Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr 2004;13 (2):147-155    147

Traditional Chinese food technology and cuisine

Jian-rong Li PhD1 and Yun-Hwa P Hsieh PhD 2

1
College of Food Science, Biotechnology & Environmental Engineering, Hangzhou University of
Commerce,Hangzhou, 310035, The People’s Republic of China
2
Department of Nutrition, Food and Exercise Sciences, College of Human Science, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, Florida, 32306-1493, U.S.A.)

From ancient wisdom to modern science and technology, Chinese cuisine has been established from a long
history of the country and gained a global reputation of its sophistication. Traditional Chinese foods and
cuisine that exhibit Chinese culture, art and reality play an essential role in Chinese people’s everyday lives.
Recently, traditional Chinese foods have drawn a great degree of attention from food scientists and
technologists, the food industry, and health promotion institutions worldwide due to the extensive values they
offer beyond being merely another ethnic food. These traditional foods comprise a wide variety of products,
such as pickled vegetables, salted fish and jellyfish, tofu and tofu derived products, rice and rice snack foods,
fermented sauces, fish balls and thousand-year-old eggs. An overview of selected popular traditional Chinese
foods and their processing techniques are included in this paper. Further development of the traditional
techniques for formulation and production of these foods is expected to produce economic, social and health
benefits.

Key words: Chinese food, cuisine, traditional food, processing, health

Introduction of foods for centuries. Almost all food from both animal
Food in China is not consumed merely to satisfy hunger, and plant sources can be fermented. There are numerous
but for health promotion, treating diseases and, most kinds of traditional fermentation products including, to just
importantly, building relationships among people and name a few, sauces, vinegar, rice spirits, fermented
enhancing family values. Chinese cuisine has long been a vegetables, stinky tofu, etc., and the processes used to
creative and individualized art. The variety and combi- make them vary extensively based on the product to be
nations of food served at each meal should never be the fermented. Traditional Chinese foods can be characterized
same. Meal styles also differ regionally, so that a specific by their materials, ingredients, processing methods,
food pattern has been established in each province. Chinese functions or styles. A brief description of selected tradi-
traditional foods, thus, play a unique role in Chinese culture tional Chinese foods based on the food categories is given
and are important to people’s everyday lives. Chinese in this paper. Their processing methods used to prepare
people have a keen taste for food. Sophisticated flavor and them are also described herein and summarized in Table 1.
unique texture are most emphasized for food processing
and preparation. Unlike Western food, creaminess is not a Salted vegetables
preferred texture; traditional foods generally are less Salt has long been known to be a preservative that keeps
greasy, relatively low in caloric value, and require longer foodstuffs from spoiling.1,2 Salting of fresh or semidried
preparation times to achieve the desired sensory characte- vegetables was originally used to preserve surplus vege-
ristics. Many traditional Chinese foods, such as sesame oil tables. The salted vegetables impart a distinctive flavor, are
chicken and clam soup, are associated with a therapeutic or low in caloric values, and are easier to store due to their
health promoting effect besides their pleasing taste and reduced bulk. Salted vegetables are frequently used as a
basic nutritional values, while others are linked to a main dish cooked with meat or other vegetables or as a side
historical or folkloric story, with zong zi and Beggar’s dish in China, especially in rural areas where a variety of
chicken as examples.
Drying, salting and pickling are mankind’s oldest and
most widely used methods of food preservation. Tradi-
Correspondence address: YH. P. Hsieh, Department of
tional Chinese foods rely greatly on these basic processing
Nutrition, Food and Exercise Sciences, College of Human
and preservation methods. These foods encompass a wide Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida
range of products, such as pickled vegetables, salted fish Tel: 850-644-1744, Fax: 850-645-5000
and jellyfish, winterized (semidry) meats, and salt-cured Email: yhsieh@mailer.fsu.edu
eggs. Fermentation has also been used in the preservation Accepted 15 January 2004


148 YHP Hsieh and J Li

salted vegetables are kept year round and appear on the acid before finally being clarified, bottled and shipped to
table at almost every meal. The processing methods used the market. Compared with the traditional method, the
for salting vegetables include dry salting and brine new method is more economical because of the signi-
salting, depending on the raw materials and end use. ficant reduction in processing time. However, the ratio of
Washing, desalting or cutting usually is necessary before amino acid nitrogen to total nitrogen in the final product
further flavoring the products for different use. is not as high.
Tofu may be the most popular food made of soy. It is
Dry salting
produced from water-extracted and salt- or acid-
Leafy vegetables are graded, sorted, and usually air-dried
precipitated soybean in the form of a curd, resembling a
for a couple of days before salting. Dry salt is sprinkled
soft white cheese or a very firm yogurt. On a wet weight
onto the surface of the vegetables at a ratio of one part of
basis, a typical pressed tofu with a moisture content of
salt to ten parts of vegetable. Kneading, mixing and
85% contains approximately 7.8% protein, 4.2% lipid and
squeezing (with stone slabs or a screw press) are
2 mg/g calcium. On a dry basis, it contains about 50%
performed to facilitate the exudation of juice. When bulk
protein and 27% lipid, the remaining components being
quantities of vegetables are salted, salt is placed between
carbohydrate and minerals.4
layers of vegetables. Root vegetables require cleaning,
Tofu is inexpensive, nutritious and versatile and can be
trimming and cutting into smaller pieces prior to air-
served fresh or cooked with vegetables and/or meat. It is
drying. Dry salting of root crops, because of their bulky
used in hundreds of dishes or soups and as a meat or
and dense texture, must be carried out in successive steps
cheese substitute. Compared with meat or cheese, it has
using a fraction of the required salt each time. Exudation
far fewer calories because of its high protein/fat ratio. It is
juice, which helps keep the vegetables clean, is discarded
also cholesterol-free, lactose-free and low in saturated fat.
each time after salting. Once salted and covered tightly in
Because of its bland taste and porous texture, tofu can be
a barrel or an underground cement storage vat, the vege-
prepared with virtually any other foods. It is commonly
tables can be kept for 3-9 months, depending on tem-
served in soups or separate dishes stir-fried with meat
perature conditions.
Table 1. Selected traditional Chinese food items categorized
Brine salting
by food groups, and the processing methods involved
Concentrated brine with as high as 20% salt is used to
preserve minimally processed vegetables. Partially pro-
cessed fresh vegetables, including bamboo shoots, lotus Food group Food item Processing methods involved
roots, ginger, eggplants, scallions and cucumbers, are
often packed in salt brine and exported to Japan and Vegetables Cured Drying, dry or brine salting,
North America for further processing. Heavily salt-cured vegetables fermentation
vegetables are desalted and flavored to make a variety of Soy Soy sauce Fermentation, pasteurization,
pickled products. products filtration
Soy milk and Grinding, heating,
Soy products beverages pasteurization
Soy sauce is a dark brown liquid obtained from a fer- Tofu Coagulation, pasteurization,
molding, pressing
mented mixture of soybeans and wheat that is very fami-
liar to consumers both inside and outside China. With a Tofu-derived Drying, frying, fermentation,
products freezing, salting
salty taste and sharp savory flavor, it has served as an all-
purpose seasoning for thousands of years. Although the Rice Tang yuan Stuffing, shaping, boiling,
Products steaming, or frying
traditional method is still used at a domestic level, many
commercial soy sauce producers in China have now Zong zi Wrapping, boiling
adopted a new technique.3 Briefly, defatted soymeal and Tian jiu niang Fermentation
wheat bran are used in a ratio of 60:40. After treatment,
Other snack Extrusion
the mixture is inoculated with an improved strain of food
Aspergillus. As a result, the time for making koji (bloom Seafood Salted Multi-stage salting, pressing
of mold) is reduced from 48h to 24h. Koji which is made jellyfish
by growing molds on rice, barley, wheat, soybeans, or a Fish balls Mincing, washing, gelation,
combination, contains a great variety of enzymes that shapping, boiling
digest starch, protein and lipid components in raw Poultry Beggar’s Wrapping, baking
materials. The matured koji then mixed with a small chicken
volume of brine (about half the usual amount) that has Salted duck Salting, drying
about three-quarters as much salt as in the traditional Chicken- Boiling with a variety of
method and allowed to ferment at a relatively high herbal soup herbal ingredients
temperature (40-45oC). Under such low-moisture, low- Beggar’s Wrapping, baking
salt and high-temperature conditions, it takes only 3 chicken
weeks to complete fermentation. The fermented mash is Eggs Salted eggs Salting, immersion, boiling
transferred to another tank, mixed with additional brine, Thousand- Alkaline-fermentation, aging
and then heated to more than 80oC. This is followed by year-old eggs
the separation of the liquid in the tank through gravity. (Pedian)
The soy sauce may be pasteurized or mixed with benzoic 


 Traditional Chinese foods 149

and/or vegetables. Tofu can also be further processed into Rice and rice snack foods
various secondary tofu products, including deep-fried Rice is the most important staple food in China. As much
tofu, grilled tofu, frozen tofu, dried tofu, fermented tofu, as 80-90% of the daily caloric intake of people in China is
and more. In most cases, these processed tofu products derived from rice. China contributes 38% of the world’s
have different characteristics, taste and texture, end uses, rice production using 24% of the world’s growing area.6
and commercial identities than the original plain tofu. There are many forms of rice products that are produced
Historians believe that the method for preparing tofu as alternative food sources due to their nutritive values
was invented by Liu An of the Han dynasty in China, in and special sensory attraction. In China, rice cereals are
about 164 B.C. About 900 years later, it spread to Japan consumed as cooked rice and are served simultaneously
and then to other Far East countries. Since then, tofu has with prepared vegetable dishes, pork, poultry, beef, sea-
become the most popular way to consume soybeans in the food, and others. In addition to its standard form, rice is
Far East. Even today, there are thousands of tofu shops consumed in the form of noodles, puffed rice, breakfast
across China, Japan and other Southeast Asian countries cereals, rice cakes, fermented sweet rice and snack foods
or regions, where many types of tofu are produced daily made by extrusion cooking.5 Rice is also used in making
for local consumption. In recent years, tofu has become beer, wine, and vinegar.
increasingly popular throughout the world, as increased There are many kinds of rice snack foods, prepared for
numbers of consumers are seeking nutritious health foods more attractive taste, texture and aroma. These are served
of plant origin. This has led to the development of a in some cases for special occasions, and in others for their
growing infrastructure for large-scale commercial tofu special taste or for convenience. Many rice snack foods
production and distribution.
Many methods are available for making tofu today, all WHOLE SOYBEANS
of which are derived from the traditional Chinese method
developed some 2000 years ago. Basically, the procedure
Cleaning
starts with preparation of soymilk (Fig. 1). After the
milk is boiled for about 10 min, it is transferred to another
container, usually a wooden barrel or a pottery vat, and Steeping (12hrs)
allowed to cool. At the same time, a coagulant is mixed
with some hot water. Traditionally, powdered gypsum is
Hot water Grinding
used. When the soymilk has cooled to about 78oC, the
coagulant solution is added with rigorous stirring. When
tiny curds appear (normally in less than 30s), the con- Centrifuging residue
tainer is covered and coagulation is allowed to continue
for about 30 min until complete. The soy curd thus
formed is now ready for moulding. It is first broken up Soy extract
by stirring and then transferred to a shallow forming box
and a cloth is pulled up and folded over the curds in the Heating (97-100˚C)
box. The box is then covered with a wooden lid that is
slightly smaller than the box dimensions and a few bricks
or stones are placed on top of the lid. For about 30 min, Flash cooling in a vacuum chamber
whey is pressed out and the tofu becomes firm. The

cooled tofu is finally cut into cakes that are ready to be Soy base Coagulants
served immediately or immersed in cold water for short- 
term storage or for sale at local markets.
Today, this traditional processing method is still
popular at the home and village levels. However, based Flavour Formulating Homogenizing Coagulation
on the same principles, many new methods have been Emulsifier (PH 6.0-6.5)
Sweetener
developed that are suitable for making various types of
tofu products, and different types of equipment are used Mixing Pasteurizing Pouring to con-
for varying scales of production. These variations on the tainers & molding
traditional method for making tofu include new soybean
varieties, different concentrations of soymilk, new ways
Pasteurizing Packaging Pressing (>2 hrs)
to heat process the soymilk, new types and concentrations
of coagulants, more closely-controlled coagulation tem-
peratures and times, process automation, and modern
packaging. Based on water content and textural pro- Packaging PURE SOYA TOFU WHEY
perties, tofu is generally classified as soft (silken), regular BEAN MILK
or firm tofu. However, all tofu is essentially made in a
SOYA-BEAN
similar fashion, except for variations in the water to
BEVERAGE
soybean ratio, the type and concentration of coagulants,
the way a coagulant is added, and the amount of whey Figure 1. A traditional Chinese method for making soya bean
being pressed out. milk and tofu


150 YHP Hsieh and J Li

are made from glutinous rice (sweet or waxy rice) thus women in the village wrapped seasoned rice and
containing largely amylopectin (98% of total starch), but meat in bamboo leaves, cooked and dropped them into the
little amylose (less than 2% of total starch), while others river so that the fish in the river would not disturb their
are made from both types. A typical glutinous rice flour beloved poet. Since then, every year on the day of Qu
contains 11-13.5% moisture, 1% ash, 75-80% total starch, Yuan’s death, people make and eat zong zi and hold
5.5-6.5% protein and 0.5% total fat.5 Glutinous rice flour dragon boat races to remember his death and patriotism.
is often used in making snack foods because the sticky This has become the origin of the Dragon Boat Festival,
characteristics resulting from its high amylopectin content one of the three major festivals in China.
are necessary in many specialty rice foods. Another Several varieties of zong zi such as, chien zong and rou
reason for the application of glutinous rice in baked and zong are available. To make chien zong, about 600g of
popped snack foods is that glutinous rice flour expands glutinous rice (round grain species) is washed and soaked
readily and produces a more porous texture. in water for 1 h, drained and mixed with 12.5 g soda ash.
Tang yuan is a rice snack product made from glutinous The bamboo leaves are washed, boiled in water for 5 min,
rice flour and water. The flour is kneaded with water and cooled, and drained. A 60g portion of this mixture is
some cooked rice porridge to form a dough and then wrapped with bamboo leaves to form a tetrahedral parcel
kneaded again. The dough is then made into Tang yuan that is bound with string. The product is simmered in hot
by adding fillings through hand molding or machine water for 1.5h. After cooking, the bamboo leaves are
molding. There are two types of fillings: (1) sweet and removed, and the product is served with honey or sugar.
(2) savory. Sweet fillings uses sugar, cooked red beans, The use of soda ash creates a slightly alkaline taste, and
sesame seed paste, lotus bean paste or jujube dates and develops a special aroma, but it is also possible to make
nuts. Savory fillings are made of any meat product, such

as pork, chicken, beef, lamb or shrimp, plus mushrooms, JIU YAO POLISHED GLUTINOUS RICE
dried edible fungus and Napa cabbage, chopped and (10g) (1000g/wt)
cooked with seasonings such as onion, garlic, soy sauce 
and monosodium glutamate. Through hand manipulation,  Washing
the food ingredients are wrapped into a rice dough sheet
to form round- or rectangular-shaped Tang yuan. The

rice flour dough acts as a container for the tasty ingre- Steeping for 12hrs (4hrs in summer)
 (1600g/wet wt)
dients located at the center. Savory Tang yuan are usually
elongated in shape (4-5 cm in length and 3-3.5 cm in
diameter). Sweet-tasting Tang yuan are usually round in  Steaming for 30 min
shape, 3-4 cm in diameter, but many vary somewhat in 1650g/wet wt)
size in various parts of China. The taste of the product
depends largely on the type of filling. The product is
 Cooling to 50˚C
consumed hot after thorough cooking in boiling water or
as a fried product after heating the cooked Tang yuan,
according to the preferences of the cook. The cooked
 Cooling using water to 35˚C-40˚C
Tang yuan can be preserved after packing in a deep 
freezer at -20oC for 6 months or longer. Success in

making Tang yuan depends on the high amylopectin
content of the glutinous rice flour. Glutinous rice flour
Mixing
differs from long- and medium-grain rice flour in its
resistance to water separation (syneresis) during freezing
and thawing.7 The texture of Tang yuan after cooking is  Transferred gently to jars
related to the particle size distribution of the rice flour.
Rice flour with a finer particle size makes better Tang  Incubation at 28-30˚C
yuan, which has a fine texture and smooth appearance. 
Glutinous rice flour is available on the market in the
range of particle sizes. The consumer may order a Strong CO2 evolution for the first
particular size of glutinous rice flour to suit the quality of (72hr-96hr in winter, 24-26hr in Summer)
the desired product.
Zong zi is another very popular rice snack food in 
which glutinous rice is wrapped in bamboo leaves. The Temperature increased to 40˚C above at
bamboo leaves give a distinctive, pleasant flavor to the another 30-32nd hr
rice after cooking and also serve as a packaging material
for the product. Zong zi was made and consumed by  Temperature decreased to about 30˚C at
people in memory of a famous patriotic poet, QuYuan another 40-44th hr
(340-278BC), who committed suicide by drowning him-
self in a river to protest the corruption of the ruler during

the Warring State. When people from his village heard TIAN-JIU-NIANG
this sad news, men tried to rescue him from the river by Figure 2. Flow sheet for the preparation of Tian jiu
rowing dragon boat as fast as possible but it was too late, niang (fermented glutinous rice)


 Traditional Chinese foods 151

zong-zi without the addition of soda ash. From 600g of further processing. After mixing with cryoprotectant (4%
glutinous rice, 20 chien zong can be obtained. Rou zong sucrose, 4% sorbitol and 0.5% sodium tripolyphosphate),
is a savory type of zong zi in which pork or ham is used to the washed minced fish meat can be stored frozen up to 1
enrich the nutritive value and sensory quality of the year for future use. Surimi may be used to produce a
product. Six hundred grams of glutinous rice are washed, variety of shellfish analog products such as crab legs,
soaked in water for 1h and drained. The meat, which has shrimp, and lobster. In China, the most popular surimi
been sliced and marinated, rice, and seasoning mixture is product is fish ball. The important quality attributes of
wrapped with the bamboo leaves to form a shaped parcel the product are its elastic texture, stable shelf life and
and bound with string. Finally, the wrapped rice product reduced fat content.
is cooked in hot water for several hours. With 600g of In Taiwan, the principle sources of the fish used as the
rice and 300g of pork, approximate 20 rou zong can be raw materials for fish balls are sharks, lizardfish, pike eel
made. The product is served hot, with or without soy and marlin.11 The processing method includes deboning,
sauce, after removal of the bamboo leaves. Another type mincing, washing, dewatering, mixing, setting, flavoring
of zong zi is made with glutinous rice, red beans or red and boiling. Starch and ingredients such as sugar, salt
bean paste. It is a popular sweet rice product wrapped in and polyphosphate are added in the mixing steps. When
bamboo leaves. Zong zi can be served fresh after cooking salt is added to washed minced fish meat during mixing
or stored in a deep freezer for months until use. or grinding, myosin is leached out from the fish meat to
Tian jiu niang is a fermented glutinous rice product form sol, which is adhesive. The sol converts into gel
that is a popular snack food in China. It is a mixture of during heating, forming a network structure that provides
rice grains and saccharified liquid, which contains 1.5- elasticity. The spherical shape is formed by machine or
2.0% alcohol with an acidity of 0.5-0.6% as lactic acid by hand. The shaped minced fish meat, either plain or
and some glucose, maltose and oligosaccharides. The stuffed with ground pork, is then boiled. After the fish
method for making tian jiu niang is summarized in Figure ball is cooled, it is sold as is in the market, or it may be
2. The steamed sweet rice is fermented with jiu zao packaged and sold as a frozen product. In addition to
(culture), which contains Rhizopus, Mucor, Monilia and finfish, shellfish such as shrimp and cuttlefish are also
Aspergillus.8 Some yeast and bacteria may also be commonly used to produce similar products.
involved in the fermenting process. The product can be Salted jellyfish have been eaten in China for more than
kept at 10oC for a time, but those kept at 25oC or above a thousand years and China is the first country to process
will continue to ferment. The acidity may increase to 1%, edible jellyfish (Rhopilema esculentum) for human
in the form of lactic acid, and the alcohol content may consumption. Jellyfish is more than a gourmet delicacy
reach 5%. The product is consumed largely in the winter in China; it is a tradition. A Chinese wedding or formal
season and is also used as an ingredient in making special banquet is rarely completed without a jellyfish salad.
dishes because of its attractive aroma and unique flavor. Today, Semi-dried salted jellyfish represent a multi-
million dollar seafood business in Asia.12
Seafood
In China, fish and fishery products are used widely in the
daily diet. Fish, in one form or another, is eaten almost JELLYFISH

every day and the poor eat fish more often than the
rich.9,10 Fishery products have long been an important Separation of umbrella and oral arms
high-quality protein food in the Chinese diet. Like most
Western countries, more than half of the fish and shellfish
are consumed fresh and chilled. However, many popular Cleaning and soaking in water
traditional fishery products in China are salted, dried,
fermented, and minced.11 Based on the raw materials and Multi-phase salting in salt and alum mixtures
ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural
differences, a variety of fishery products with different 2-5 weeks
flavors and textures are prepared in different regions of Pressing/drying
the country.
The fish ball, a surimi-type of fishery product, is an 4-6 days
important animal protein source in the Chinese daily diet Processed product ready for packaging
for many people. They are made into different sizes,
flavors, and textures, from very soft to crunchy and firm, Desalting and rehydrating in water
and varieties including both plain fish balls and fish balls
stuffed with seasoned ground pork or vegetables are 1-2 days
available. Surimi is mechanically deboned fish mince Preparing (shredding, marinating, cooking, etc.)
that has been washed with water and mixed with
cryoprotectants for extended frozen storage. Fresh fish
Serving
meat is deboned, minced and washed two to three times
with fresh water. The washing cycle removes water-
soluble proteins, fat and pigments. The washed fish meat Figure 3. Jellyfish processing and preparation
mainly consists of myofibril proteins. The washed 
minced fish (surimi) is an intermediate material for


152 YHP Hsieh and J Li

Processing jellyfish is a low-cost operation that conducting controlled studies on animal models and
requires little capital but is labor intensive. Traditional human subjects.
processing methods involve a multi-phase processing
procedure using a mixture of salt (NaCl) and alum Poultry products
(Al2[SO2]·14H2O) to reduce the water content, decrease Poultry is classified into chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese,
the pH, and firm the texture. Live jellyfish are harvested guinea hens and pigeons. Each species has its own
and cleaned immediately with seawater, scraped to unique characteristics that influence cooking methods and
remove mucus membranes and gonadal material. Both organoleptic properties. As in many other areas of the
umbrella and oral arms are used in processing. A salt mix world, poultry has become one of the fastest growing
containing about 10% alum is used for initial salting of meat sources in China. China now ranks second in world
jellyfish. Salted jellyfish are then left in the brine for 3-4 poultry production, although the per capita consumption
days, followed by several transfers to another container of poultry is still very low compared with those of more
salted with fresh mix containing a smaller amount of developed countries. Between 1985 and 1994, poultry
alum. Processing jellyfish is more of an art than an exact meat production in China increased nearly fivefold, from
science, exact salt/alum formula and procedures are often 1.6 million to 7.6 million tons.18 The combination of a
kept as trade secrets.13 The salted jellyfish can then be more healthful image, competitive prices and the recent
heaped and left dry on a draining rack at room tem- development of further-processed products have been
perature for two days. The entire process requires 20 to largely responsible for the rapid growth of poultry
40 days to produce a salted final product with 60-70% consumption.
moisture and 16-25% salt.14,15 The salted jellyfish has a For centuries, ways to eat chicken have been
stable shelf life up to one year at room temperature. The developed in all corners of the world. Poultry meat can
processed jellyfish should be desalted and rehydrated in be broiled, roasted, baked, steamed, fried, boiled,
water before preparing jellyfish dishes. The desalted fricasseed, smoked, barbecued and many more. Although
ready-to-use (RTU) products have a special crunchy and many freshly prepared culinary types of poultry products
crispy texture with little flavor but are served with sauces are available, traditionally processed or preserved poultry
or as part of more elaborate dishes. The Chinese have products are limited. Among the many traditional
various methods for preparing jellyfish, cooked or Chinese foods, poultry products are recognized not only
uncooked. They are usually shredded, scalded and served as a delicacy, but also for their nutritional and health-
in a dressing composed of oil, soy sauce, vinegar and promoting values. Chicken soup cooked with a variety of
sugar. Sliced jellyfish may be eaten as a salad mixed with herbs such as ginseng, ginger, black mushrooms, wolf-
shredded vegetables and/or thin sliced meat. The over- berry fruits, dried dates and/or special ingredients such as
night desalting procedure and preparation of jellyfish dish wine and sesame oil has been commonly used for patients
may become a barrier for modern consumers with busy for a speedy recovery. For example, chicken stewed with
life styles. This has been overcome by developing sesame oil, rice wine and fresh ginger root is a typical
shredded RTU products with varieties of flavor and food for women to eat daily during the month after
sauces. Recently, shredded jellyfish have appeared on the delivering their babies in South China and Taiwan. These
supermarket packaged together with condiments such as food items are often prepared at home and served to
soy sauce, wasabi or mustard as a convenient ready-to-eat healthy people as well as invalids to enjoy the flavor and
food. A flow chart of traditional jellyfish processing and promote good health in general.
preparation is shown in Figure 3. Beggar’s chicken, which is cooked in leaves and clay,
Not only are they delectable, but jellyfish are a natural is a famous baked dish, specific to the southern Chinese
diet food. Desalted RTU jellyfish consists of appro- provinces such as Zhejiang, Changshu and Guangdong.
ximately 95% water and 4-5% protein, mainly collagen. As the name suggests, beggar’s chicken was originally
They are low in calories, with no detectable crude fat and eaten by homeless beggars, who had to invent a cooking
cholesterol, and trace amount of sugar. The calculated method for a stolen chicken without using any cooking
caloric value for a normal 100 g serving of RTU jellyfish utensils. The chicken was cleaned and wrapped in lotus
is less than 20 kcal.13 In addition, edible jellyfish have leaves unseasoned, with a thick layer of clay that enve-
long been recognized for medicinal value.16 It is believed loped the chicken. The clay package kept the heat around
to be an effective cure for arthritis, hypertension, back the leaf package when the chicken was cooked in a fire pit
pain, and ulcers, while softening skin and improving dug underground, enabling the way for beggars to hide
digestion. Collagen has been hypothesized to be the the stolen chicken and enjoy an occasional treat at the end
ingredient in jellyfish contributing to the beneficial health of a cold and dark day. Because of the leaves, clay, and
effects because collagen is the essential building material slow heating, the flavor of chicken was distinctively
of muscle tissue, cartilage and bone, and has great superior. This primitive cooking method produces a tasty
medicinal promise.17 Recently Hsieh et al.,13 reported chicken that pleases both rich and poor. Today, because
that laboratory rats fed with low doses of cannonball of its fine flavor and the laborious cooking procedures
jellyfish (Stomolophus meleagris) collagen had signi- involved in making it, Beggar’s chicken has become a
ficantly delayed the onset and reduced the incidence and famous and expensive dish served on banquet tables in
severity of antigen-induced arthritis, a model that shares modern China. The modern process of making Beggar’s
clinical, histological, immunological, and genetic features chicken includes selecting the chicken, cleaning the
with human rheumatoid arthritis. The myths of the carcass, seasoning, wrapping the bird in heat-resistant
medicinal value of eating jellyfish should be unveiled by paper or lotus leaves, encasing the package in a thick


 Traditional Chinese foods 153

layer of clay, and slowly baking the package in an open Table 2. Ingredients (kg) used to prepare 1000 fermented
fire or oven. The finished product is unwrapped prior to eggs (pidan)20
consumption.
Rolling Powder Coating Immersion
Ingredients
Eggs Method Method Method
China has been the number one egg-producing country in Na2CO3 1.5 10 3.6
the world for many years and in 1995 egg production
3.8-4.2
reached 15 million tons. Eggs are a highly nutritious and CaO (Spring & Fall) 25 14
economical food containing many essential nutrients. 4.5-5.5 (Summer)
They are quick, convenient and easy to prepare and are
PbO - 0.45 0.37
appetizing and easily digestible. The mild flavor of eggs
and some of the natural compounds in the white and yolk Salt 1.4 4 2
that exhibit functional properties such as leavening,
binding, foaming, thickening, retardation of sugar Tea 0.1 5 1.5
crystallization, emulsification, clarification, coating, and
Yellow
coloring, make them an ideal ingredient for use with other 2.0 - -
mud
food materials.
Pidan has been an alkaline-fermented ethnic food for Dry mud - 25 0.5
many generations in China. The dark greenish color and
Wood ash - 25 1
sophisticate flavor of this product has resulted in it being
known as the “thousand-year-old egg” in Western society. Water 3.0 50 50
Mixing crushed or cut-up pidan and tofu and seasoning
with soy sauce and sesame oil makes a delicious, easy-to-
fix family side dish often served at table for any meal when air dry. The eggs are further coated with liquid paraffin
the housewife is busy. Today, this side dish often appears before packaging and marketing.
on restaurant menus due to its increased popularity. The formulation of pidan is caused by the chemical
Depending on the processing methods, several types of reaction of sodium hydroxide and the egg components.
pidan are available, such as the pine-floral pidan, soft- Sodium hydroxide is generated to form the action of
yolk pidan and hard-yolk pidan. In traditional pidan sodium carbonate and calcium oxide with water in the
processing, many variations of methods can be found pickling or mud coating. The alkali penetrates the
from different sources. Wang and Fung19 reviewed the eggshell and membrane and causes chemical changes in
processing methods and chemical changes involved in the egg components, which results in gelation of the
making pidan and indicated that the traditional processing albumen. Milliard reactions between the glucose of the
of pidan can be classified into three types: the rolling albumen and amino acids, combined with the pigment of
powder method, the coating method and the immersion the tea in the fermentation ingredient, contribute to the
method. development of the brown-colored albumen gel. The
albumen gel in the pidan solubilizes at 40oC, which
Rolling powder method
contributes to its digestibility. The decomposition of
Traditionally, fresh duck eggs are used. The eggs are
proteins produces polypeptide and amino acids. Cystine
coated with a thin layer of mud paste and rolled in the
and cystine produced by protein hydrolysis can be
rolling powder, in which all the ingredients have been
continually decomposed into ammonia and hydrogen
included, before being packed and sealed in the jar. The
sulfide, which contributes to the unique flavor of pidan.
powder-rolled eggs are allowed to ferment for 20-30 days
Hydrogen sulfide produced from the decomposed protein
at room temperature. The ingredients used for the rolling
reacts with the iron in the yolk, which gives pidan its
powder method vary slightly according to the season
typical dark-green-colored yolk. The pine-floral-like
(Table 2).19 The rolling powder method produces hard-
structures formed between the yolk and albumen of pidan
yolk pidan. The advantages of this method are its low cost
come from the degraded protein products such as
and ease in handling.
alkalinized amino acids. Usually, high-quality pidan has
Coating method more pine-floral crystals.”
A muddy paste containing the coating ingredients is Salt-cured eggs, a popular side dish for the Chinese at
prepared (Table 2). Fresh duck eggs are completely breakfast time, are made from duck eggs. However,
coated with the prepared muddy paste and rolled in rice recently, chicken eggs have also been used. There are two
hulls. The rice hulls prevent the coated eggs from sticking methods used in the preparation of this product, namely,
together. They are then placed into jars, sealed with mud immersion and smearing methods. For the immersion
and allowed to ferment for 40 days in the summer and 50 method, 100 eggs are immersed in a container containing
days in the winter. a mixture of 1.2 kg salt, 1L wine, 2-3 kg of wood ash and
2.5-3.0 L of red tea for 1 month at ambient temperature.
Immersion method
For the smearing method, the same liquid mixture used
In this method, all of the ingredients are mixed into a
for the immersion method is mixed with red clay at a ratio
curing solution. Eggs are immersed in the solution for 45
of 1:3 (v/v) to form a paste. The egg surfaces are coated
days at 20-25oC. After the curing process is completed,
with this paste and dusted with rice hulls before aging in a
the eggs are removed, washed with water and allowed to
container for approximately 1 month. Several modified


154 YHP Hsieh and J Li

salt-cured egg immersion formulas are available. Regard- Acknowledgement

less of the preparation method, the eggs used should be This study was supported by a grant (KOSEF 1999-2-220-007–
fresh in quality and free from any cracks. Salt-cured eggs 3) from the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation
are high in ash and free amino acid contents. The yolk (KOSEF).
particles aggregate and release yolk oil, which gives a
shiny appearance and rich flavor for the product. The References
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diet for generations to come.


 Traditional Chinese foods 155

传统的食品技术和烹饪
Traditional Chinese food technology and cuisine

Jian-rong Li and Yun-Hwa P Hsieh

从早期的先哲到现代的科技，基于漫长的中国历史文化底蕴，中国烹饪在世界上享有盛誉。
传统中国食品和烹饪展示了中国文化、艺术并且在中国人的日常生活中扮演着重要的角色。
近年来，中国传统食品由于其巨大的潜在价值正日益引起世界各地食品科学家、食品工程师、
食品工业界和健康组织的广泛关注。这些传统食品包括很多品种，如酱菜、咸鱼、海蛰、豆
腐和其它豆制品、米面制品、酱油、鱼圆、皮蛋等。本文概括和介绍了几种常见的中国传统
食品及其加工工艺，这些食品的配方和生产等传统技术的开发和生产，将有望促进经济、社
会和健康的进一步发展。

From ancient wisdom to modern science and technology, Chinese cuisine has been established from a long
history of the country and gained a global reputation of its sophistication. Traditional Chinese foods and cuisine
that exhibit Chinese culture, art and reality play an essential role in Chinese people’s everyday lives. Recently,
traditional Chinese foods have drawn a great degree of attention from food scientists and technologists, the food
industry, and health promotion institutions worldwide due to the extensive values they offer beyond being merely
another ethnic food. These traditional foods comprise a wide variety of products, such as pickled vegetables,
salted fish and jellyfish, tofu and tofu derived products, rice and rice snack foods, fermented sauces, fish balls and
thousand-year-old eggs. An overview of selected popular traditional Chinese foods and their processing
techniques are included in this paper. Further development of the traditional techniques for formulation and
production of these foods is expected to produce economic, social and health benefits.

Key words: Chinese food, cuisine, traditional food, processing, health