recorded cases is 975 and 1214 respectively (Source: District Crime Records Bureau). Crime against

women mainly comprises of post marital tortures, rape and illegal trafficking. The other crimes which

occur in a very high frequency are riots, thefts and murders. The area is politically very vulnerable. The

riots which take place in the districts most of them are politically motivated riots. Gang wars between

different political parties are very much common phenomena in South 24 Parganas. In the time of

elections these cases are found rampant. The southern region that is Sundarban region registers the

highest incidence of riots (161.65 per lakh population from 2005 – 2007) (Source: West Bengal Human

Development Report 2009). The North West region (Kolkata surrounding) shows the lowest rate of riots

(40.67 per lakh population from 2005 -2007). The murders which take place in the district are mostly out
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of these riots. Other types of violent crimes which take place in South 24 Parganas are dacoity, robbery,

theft, culpable homicide. In this district, places like Sonarpur , Thakurpukur Maheshtala (northwest

region); Magrahat (northeast region) and Canning I&II,Sagar,Joynagar I&II (south region)are showing

very high rate of incidence of violent crimes (source: Office of SP South 24 Parganas). Analyzing the data

of recorded offences, it is clear that theft has been hold the first position followed by riots and murder

from 1989- 2009 (source: Alipore Sadar Police Court,South 24 Parganas).

From these government records it is clear that crime is one of the major social problems in the

district. The present research work will intend to through light upon the causes and consequences of these

offensive activities. The study covers the time span of almost 24 years, from 1989-2013 along with the

spatial variations of criminal offences of the district.

1.2 ETYMOLOGY

The word Crime has various root words in Latin and Greek. The Latin root word for crime is cerno,

which means “I decide I give judgment” (Klein's Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the

English Language). The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, referred to an

intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong

(Bakaoukas, 2005). There is another opinion about the origin of the word crime. Some academicians find

the root of the word crime in the Latin word cernere which means I decide, I shift. Earnest Klein gave

another interpretation of the word crime which is cri-men that means cry of distress.

In English the word crime stands for sinfulness. The word may be taken from the old French word crimne

(etymonline.com). The French word was originally taken from the Latin word crimen which has various

meanings like fraud, charge, fault, offence etc. At present the word crime denotes offence punishable by

law. This meaning dates back from 14th century. If we consider this present meaning of the word crime,

then it has its origin in the Latin word facen which was glossed in old English. The word facen has some

other meanings like deceit, fraud and fake.

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1.3 DEFINITIONS

Crime is usually defined from the legal perspective as an act or omission forbidden by law and which is

punishable by the legal provisions of a country. An act or the commission of an act that is forbidden or

the omission of a duty that is commanded by a public law and that makes the offender liable to

punishment by that law; especially: a gross violation of law (http://www.merriam-webster.com). There

are several examples of legally forbidden acts like murder, theft, burglary, robbery, rape etc. Some other

legal definitions can be sited to illustrate the legal stand point of crime.

 “An act committed in violation of a law prohibiting it, or omitted in violation of a law ordering

it; often, specific, such an act of a serious nature, as a felony: crimes are variously punishable by

death, imprisonment, or the imposition of certain fines or restrictions: the range of crime includes

felonies and misdemeanors, but not petty violations of local ordinances.”

(http://www.yourdictionary.com/crime).

 “An offense that has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical force

against the person or property of another, or any other offense that is a felony and that, by its

nature, involves a substantial risk that physical force against the person or property of another

may be used in the course of committing the offense.” (Legal Information Institute, Cornell

University Law School).

 The Indian Penal Code (1860) uses the word offence in place of crime. Section 40 IPC defined

offence as an act punishable by the code.

Crime study is an integral part of sociology. Our society is the breeding ground of crimes and the

society also absorbs all the consequences of crimes. In other words crime starts and ends with our

human society. There are several sociological explanations of crime and deviance. The concept of

crime changes with the dynamics of society. The legal definition of crimes also changes as the

social structure changes. Sociologists define deviance as behavior that is recognized as violating

expected rules and norms. It is simply more than nonconformity, however; it is behavior that
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departs significantly from social expectations. In the sociological perspective on deviance, there

is subtlety that distinguishes it from our commonsense understanding of the same behavior.

Sociologists stress social context, not just individual behavior. That is, deviance is looked at in

terms of group processes, definitions, and judgments and not just as unusual individual acts.

Sociologists also recognize that not all behaviors are judged similarly by all groups. What is

deviant to one group may not be considered deviant to another. Further, sociologists recognize

that established rules and norms are socially created, not just morally decided or individually

imposed. That is, deviance lies not just in the behavior itself, but in the social responses of groups

to behavior by others. The deviance becomes a crime when it has a legal sanction. The

sociological view of crime and deviance also rests upon the legal valediction at the end. Since in

our society, it the legal system that defines an act as criminal or not, it is better to distinguish

between criminal or non criminal act from the legal perspective. Beyond that fact, a crime cannot

have been committed as the concerned law is not violated. Here comes a conflict among the

behavioral, sociological and legal point of view of crime. Legal standpoint of crime believes in

free will of offender who chooses to commit some actions which are punishable. But the

psychology explains criminal behaviour as a natural outcome of the personality of the offenders.

Many eminent criminologists have an opinion that crime should be studied on the basis of fundamental

behavioral approach. It is important to study the nature of murder, burglary, rape and other forms of crime

individually. But when it comes to give a proper definition of crime then it becomes very important to

identify some general characteristics which all the offences have in common. In past crime research

scholars often deal only with the politico-legal definitions neglecting the behavioral aspect. The

behavioral definition focuses on the criminality, personality profile that causes most alarming sorts of

crime. Criminality is a special kind of strategic behaviour characterized by low self control, self

centeredness and indifference towards the sufferings of others. It is seen that people who are more

impulsive are more crime prone. They have a tendency to satisfy their needs in quick manner which often
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encourage them to take the way of offence. Like drug dealers or prostitutes are simple business minded

people whose business happens to be illegal. The behavioral approach is highly relied on the

psychological explanation of crime and criminality. If we go through the psychological definition of

criminal behaviour it again comes to the legal aspect.

From the sociological point of view, criminal behaviour can be an outcome of social deprivation, class

struggle, cultural conflict, social control and many more reasons. Many criminologists suggested adopting

a broader definition of crime which includes all the harmful and anti-social behaviour which may fall

outside the legal definition of crime. The concept of ethics can be implemented in this aforesaid broader

definition of crime. Ethics always decides what is good for individual and humanity and demarcate the

nature of obligations which people owe themselves and one another. The fall from the conduct of ethics

can be treated as a crime whether the act is legal or not.

1.4 ELEMENTS OF CRIME

After discussing the definitions of crime some important characteristics of crime can be underlined.

Crime has some proper elements which make it different from other innocent acts. Crime takes birth in

mind first which gets translated into action of offense. In that sense, any criminal offense must have two

elements:

 Actus Reus (Guilty act) – Physical element which in turn made up of three elements like Human

conduct means the offense, Result of the Conduct that means the injury or harm caused by the

offense and the legal prohibitions to that offense or punishment.

 Mens Ria (Guilty mind) – Mental element consists of various elements. The important mental

elements of crime are: Intention or desire to bring out certain consequences out of a harmful act.

Motive which acts as a reason behind committing a criminal offense. Knowledge about the

harmful consequences which makes an offender more encouraged to commit crime. Recklessness
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about his own fate. The offenders know about the legal prohibitions and the punishments they

have to face for their offences, but they become indifferent to it (Mooney, 2000).

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

There are a variety of crimes that can be committed by individuals. Some crimes, such as murder or

kidnapping, are considered serious crimes by society. Other crimes, such as speeding or trespassing, are

not considered serious. Although all crimes mean a violation of the law, there's a wide range of

punishments that can be imposed on a criminal.

The classification of a crime is based on the extent of punishment that can be given for committing it.

The punishment is usually based on the seriousness of the crime. States may differ as to the classification

of any particular crime. A crime committed in one state may be classified differently than if it was

committed in another state.

Felony Crimes

A felony is considered a serious crime. Most states and the federal government classify a crime that is

punishable by more than one year in prison as a felony. Some states consider a felony as any crime that is

punishable by any length of time in prison. A felony that is punishable by death is considered a capital

crime.

There are many different crimes that are considered felonies in most states. Some common felonies

include: murder, rape, burglary, kidnapping, arson, robbery.

Misdemeanor Crimes

A misdemeanor is considered a less serious crime. Most states and the federal government classify a

crime that is punishable by less than one year in prison as a misdemeanor. Some states consider a

misdemeanor as any crime that is punishable only by fine or a small length of time in jail. If a
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misdemeanor is considered a very minor offense, such as jaywalking, the crime may be classified as a

petty offense.

There is a wide variety of crimes that are considered misdemeanors in most states. Some common

misdemeanors include: Public intoxication, Trespassing, Speeding, Prostitution, Vandalism, Use of a

false ID.

Whether a crime is considered a felony or a misdemeanor will many times depend on any aggravating

factors. These are factors that make a crime more serious. For example, the theft of a very inexpensive

item from a store may be considered a misdemeanor. However, the theft of multiple items that are worth

thousands of dollars may be considered a felony.

Crimes against the Person

A crime against the person is a crime that is committed using direct harm or force against the victim.

Usually the most serious crimes, such as murder or rape, are crimes against the person. These crimes are

many times felonies because of the seriousness of harming another person. However, some lower level

crimes, such as harassment or assault without a weapon, may be considered misdemeanors.

Crimes against Property

A crime against property is a crime that is committed by damaging or intruding on the property of the

victim. Burglary and arson are two crimes against property that are normally felonies. Criminal mischief,

which involves the intentional destruction of property, goes from a misdemeanor to a felony based on the

value of the damage. Criminal trespass is usually classified as a misdemeanor.

Theft and Fraud Crimes

There are a wide variety of theft and fraud crimes that involve illegally taking a victim's property.

Whether a theft or a fraud crime is a misdemeanor or a felony usually depends on the value of the

property stolen and the method used to commit the crime. A fraud crime is a crime in which deception is
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used to cause another person to suffer financial harm. Robbery, which is the taking of property from

another using force, is classified as a felony.

Crimes against Public Order

A crime against public order is a crime that harms the community. Some examples include disorderly

conduct, public lewdness, and prostitution. Many crimes against public order are considered

misdemeanors. However, if a minor child is a victim, the misdemeanor may be raised to a felony.

Drug-Related Crimes

Crimes relating to drugs involve manufacture, possession, distribution and sale. Possessing a small

amount of illegal drugs will usually be classified as a misdemeanor. However, distributing and selling

large amounts of illegal drugs will almost always be classified as a felony.

Infractions

When used as a legal term, an infraction is a violation of some regulation, municipal code, or ordinance. It

is also known as a "petty offense." In some states and cities, an infraction may be a violation of traffic

laws as well.

Some states consider an infraction to be a civil offense, while others consider an infraction to be a

criminal offense. In the states that consider an infraction a criminal offense, punishment rarely occurs in

the form of imprisonment or loss of civil rights, as with more severe crimes that fall under the

classification of a misdemeanor or a felony. If someone must serve a short sentence for an infraction, he

or she would do so in a local or county jail. When an infraction is considered a civil offense, no crime has

been committed.
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Most infractions are not settled in a court hearing, but rather by administrative officials. The most

common form of punishment for an infraction is a fine. Fines set due to an infraction are typically very

small.

VICTIMFUL AND VICTIMLESS CRIMES

Crimes can be viewed as arrayed along a victimization continuum and divided into three categories:

1. Crimes for which there is an obvious intended victim (e.g., murder, rape etc.),

2. Crimes in which victimization is the result of carelessness (e.g., negligent manslaughter),

3. Crimes in which participation in the crime is voluntary (e.g., prostitution, drug offences). A victimless

crime is consensual and no predatory; a victimful crime is nonconsensual and predatory.

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES ACCORDING TO IPC:

Indian Penal Code, 1860, sub-divided into twenty three chapters, comprises five hundred and eleven

(511) sections. The code starts with an introduction, provides explanations and exceptions used in the

code, and covers a wide range of offences. The Outline of IPC is presented in the following table:

Table 1.1 Classification of Crime (INDIAN PENAL CODE, 1860, Sections 1 to 511)

Sections
Chapter Classification of offences
covered

Sections 1 to
Chapter I Introduction
5

Chapter II Sections 6 to General Explanations

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52

Sections 53 to
Chapter III of Punishments
75

General Exceptions
Chapter Sections 76 to

IV 106 of the Right of Private Defence (Sections 96 to 106)

Sections 107
Chapter V Of Abetment
to 120

Chapter Sections
Criminal Conspiracy
VA 120A to 120B

Chapter Sections 121

Of Offences against the State
VI to 130

Chapter Sections 131

Of Offences relating to the Army, Navy and Air Force
VII to 140

Chapter Sections 141

Of Offences against the Public Tranquillity
VIII to 160

Chapter Sections 161

Of Offences by or relating to Public Servants
IX to 171

Sections 172
Chapter X Of Contempts of Lawful Authority of Public Servants
to 190

Chapter Sections 191

Of False Evidence and Offences against Public Justice
XI to 229

Chapter Sections 230 Of Offences relating to coin and Government Stamps

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XII to 263

Chapter Sections 264

Of Offences relating to Weight and Measures
XIII to 267

Chapter Sections 268 Of Offences affecting the Public Health, Safety, Convenience, Decency and

XIV to 294 Morals.

Chapter Sections 295

Of Offences relating to Religion
XV to 298

Of Offences affecting the Human Body

 Of Offences Affecting Life including murder,

culpable homicide (Sections 299 to 311)

 Of the Causing of Miscarriage, of Injuries to Unborn Children, of the

Exposure of Infants, and of the Concealment of Births (Sections 312 to

318)
Chapter Sections 299
 Of Hurt (Sections 319 to 338)
XVI to 377
 Of Wrongful Restraint and Wrongful Confinement (Sections 339 to 348)

 Of Criminal Force and Assault (Sections 349 to 358)

 Of Kidnapping, Abduction, Slavery and Forced Labour (Sections 359 to

374)

 Sexual Offences including rape (Sections 375 to 376)

 Of Unnatural Offences (Section 377)

Of Offences Against Property

Chapter Sections 378

XVII to 462
 Of Theft (Sections 378 to 382)
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 Of Extortion (Sections 383 to 389)

 Of Robbery and Dacoity (Sections 390 to 402)

 Of Criminal Misappropriation of Property (Sections 403 to 404)

 Of Criminal Breach of Trust (Sections 405 to 409)

 Of the Receiving of Stolen Property (Sections 410 to 414)

 Of Cheating (Section 415 to 420)

 Of Fraudulent Deeds and Disposition of Property (Sections 421 to 424)

 Of Mischief (Sections 425 to 440)

 Of Criminal Trespass (Sections 441 to 462)

Of Offences relating to Documents and Property Marks

Chapter Sections 463
 Of Property and Other Marks (Sections 478 to 489)
XVIII to 489
 Of Currency Notes and Bank Notes (Sections 489A to 489E)

Chapter Sections 490

Of the Criminal Breach of Contracts of Service
XIX to 492

Chapter Sections 493

Of Offences Relating to Marriage
XX to 498

Chapter Sections
Of Cruelty by Husband or Relatives of Husband
XXA 498A

Chapter Sections 499

Of Defamation
XXI to 502

Chapter Sections 503

Of Criminal intimidation, Insult and Annoyance
XXII to 510
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Chapter
Section 511 Of Attempts to Commit Offences
XXIII

1.7 ROLE OF THEORIES IN EXPLAINING CRIME

Just as medical scientists want to find out what causes disease, criminologists are interested in

finding out factors that cause crime. As is the case with disease, there are a variety of risk factors

to be considered when searching for causes of criminal behavior. The very first step in detecting

the causes is to discover correlates, which are factors that are linked or related to the phenomenon

a scientist is interested in. To discover if two factors “go together”—are correlated—we must see

if they vary together; that is, if one variable goes up or down, the other goes up or down as well

(Garland, 2000).

Establishing causality requires much more sophisticated procedures than simply

establishing a correlation. Take gender, the most thoroughly documented correlate of criminal

behavior ever identified. Literally thousands of studies throughout the world, with some

European studies, have reported strong gender differences in all sorts of antisocial behavior,

including crime—and the more serious the crime, the stronger that difference is. All studies are

unanimous in indicating that males are more criminal and antisocial than females. Establishing

why gender is such a strong correlate of crime is the real challenge, as it is with any other

correlate. Trying to establish causes is the business of theory.

Theories are devised to explain how a number of different correlates may

actually be causally related to crime and criminality rather than simply associated with them. We

emphasize that when criminologists talk of causes, they do not mean that when X is present, Y will

occur in a completely prescribed way. They mean that when X is present, Y has a certain probability

of occurring, and perhaps only if X is present along with factors A, B, and C. In many ways, crime

is like illness because there may be as many routes to becoming criminal as there are to becoming
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ill. In other words, criminologists have never uncovered a necessary cause (a factor that must be

present for criminal behavior to occur and in the absence of which criminal behavior has never

occurred) or a sufficient cause (a factor that is able to produce criminal behavior without being

augmented by some other factor) (Matthews, 1992).

There is a lot of confusion about the term theory among laypersons. We often hear

statements such as, “That is just theory” or “They teach evolution as if it was a fact when it is just

a theory.” Theory is also often negatively contrasted with practice: “That’s all right in theory, but

it won’t work in the real world” (Wilson, 1985). Such statements imply that a theory is a poor

relative of a fact, something impractical we grasp at in the absence of solid, practical evidence.

Nothing could be further from the truth. Theories help us to make sense of a diversity of

seemingly unrelated facts and propositions, and they even tell us where to look for more facts, which

make theories very practical things indeed.

People will be a lot less confused and cynical about the numerous theories in

explaining crime if they keep certain things in mind when thinking about them. There are theories

that deal with different levels of analysis. A level of analysis is that segment of the phenomenon

of interest that is measured and analyzed. For instance, we can ask about the causes of crime by

concentrating our inquiries at levels of analysis such as whole societies, subcultures and

neighborhoods, families, or individuals. The second reason we have so many theories is that

causal explanations are also offered at different temporal levels: ultimate (distant in time) and

proximate (close in time) explanations. We can offer different temporal explanations regardless of

the level of analysis. If we define a criminal act as something that occurs when a person who is

psychologically prepared to commit such an act is presented with a situation conducive to its

commission, the possible levels of explanation range from the ultimate (the evolutionary history of

the species) to the most proximate level (the immediate precipitating situation). Between these

extreme levels are explanations such as genetic, temperamental, developmental, personality,

familial, experiential, and social environmental. We will be discussing theories and offering
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explanations for crime at all levels, but you should realize that in reality, these levels describe an

integrated whole. This text views human behavior in a way described by Christopher Peterson:

“Most contemporary psychologists prefer to regard people as bio-psychosocial beings, believing that

people and their behavior are best explained in terms of relevant biological mechanisms,

psychological processes, and social influences (Wilson and Kelling, 1989).

1.8 GENESIS OF GEOGRAPHY OF CRIME AS A SUB DISCIPLINE OF SOCIAL

GEOGRAPHY

In the main four major schools have developed in the study of crime from geospatial perspective. These

are namely, Cartographic school (Guerry, 1833; Quetelet, 1842), Chicago school in 1920s and 1930s

(Shaw and McKey 1931), Factor analytical school of 1950s and 1960s, and the most recent

Environmental criminology (Bratingham and Bratingham, 1981) and Geography of crime. The first two

perspectives were mainly leaned towards positivist school of criminology. These are highly criticized by

Alihan (1938). Factor analytic school helped the resurgence of spatial perspective in crime study.

In the decade of 1980s, Geography of Crime has become a distinct discipline of geography with the

emergence of environmental criminology. Though environmental criminology is a part of criminology but

with the development of behavioral approach in the geography of crime; both the disciplines tend to

merge with each other. Thus geography of crime simply defined as:

‘’The geography of crime is the study of the spatial manifestation of criminal acts. It is the

study of the social and cultural organization of criminal behavior from a spatial perspective. It is

not the study of spatial organization and particularities of the judicial response of criminal

behavior.’’ (Georges,1978:).

Georges has seriously incorporated the classical ecological concept in the field of geography of crime in

identifying delinquency area. Here it is important to mention that geography of crime is different from the

geography of justice which rather focuses on spatial variations of criminal justice process i.e., law

enforcement and enactment of the laws by the administration, judges, juries, sentencing etc. Geographers
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are mainly concerned with the correlation between crime (crime statistics) and various social and

environmental indicators.

1.9 THEMES OF RESEARCH IN GEOGRAPHY OF CRIME

Though geography of crime has been identified as a discipline from 1980s, but the geographical approach

in crime study can be traced even in Spirit of Laws by Montesquieu which dated back to 1748. There he

said that violent criminality increases as one approaches towards equator and drunkenness increases as

one approaches towards the poles. A century later Quetelet formulated his famous ‘’Thermal Law’’ of

delinquency where he claims that crime against body increases in summer and property crime increases in

winter. In both the above sited cases climatic elements like temperature, rainfall had been taken as major

parameters to measure the rate of criminal offence. Champneuf supported the correlation between

temperature and rate of crime based on his study in France in between 1825 – 1830. In 1904 American

scholar Dextor has revealed that climatic elements like barometric pressure, heat and humidity has a close

relation with crime. In 1911, a Russian scholar Kropotkin established that the rate of murder of any month

of year can be predicted by calculating average temperature and humidity of preceding month of that

year. For this, he gave a mathematical formula

Rate of Crime = 2(7x+y)

where x = average temperature and y = humidity.

2 and 7 are constants

All these geographical explanations are criticized on the ground of environmental determinism that one’s

behavior cannot be entirely influenced by the climatic factors.

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NORTH POLE

HIGHER RATE OF VIOLENT CRIMES EQUATOR

SOUTH POLE

NORTH POLE

HIGHER RATE OF DRUNKENNESS EQUATOR

SOUTH POLE

Figure 1.1 SCHEMATIC MODEL OF CRIME RATE (BASED ON MONTESQUIEU’S VIEW,1748)

In 1920s and 1930s another trend of geographical research in crime study had been emerged which had a

connection with Ecological approach of Chicago school of America. Robert E. Park and E.W. Burgess
 19

have pioneered the school of thought. Park and Burgess developed the Concentric Zone model consisting

5 zones. The zone II was marked by high level of transition in urban areas. It was hypothesized that this

“zone of transition” led to social disorganization. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay used Park and

Burgess’s concentric zone model to the study of juvenile delinquency in Chicago. Their objective was to

set up a model on delinquency in relation with urban growth and decay. This work was highly criticized

by Sykes and Matza. Solomon Kobrin, Robert J.Sampson, Dennis W. Ronsek also have done some work

based on neighborhood analysis and crime propensity which also based on ecological approach. Much

later Paul J.Bratingham and Patrika L.Bratingham published a paper entitled “Spatial Pattern of Burglary”

which is based on human ecological approach.

A major change in the themes has been brought in the researches in geography of crime by David T.

Herbert (1977). He incorporated the idea of social deviance and crime control in the discipline of crime

geography. A phenomenological theme was attached to this field of study. Parallelly another theme was

going on to study the crime incidents in relation to the political-economic structure of the society which is

known as radical approach. Peet (1975) was a major proponent of this perspective. David Harvey and

Neil Smith are also two major contributers in this field of Radical approach of geography of crime. In the

decade of 1980s scholars were much more concerned with the study of spatiality of crimes along with the

issue of criminal justice. Kress (1980) showed that how criminal law is related to space and how it can

become an environmental attribute. Carter and Hill (1979), Hakim and Rengert (1981) took a behavioral

approach to show how nature of crime changes with the interjurisdictional differences and police

strategies. This is a part of critical criminology also which mainly deals with the problematization of

crimes. Karl Marx was thought to be the Father of Critical Criminology. The system of punishment or

criminal justice system often hinders the crime prevention procedure and thus enhances the criminal

offences itself. Structural Marxism is another theoretical approach which influences the arena of

geography of crime. According to this approach the spatial character of crime is highly influenced by the

structure of law and order of the place of occurrence of the offences. Luis Althusser is one of the eminent

supporters of this view.

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Now a days geography of crime is highly influenced by two set of theories, those are critical social

theories and post modernism.

In recent days a major theme in research in geography of crime is crime mapping. Even though

crime mapping plays a significant role in crime analysis today, but the history of crime mapping is quite

old. In 1800s, European researchers who adhered to the school of thought known as the Cartographic

school of criminology examined the levels of crime with different areas. For example, in 1829, Adriano

Balbi, an ethnographer and geographer, and Andre Michel Guerry, a lawyer, created first crime maps

using criminal statistics and demographic data from the census years 1825 to 1827 and demographic data

from the census. In Europe and America new GIS techniques are being invented for crime mapping only.

If we go through the research works in the field of geography of crime it will be

clear that most of the works are applied in nature. Most of the geographers are concerned to analyze the

spatiality of crime and making maps based on their empirical observations as well as official records of

crime. The works of mapping of crime are highly applied works of modern GIS techniques and

cartographic techniques in the past. In earlier times geographers were prone to select criminological

theories in developing geographic perspective of crime. Geographers are not keen to establish their own

theories. Most of the research works which have done by the geographers are based on the application of

social, environmental theories in studying the crime situation of any particular area. The laws that were

formulated by Quetelet, Champneuf, Dexter based on climatic elements can be treated as environmental

theories of crime as well as the geographical theory. But they are highly criticized and almost rejected by

the geographers with advent of behavioral and radical approach.

1.10 COUNTRY WISE DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY OF CRIME:

Scholars’ form many countries worldwide have contributed in the nourishment of the geography of crime

in past and it will be continued in the future also. As a matter of fact the trace of geography in crime study

can be found in the works of European scholars in the earlier period. As mentioned earlier in this chapter
 21

before Montesquieu and Champneuf, both were from France, Adolphe Quetelet was a Belgian astronomer

and mathematician. Kropotkin had some contribution in crime geography, who was from

Moskow,Russia. He was a zoologist and geographer. The deterministic approach in crime study has been

flourished in Europe mainly with exception like Dexter who was from America. Even crime mapping

which belongs to the cartographic school of thought was developed in Europe in the city of London by the

local police force in early 19th century. In recent times, especially 1980s, the researchers in Europe are

more concern on the aspect of social deviance. They are approaching towards an interdisciplinary

perspective under the umbrella of socioeconomic and humanities disciplines. For that reason Directorate

General for the Research and Innovation of European Commission has funded several research projects

on crime and deviance. Their highest aim and object is crime control and policy making.

The ecological approach is developed in America by the efforts of scholars like Robert E.Park and

E.W.Burgess. This perspective was brilliantly emerged with geography of crime with the works of Mckey

and Shaw. Paul J. Bratingham from New York has done some commendable works with the spatial

aspects of crime like crime mapping for NewYork city (1984). Crime mapping in United Stated began a

little later than in Europe because of unavailability of data. The first substantive spatial analysis of crime

in the United States was conducted in the 1920s and 1930s by urban sociologists of Chicago ( Shaw and

Mckey, 1969). Crime mapping was a theoretical component in the development of the concentric zone

model. But now a days crime study has become much more sophisticated. In 1993, the Illinois Criminal

Justice Authority and the Sociology Department of Loyola University of Chicago joined forces to present

a computer crime mapping workshop entitled Crime Analysis through Crime Mapping. From 1998 to

2007, the National Institute of Justice,U.S.A. funded the Crime Mapping and Analysis Program(CMAP),

the mission of which was to provide technical assistance and introductory training in use of GIS

techniques in crime mapping and analysis.

A major contribution has come from Canada in the field of geography of crime in the form of

Geographic Profiling. Geographic profiling is a criminal investigative methodology that analyzes the
 22

locations of a connected series of crimes to determine the most probable area of offender residence. By

incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methods, it assists in understanding spatial behavior of an

offender and focusing the investigation to a smaller area of the community. While the use of spatial

analysis methods in police investigations goes back many years (think of detectives gathered around a

large city map with pins stuck in it), the formalized process known today as geographic profiling

originated out of research conducted at Simon Fraser University's School of Criminology in British

Columbia, Canada, in 1989. The leading developer of geographic profiling is Dr. Kim Rossmo, a former

detective with the Vancouver, Canada Police Department.

In Asian countries, the researches in crime studies are strongly connected with the crime prevention

and law enforcement issues. Economic crimes like money laundering, cheating, bank robbery are getting

the prime concern along with smuggling of drugs and illegal migration problem. The recent research

works conducted by The Centre for Asian Crime Studies show that recent research trends are related to

law enforcement, invention of crime prevention techniques and cross cultural issues. China, Vietnam,

Thailand are some countries which are getting prime focus in crime studies. Asia Pacific Center for the

Prevention of Crime is conducting rigorous research works which have high spatial aspects of criminality.

In case of Asia terrorism is an important theme of crime research especially in the countries of Central

Asia. In India economic crimes, juvenile delinquency, crime against women are some major issues of

crime study. Dr.Sreekanto Ghosh (1991), Jyoti Threhan (2004) have done some detailed works on

economic crimes of India. V. Muthukumaran (2007), Dr. Chandana Sarkar (1984) has done their research

work on juvenile delinquency and youth unrest in India.

Geographic research has focused mainly on the criminals or the crime; little attention has

been given to social control or to the operation of the criminal justice system on the

development or configuration of crime patterns. Geographers have tended to follow the consensus

model of law formation underlying traditional criminological perspectives (i.e., one that sees

criminal law issuing from a consensus of social values) rather than the pluralist or class conflict
 23

models of integrationist and radical theory (i.e., ones that acknowledge that at least some law

reflects vested rather than universal social interests). Geographic research has followed a

correction list rationale to the extent that much of it is justified by its utility for helping to do

some- thing about the crime problem. D.T. Herbert introduced the social deviance perspective in

geography of crime which brought a new dimension in crime study in spatial context. Till today most of

the crime studies are following a social geographic perspective. Crime mapping based on statistical

crime data using latest GIS techniques are the present growing trend in geographical analysis of crime.

These are the tools of crime investigation and policy making.

The geography of crime as a distinct discipline of study does not have very long history but it has a

vast scope of research as a burning social problem. There are lots of scopes of development of the

subject. The major concern of today’s crime geography should not be only indentifying the spatial nature

of crime but using the geographical knowledge base for crime control. New techniques are coming for

crime analysis, but it is a question that what should be the approach to study crimes? GIS techniques,

statistical analysis are some instruments which are mainly used to describe the officially collected data

but crime is something which is beyond statistics. It is a manifestation of human nature, so a

humanitarian and behavioral approach must be taken into focus on the geography of crime. In this

context the concept of social engineering can be incorporated. In Comte’s theory material and political

forces, separately or jointly, has been given the primacy for ‘’ existing system of control’’. In this

scenario of social engineering, the intellect and the feelings are strictly subordinated account because of

their relative feebleness. They can do no more than exert modifying powers. Here, the geographers have

to analyze their role in social engineering as well as in policy making in order to take part in existing

system of control of crimes. So with this new thought it must be said that it is not an end but a beginning

of a journey into the sphere of Geography of Crime.

 24

1.11 LITERATURE REVIEW

In 1960 Paul Tappan defined crime as “An international act or omission in violation of criminal law

committed without defense or justification. Both the definitions are on three aspects of crime- Legal,

Social and Psychological. In the year 1962 Franz Alexander and Hugo Staub made a detailed

psychological analysis of criminality. They also scrutinized the role of existing criminal laws which

according to them are not always do justice with the offenders as well as with the society. D.T. Herbert

put forward an analysis of the relationship between urban space and the type of crime in the year 1976

based on New York City. His work was based on a new approach of study of crime which is called

“environmental criminology”. In the same year DaeH.Chang edited a book on criminology where papers

of eminent criminologists and sociologists were incorporated. That edited volume deals with cross

cultural studies of crime. In 1985 D.T.Herbert and Stephen W. Hyde did a research paper on

environmental criminology which focus upon the place at which offence occurs and its location, territory

and urban environment which influences the nature and pattern of crime. The paper contains various

mapping techniques. The book depicted crime scenario of Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Canada and

Ethiopia. Roger Tarling in 1986 published a article focusing on the application of the statistical methods

in criminology. In particular it considers issues surrounding the measurement and definition of crime and

modeling the development and progression of criminal careers. In the year 1987 Lauren j. Krivo and

Ruth D. Peterson has done a work concerning the relationship disadvantage and rate of crime in the city

of Columbus, Ohio. Garry D Hill and Elizabeth Crawfard (1990) produced a research paper exploring

the capacity alternative theoretical perspectives to explain the self reported criminality of black and white

young adult females of U.S.A. The paper is concerned about the different socio-psychological aspects of

criminal behavior of different racial groups. David Garland wrote a book about the forms, functions and

significance of punishment in modern society in 1990. The book explored the ways in which penalty

interacts with a variety of social forces, including strategies of power, socioeconomic structures and

cultural sensibilities. In the new century D.Steffenmier and D.Haynie published a paper dealing with the
 25

problem of gender bias and how does it influencing crime in U.S.A (year 2000). In 2001 a study based on

the problem of social inequality and crime has been done by Ralph B. Taylor. His study area was

Baltimore. In the year 2003 Anna Richardson and Tracey Budd published a paper on alcohol related

crimes in the cities and towns of Britain. This paper examines the relation between binge drinking and

criminal and disorderly behavior among 18 to 24 years old. Meagan Elizabeth Cahill in 2004 has

published a paper based on geographical distribution of crime in Nashville, Arizona. J.O.Ford has done a

extensive literary work to uphold the nature of rural crime in 2008. In the same year Saron Ghatak

published a paper to trace the origin and development of the crime statistics in United States in late

nineteenth and early twentieth century. Gordon Macleod and Craig Johnstone in 2011 worked on

different cities of England to show how economic inequality is related to urban crime.

In the year 1953 S.K. Ghosh has published a literary work to describe the increasing criminal

offences of India. He also discusses the role of police system in preventing these criminal offences. This

is most useful and interesting part of this book. He critically examined the role of police recording

system. He described a very important issue that how due to ignorance of common people and the police

the crime records show erroneous data. In the year 1975 Baldev Raj Nayar wrote a book to discuss the

violent activities of India from quantitative aspect. He mainly analyzed the temporal changes of crime

rates. The author also focused on the statistics of crime of different states of India and made some ranking

of states in terms of number of recorded crimes. In 1991 Dr. Srikanto Ghosh has written a book on

Indian economic crime scenario where he emphasized on the problem of banking and security in India.

Jyoti Trehan has done a detailed work based on money laundering in the mega cities of India in year of

2004. In 2004 Mukul Kumar published a paper where he focused on the relationship between caste and

crime in colonial India. In this literary work he mainly tried to show how our crime was related to the

social hierarchy. Uday Veer has described the actual scenario of crimes against women very vividly. In

2007 B.Muthukuamran has done a work on up growing tendencies of youth to commit cyber crime and
 26

he also mentioned its evil effects of the urban society. Abdul Shaban in 2010 has gone through a detailed

analysis of crime situation of Mumbai and how politics and economy are involved in it.

1.12 RATIONALITY OF THE TOPIC AND SELECTION OF STUDY AREA

Crime is a universal phenomenon. Existing anthropological and historical literature reveals the great

variety of situations in which crime developed and perpetuated. We find accounts of traditional and

ancient penal philosophies, the causes of crime, the enforcement of sacred customs and rules. Crime is

one of the basic problems of society. It can be explained in three major aspects such as social aspect, legal

aspect, and behavioral aspect. There are a number of theories have been devised to define the causes and

nature of crime in anthropology, sociology, criminology, psychology and even in economics. There are

also some theories tried to relate crime with geographical aspects especially in environmental

criminology. So it is quite rational to carry out a research work on the crime.

South 24 Parganas is one of the backward districts of India, so it demands a minute study to reveal the

real picture of crime. From the official reports it is found that South 24 Parganas is one of the most crime

prone areas of West Bengal. (Appendix 1.1, 1.2). It has a unique international boundary which gives the

district a geostrategic importance. For that reason also it becomes very important to through light upon

the anti social offences of the district. The research work will be helpful to understand the actual socio-

economic causes that lead to delinquent behavior. The study also tries to build up a relation between

various geographical factors and the rate of crime. This may contribute some ideas of social pathology.

Above of all the findings of research work will be helpful to take some remedial measures to bring back a

peaceful living condition in the district of South 24 Parganas.

 27

Source: National Crime Records Bureau Report, 1986, 1990, 2010, 2013
 28

Truth to be empirically tested but from available sources of information it is clear that the district is

one of the most crime prone districts of West Bengal. The study reveals that theft, murder and rioting are

the most frequently occurring crimes. Political issues, property based issues are most common causes

behind these criminal offences. Low rate of literacy, economic backwardness or concentration of

minorities may lead this crime situation worse. The high rate of crime also puts question about the police

system of the district. So the law n order situation must be evaluated.

1.13 HYPOTHESES

The work begins with some presumptions about the nature of crime in the district of South 24 Parganas.

These assumptions are purely based on the theoretical understanding of crime and its spatiality. The

media reports on crime in South 24 Parganas have played the vital role in shaping an idea about crimes in

this district. The initial hypotheses of this research work are:

Coexistence of rural and urban area will create some variability in the nature of crimes in South 24

Parganas. The distinctive socio-economic and demographic situation in urban and rural blocks will create

the variations in nature of crimes.

The porous border with Bangladesh and the complex geomorphic features of Sundarban Mangrove area

will give rise to some distinctive forms of cross border crimes like smuggling and human trafficking.

1.14 OBJECTIVES

The research work is aimed to examine the crime situation of South 24 Parganas to reveal the deep rooted

causes of criminality, hidden in the socio-economic and spatial attributes of this district. The causes will

be explained empirically, statistically and also with the help of some pre established theoretical

approaches of criminology. While dealing with the causes in detail the consequence of those incidences

can be understood. Crime varies with space; no crime occurs randomly. There are some spatial forces

which rule the nature of crimes. The main focus of the study will be on the spatial nature of the crime in

the district of South 24 Parganas. By studying the spatiality of crime, the regularity of occurrences of

crime over space or the spatial pattern of crime can be unfolded. As crime is considered as spatial
 29

disorder in the human society, so it needs to be reduced within a tolerable rate. Thus, one of the major

objectives of this current research work is to evaluate the existing crime control measures in South 24

Parganas and also to suggest some formal and informal techniques of potential crime prevention methods.

Crime is a universal problem which has no spatial or temporal limit. Crime can be perceived in so many

ways according to the purpose of the researchers. The ultimate goal of this research work is to find some

parallel ways of defining crime, going apart from the traditional positivist approach of criminology.

1.15 DATA SOURCES

Collecting data of crime is a big challenge for this research. There are certain statutory restrictions for

providing all the data related to crime. Only the notifiable data can be provided. The official data source

for crime in South 24 Parganas is National Crime Records Bureau Reports, which is available in the

official website of NCRB. The most important data source for the crime records of South 24 Parganas is

the data which is supplied from the Office of Superintendent of Police, Bhawani Bhawan. The data was

given through District Crime Records Bureau of South 24 Parganas. These data are not available in

published form. The permission to access the data are provided on special request. Human development

Report, District Statistical Hand Books of South 24 Parganas are some useful sources of information

about the district. The most up dated form of information is gathered from the news paper reports.

1.16 METHODOLOGY

The research work started with the identification of the problem and the selection of the study based on

the prior knowledge. The foundation stage of the research has begun with the literature review. Various

facets of crimes revealed through the study of different literatures. The literatures from all over the world

as well as India and West Bengal have been studied. From this point of time regular collection of the

news paper reports based on crime in South 24 Parganas were collected on a daily basis. This is a major

source of information in crime study. The field survey mainly includes reconnaissance survey of the

blocks of South 24 Parganas and taking photographs for future reference. Interviews are taken of few

police officials regarding on the crime situation of the district. Public opinion about the crime situation

has been taken through interview method. Most of the time the interview has been taken informally
 30

without having a proper questionnaire because people often don’t want to talk much about the sensitive

issue of crime, especially in the rural areas. A formal interview with questionnaire makes the respondent

conscious about their answer and sometimes makes reluctant to answer. Secondary data has been

collected from the official sources (as mentioned earlier). For the analysis part simple inferential

statistical methods have been used. Bi-variate and Multivariate analysis were used for the correlations.

Students’ t-test has been done for the testing of significance. For non parametric data chi-square analysis

has been done. Time series analysis has been done to show the temporal changes in crime. The data has

been tested on the basis of various parameters mentioned in various theoretical approaches of crime. The

data have been represented using statistical representations like bar diagram, line graph etc. The spatial

distributions of data have been shown through choropleth mapping mainly. Some spatial statistics like

hotspot mapping and cluster analysis by using spatial auto correlation method have been done.

1.17 RESEARCH DESIGN

The problem of crime is already there in our society from time immemorial. Selection of the problem was

not a difficult task for this research work. South 24 Parganas district was being selected on the basis of

prior knowledge and data support. Literature survey on geography of crime is a difficult one because of

the dearth of material on this topic, especially on India and the selected study area. Along with the

literature review, the formulation of hypothesis were going on and as the hypothesis were getting built,

the objectives of the study were coming to the day light. As crime itself a very complex problem, very

simple explanatory methods have been chosen for the analysis of crime scenario of the concerned district.

Data collection was a great challenge in terms of crime, as the data are confidential and restricted in most

of the time. All the representations of data are based on these secondary data, which were available. The

causes and consequences of crimes are explained on the basis of official data, media reports and

interviews of officials and general people of South 24 Parganas.

 31

Suggestions are divided into two parts: some suggestions are only for the South 24 Parganas

and some are general measures for universal crime prevention. There are some suggestions

which are totally application based measures and some others are subjective in nature. The

subjective ones mainly deal with human psychology and universal laws of humanity and

spirituality.
 32

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