SUBMITTED TO

The executive engineer,

CENTRAL PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT,
NIT DURGAPUR DIVISION, DURGAPUR,
WEST BENGAL.

Submitted by
PIJUSH AKHULI – 16CE8003
DEEPAK KUMAR– 16CE8043
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is indeed a great pleasure and privilege to present this

report on training at CPWD.

I am extremely grateful to my training and placement dean

for issuing a Training letter, which made my training possible
at CPWD, NIT Durgapur Division.

I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Manoj Kumar

Kanodia, for his invaluable suggestions, motivation, guidance
and support throughout the training. His methodology to
start from simple and then deepen through made me bring
out this report without anxiety.

Thanks to all other CPWD officials, operators and all

members of CPWD for their help in completing the project.
 INDEX

S.no Description

1 Introduction

2 Conceiving of a project

3 Tendering

4 Procurement and modes of procurement

5 Preparation of layout of a building

6 IS-456:2000- relevant clauses for building construction

7 Tests conducted on building site

8 Road work
 INTRODUCTION
ABOUT
The Central Public Works Department of India is a Central Government
owned authority that is in charge of public sector works in the country.
Central Public Works Department (CPWD) under Ministry of Urban
Development is entrusted with construction and maintenance of
buildings for most of the Central Government Departments, Public
undertakings and autonomous bodies. In the Indian History both pre and
post-independence - CPWD has a glorious era of more than 150 year
with dedicated, energetic and committed corps of Engineers and
Architects. Before being re-structured to its present form in 1930
“Central Public Works Department” originated in July 1854 when the
Governor General of India decided to set up a Central Agency:
“to exercise universal control over public works in India with best of
scientific knowledge with authority & system”.
Central Public Works Department, NIT Durgapur Division is the premier
agency of Govt. of India engaged in planning, designing, construction
and maintenance of Government assets in the field of built environment
and infrastructure development. Assets in built environment include
Hospitals, Schools, Colleges, Technical Institutes, Police Buildings,
Prisons, Courts etc; assets in infrastructure development include Roads,
Bridges, Flyovers, Footpaths, Subways etc. CPWD NIT Durgapur Division
also sustains and preserves these assets through a well-developed
system of maintenance which includes amongst others specialized
services like rehabilitation work and roads.
 CONCEIVING OF A PROJECT:

PROJECT: According to ISO 10006:2003 – Quality management

systems a project is a unique process consisting of a set of coordinated

and controlled activities with start and finish dates, undertaken to

achieve an object conforming to specific requirements including

constraints of time, cost and resources.

The project manager plays an important role in the execution of a

successful project. For a successful project to be executed the Project

Manager must have a deep understanding and have a perfect or clear
idea on the five phases of the project management.

CONCEPT OF THE PROJECT LIFE CYCLE

The discussion of the phases of the project management also includes

the discussion of the project life cycle. The project phases make up a

project life cycle, the phases are designed to fit a project’s needs.
The elements of a project life cycle should define:

 What work must be accomplished

 What deliverables must be generated and reviewed

 Who must be involved in the project

 How to control and approve each phase

Determining these elements will take a project from start to finish. It

provides a systematic, timely, and controlled process that benefits a

project’s stakeholders. This helps project managers define what needs
to be accomplished before moving onto the next phase of a project.
 5 PHASES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

“Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and

techniques to a broad range of activities in order to meet the

requirements of a particular project.” There are five phases of project

management and the lifecycle provides a high-level view of the project,

the phases are the roadmap to accomplishing it.

Closure
 PHASE 1: PROJECT INITIATION

This is the starting phase of the project, and the goal of this phase
is to define the project at a broad level. This phase usually begins with a

research whether the project is feasible and if it should be undertaken.

If feasibility testing needs to be done, this is the stage of the project in

which that will be completed.

Important stakeholders help to verify the proposal whether the

project is a “go”. If the initial proposal is accepted then a project
initiation document (PID) is created which describes the purpose and

requirements of the project.

 PHASE 2: PROJECT PLANNING

This phase is key to successful project management and focuses on

developing a roadmap that everyone will follow. This phase typically

begins with setting goals.

Two of the more popular methods for setting goals are S.M.A.R.T. and
C.L.E.A.R:

S.M.A.R.T. Goals :–

This method helps ensure that the goals have been thoroughly vetted.
It also provides a way to clearly understand the implications of the

goal-setting process.
Specific – To set specific goals, answer the following questions: who,

what, where, when, which, and why.

Measurable – Create criteria that you can use to measure the success

of a goal.
Attainable – Identify the most important goals and what it will take to

achieve them.
Realistic – You should be willing and able to work toward a particular

goal.
Timely – Create a timeframe to achieve the goal.

C.L.E.A.R. Goals :–
A newer method for setting goals that takes into consideration the
environment of rapidly growing competition.
Collaborative – The goal should encourage employees to work

together.
Limited – They should be limited in scope and time to keep it
manageable.

Emotional – Goals should tap into the passion of employees and be

something they can form an emotional connection to. This can

optimize the quality of work.
Appreciable – Break larger goals into smaller tasks that can be quickly
achieved.

Refinable – As new situations arise, be flexible and refine goals as

needed.

 During this phase, the scope of the project is defined and a

project management plan is developed.

 It involves identifying the cost, quality, available resources, and a

realistic timetable.
 The project plans also include establishing baselines or
performance measures. These are generated using the scope,

schedule and cost of a project.

 A baseline is essential to determine if a project is on track.

At this time, roles and responsibilities are clearly defined, so everyone

involved knows what they are accountable for.

Here are some of the documents a project manager will create during

this phase to ensure the project will stay on track:

 Scope Statement – A document that clearly defines the business

need, benefits of the project, objectives, deliverables, and key

milestones. A scope statement may change during the project, but

it shouldn’t be done without the approval of the project manager

and the sponsor.

 Work Breakdown Schedule (WBS) –This is a visual representation

that breaks down the scope of the project into manageable

sections for the team.

 Milestones – Identify high-level goals that need to be met
throughout the project and include them in the Gantt chart.
 Gantt Chart – A visual timeline that you can use to plan out tasks

and visualize your project timeline.

 Communication Plan – This is of particular importance if your
project involves outside stakeholders. Develop the proper

messaging around the project and create a schedule of when to

communicate with team members based on deliverables and
milestones.

 Risk Management Plan – Identify all foreseeable risks. Common

risks include unrealistic time and cost estimates, customer review

cycle, budget cuts, changing requirements, and lack of committed
resources.
 PHASE 3: PROJECT EXECUTION

This is the phase where deliverables are developed and completed. This

often feels like the meat of the project since a lot is happening during
this time, like status reports and meetings, development updates, and

performance reports. A “kick-off” meeting usually marks the start of the

Project Execution phase where the teams involved are informed of their
responsibilities.

Tasks completed during the Execution Phase include:

 Develop team

 Assign resources

 Execute project management plans

 Procurement management if needed

 PM directs and manages project execution

 Set up tracking systems

 Task assignments are executed

 Status meetings
  Update project schedule

 Modify project plans as needed

While the project monitoring phase has a different set of requirements,

these two phases often occur simultaneously.

PHASE 4: PROJECT PERFORMANCE/MONITORING

This consists of measuring progress of the project and performance

and ensuring that everything that happens aligns with the project

management plan.

The performance and control step of project management occurs

over the time from the project’s launch to its completion, and
serves as a method to measure and compare the status of the

project compared to the original plan.

Using the previously set out meeting times, there must be regular
interaction with everyone involved with the project (or at least
the team managers) and ensuring that all is running smoothly.
This is usually done through the use of KPIs (Key Performance

Indicators); the quantifiable measure of progress.

Use of KPIs to track project’s progress:

The KPIs measured will vary drastically depending on the project

you’re undertaking; they will usually consist of two or more of the

following four aspects. Project objectives, which are the measure
of if a project is staying on schedule and on

 Project objectives, which are the measure of if a project is

staying on schedule and on budget, according to

stakeholder objectives.

 Quality deliverables, which means looking to see if tasks are

being completed to the right level of quality.

 Effort and cost tracking, meaning that you’re checking to

see if you’re staying on the expected deadline and budget,

and perhaps predicting the completion date based on this.

 Project performance, which is tracking how many problems

have occurred and how quickly they were dealt with.
If the project goes on schedule, the project manager will just

have to keep checking in with each team periodically. If, a

deadline is missed, or a problem arises, shifting or reassigning

resources and schedules is to be made in order to bring situation

under control.

 Project Objectives: Measuring if a project is on schedule and

budget is an indication if the project will meet stakeholder

objectives.
 Quality Deliverables: This determines if specific task deliverables
are being met.

 Effort and Cost Tracking: PMs will account for the effort and cost
of resources to see if the budget is on track. This type of tracking
informs if a project will meet its completion date based on current

performance.
 Project Performance: This monitors changes in the project. It

takes into consideration the amount and types of issues that arise

and how quickly they are addressed. These can occur from
unforeseen hurdles and scope changes.

During this time, project managers may need to adjust schedules and
resources to ensure the project is on track.
 PHASE 5: PROJECT CLOSURE

This phase represents the completed project. Contractors hired to work

specifically on the project are terminated at this time. Valuable team

members are recognized. Some project managers even organize small

work events for people who participated in the project to thank them

for their efforts. Once a project is complete, a project manager will

often hold a meeting – sometimes referred to as a “post mortem” – to
evaluate what went well in a project and identify project failures. This is

especially helpful to understand lessons learned so that improvements

can be made for future projects.

Once the project is complete, the project managers need to create a

project punch list of things that didn’t get accomplished during the
project and work with team members to complete them. They perform
a final project budget and prepare a final project report.

Finally, they will to collect all project documents and deliverables and

store them in a single place.

 Tendering:
Tendering is the process by which bids are invited from interested

contractors to carry out specific packages of construction work.

Types of tendering:

 Competitive tendering:

 Open

 Selective
 Negotiated tendering:

 Serial

 Nominative
1. Open Tendering:

 Under open tendering the employer advertises his proposed

project, and permits as many contractors as are interested to

apply for tender documents. Sometimes he calls for a deposit

from applicants, the deposit being returned ‘on receipt of a bona

fide tender’.

 However, this method can be said to be wasteful of contractors’

resources since many may spend time preparing tenders to no
effect. Also, knowing their chances of gaining the contract are

small, contractors may not study the contract in detail to work

out their minimum price, but simply quote a price that will be
certain to bring them a profit if they win the contract.

 Thus the employer may be offered only ‘a lottery of prices’ and

not necessarily the lowest price for which his project could be

constructed. If he chooses the lowest tender he runs the risk the

tenderer has not studied the contract sufficiently to appraise the
 risks involved; or the tenderer might not have the technical or

financial resources to undertake the work successfully.

 It is true that the employer can check the resources and

experience of the lowest bidder and reject his tender if the

enquiry proves unsatisfactory; but several bids may be below the

estimated cost of the job and, if such tenderers appear

satisfactory and their bids are not far apart in value, it is difficult

for the employer to choose other than the lowest.

 The engineer advising the employer may think there is a risk that
all such low bids could prove unsatisfactory, but he cannot advise

the employer what other bid to accept because he has no

certainty of information.
The advantages and disadvantages of open tender are stated below:

 It allows any interested contractor to tender. Therefore it gives

opportunity for an unknown contractor to compete for the
work.
 The tender list can be long as too many contractors tendering
for one job.
 Allowing the tender list to be made without bias. Client will
obtain the bargain possible. No favoritism in selecting
contractors.
 Uneconomic use of source.
 Ensuring good competition not obliged to accept any offers.
 Public accountability may be questioned if the lowest offer is
not accepted.
 Traditional method of tendering, familiar to all sector of the
engineering and construction industry.
 Does not attract reputable and established contractor unless
they are forced to, due to lack of work.
2. Selective Tendering:

Under selective tendering the employer advertises his project and

invites contractors to apply to be placed on a selected list of

contractors who will be invited to bid for the project. Contractors

applying are given a list of information they should supply about

themselves in order to ‘pre-qualify’.

The advantage to the employer is that he can select only those

contractors, who have adequate experience, are financially sound,
and have the resources and skills to do the work. Also, since only

half a dozen or so contractors are selected, each contractor knows

he has a reasonable chance of gaining the contract and therefore
has an incentive to study the tender documents thoroughly and put

forward his keenest price.

However, since contractors have all pre-qualified it is difficult to

reject the lowest bid, even if it appears dubiously low – unless that is
due to some obvious mistake.

A problem with both open and selective tendering is that a

contractor’s circumstances can change after he has submitted his
tender. He can make losses on other contracts which affect his

financial stability; or may be so successful at tendering that he does

not have enough skilled staff or men to deal with all the work he

wins. Neither method of tendering nor any other means of

procuring works can therefore guarantee avoidance of troubles.

The advantages and disadvantages of the selective tendering are

stated below.

 Only the competent contractors were invited to tender, then

the lowest can be accepted.
 Reduces the availability of work for other contractors especially
new contractors.
 It reduced the cost of tendering (economic use of resources,
reduced tender documentation, shorter tender periods, better
management of the tender process, etc.)
 Tender Price may invariably higher than would have been in
open tendering.
 Greater chance of collusion.
 Tendering period longer because it involved two distinct
stages.
 Favoritism’s may occur in the short listing.
3. Negotiated Tendering:

Negotiated tenders are obtained by the employer inviting a

contractor of his choice to submit prices for a project. Usually this is

for specialized work or when particular equipment is needed as an

extension of existing works, or for further work following a previous

contract.

Sometimes negotiated tenders can be used when there is a very

tight deadline, or emergency works are necessary. A negotiated
tender has a good chance of being satisfactory because, more often
than not, it is based on previous satisfactory working together by

the employer and the contractor.

When invited to tender the contractor submits his prices, and if

there are any queries these are discussed and usually settled
without difficulty. Thus mistakes in pricing can be reduced, so that
both the engineer advising the employer and the contractor are

confident that the job should be completed to budget if no

unforeseen troubles arise.

However, negotiated tenders for public works are rare because the

standing rules of public authorities do not normally permit them.

But a private employer or company not subject to restraints such as

those mentioned in the next section can always negotiate a

contract, and many do so, particularly for small jobs.

Even when a negotiated tender is adopted it is usual to prepare full

contract documents so that the contract is on a sound basis.
Production of the documents also means they are available for open
or selective tendering should a negotiated tender fail, or should the
chosen contractor be unable to undertake the work.

Negotiations can be applied to the following type of contract:

 In Partnering type of contracts under the so called win-win

formula.
 Where the employer has a long term business relationship with
the contractor.
 In situations where the parties are in a relationships of holding
and subsidiary companies.
Where the contractor is involved in the financing of the project.

 In situations where the employer finds it advantages to employ

the same contractor to continue an initial or existing contract
for the new works
  Where there is a pressing need to have a very early start of
work on the site and to complete the works on a fast tract
basis.
 In special circumstances e.g. Security reasons, emergencies etc
where it is expedient to secure the services of a particular
contractor only.
 Where there is only a single contractor who is the only one
available or with ether the special skill or resources to carry out
the particular works.
 The employer’s resources are either limited or constrained
thereby making the use of the other tendering impractical.
Disadvantages

 Only reputable contractor are invited for negotiation.

 The cost work is likely higher than competitive tender.
 The Contractor can contribute his expertise during design
stage.
 Reduces the availability of work for other contractors.
 Early Commencement of work on site. It shortens the period
involved in appointing the contractor.
Selection of suitable contractor:
 This involves the selection of a suitable contractor and the
establishment of a level of pricing for subsequent negotiations.

 The objective is to select suitable contractor as early as

possible is to work together with the professional team and to

establish a level of pricing for subsequent negotiation.

 The criteria for short listing is normally confined to items such

as technical and financial capability, experience in similar works
and extent of resources (manpower, plant and equipment).

 The pricing document should be flexible enough to cater for

adjustment of price fluctuation for the period between two

stages and the pricing of the second stage.

 In selecting a suitable candidate, a basis for pricing the

subsequent second stage should be established accordingly.
 PROCUREMENT:
According to Encarta dictionary 2009, to procure means to acquire

something: to obtain something especially by effort. In construction

terms, procurement refers to the process of acquiring something.

Procurement is a term used to describe all activities undertaken by

the client in seeking to bring about the construction of, or the

refurbishment of a building. It is also referred to as method or
system which verifies the pros and cons and the financial constraints

which are likely to affect the project, so as to select an effective

contractual arrangement.
The simplest definition of procurement is the merging of activities
undertaken by the client to obtain a building.

 Government agencies, ministries, public universities and

schools procure goods and services regularly to facilitate their

operations. The goods and services are always got through a

clear process, guided by the public procurement law.

 For any firm to bid for the tender, they must fulfill given

requirements, including capacity to provide the service or

commodity.
The procurement processes:

The tendering process usually starts with the procuring entity issuing a

bidding notice in the media, and ends with the signing of contracts.
Below are some of the steps followed by public procuring entities:

Preparation

This includes identifying the choice of procurement method,

specifying requirements, choice of contract type and preparation of

bidding documents.

Advertisement

The procurement entity is required by law to advertise in a newspaper

the available opportunities for tenders. The advertisement invites bids

and proposals from potential suppliers. Bidding documents are also

issued.
Bid evaluation

It involves opening and evaluation of the bids by the tender

committee.

Award of contract to the successful bidder follows. The successful firm

or individual is debriefed about what is expected of them and the

contract is explained further.

The law provides for arbitration in case of any grievances about the

tender process from some bidders.

When there are no complaints, the contractor or supplier goes ahead

and mobilises to start implementing the project or supplying the

goods and services. The contractor’s performance is evaluated

regularly, as agreed in terms of payment. Suppliers can procure goods

and services from any country, except where specific sanctions are
declared against a given country.
The major concerns for a client to choose any of the procurement
method are:

To finish the project on time.

The cost of the project.

Performance or quality in relation to both design and
construction of the building.

There are four main procurement options, they are as follows:

 Traditional method
 Design and Build method

 Management Contracting method

 Public-Private Partnership (PPP) method.

1) Traditional method:

This method is as old as the construction industry. The major feature

is that the design process is separate from construction. It also

requires full documentation before the contractor can be invited to

tender for the work. In summary, traditional method simply involves

the steps- design, bid and build.
Features of the Traditional System:

The traditional system is characterized by the following:


Contractor is appointed by competitive tendering


Designs should be fully prepared ahead of time before
tendering procedure and actual construction can begin.


The client has control over design. There is no design
responsibility on the contractor.


The duration of the project tends to be very long because of
the separate sequential process of design and construction.


The construction cost is well known ahead of time and there
may be need for adjustment as provided for in the contract.


The client appoints a professional consultant to administer the

contract on his behalf and to advice on aspects associated with

design, progress and stage payment which must be paid by
the client.
The structure of the traditional system is shown below:

Secondary Secondary
contractor contractor

Analysis.
The traditional procurement method is very simple to understand by
all classes of client whereas the major problem it has, is that the

contract period tends to be more prolonged due to the fact that

design process is separate, and determines the commencement of

the actual construction.
 2) Design and building method:
In this method, the contractor is responsible for undertaking both the

design and construction of the work in return for a lump sum price.
To arrive at a choice of contractor, contractors are

required to develop a design (from an initial concept prepared by the

consultant appointed to advice the client) to a certain level, prepare

a tender figure and submit the whole package which is termed a
proposal to be evaluated to meet the satisfaction of the client. A team

of consultants will be needed to assess each contractor’s proposal.

Evaluation of tenders in this case is usually difficult because the
contractors are not working with one design. Tenderers should be

informed of the criteria to be used, and whether price is likely to be a

prime factor.

Features of this method include:


The contractor is often appointed by two-stage tendering i.e.

the competitive element and quality is preserved.


The client can introduce changes to the design at the design
stage, but once the contract has been awarded to the

contractor, he has no direct control over the development of the

design detail by the contractor.

 
A major feature of this procurement method is that design and

construction may proceed in parallel, and so the project

duration will be shortened.

This procurement method makes no room for appointment of
an independent contract administrator. The client works directly

with the contractor, or he may appoint an agent to advice him,

or act on his behalf.

Valuation and payment matters are solely in the hands of the
contractor.

It is an obligation to complete the project within the contract
period, however, the client may accept a later date to account

for delays resulting from reasons listed in the contract.

Analysis.
The Design-Build approach gives the client a single point of contact.
However, the client commits to the cost of construction, as well as the
cost of design, much earlier than with the traditional approach. Whilst
risk is shifted to the contractor, it is important that design liability
insurance is maintained to cover that risk. Changes made by the client
during design can be expensive, because they affect the whole of the
Design-Build contract, rather than just the design team cost.

Secondly, although the contract period is shortened, the process of

assessing the tenders, and selecting a contractor can be difficult due
to the fact that all the tenderers are working with different designs.
 3) Management Procurement:
This method of procurement is based upon the client appointing a
consultant who will prepare project drawings and project

specifications. Consequent upon this, a management contractor is

then selected by a process of tender and interviews. The management
contractor will not carry out construction work. This helps to preserve
the management contractor’s independence and reinforces a

consultancy relationship with the client. Payment is made to the

management contractor on the basis of the cost of the works
packages plus the agreed fee. The success of this approach depends
on the contractor’s team. Unless the team is drawn from companies

which are experienced in this kind of team working, the benefits are
not always realized.

There is less price certainty at the outset, because construction tends

to start ahead of completion of all design stages and at a point when

many of the work packages are yet to be tendered for. This often

means that adjustments will be made to the design and specification

of works packages later in the programme to keep the project within

budget. However, the overall process of design and construction
tends to be shorter than in either the traditional or design and build
methods. Another variant of management contracting is construction

management.

Construction Management:
This is similar in concept to Management Contracting. The sub-

contractors or specialists are contracted directly to the client and

the construction manager manages the process for the client on

a simple consultancy basis. Construction Management requires

constant involvement of the client, so it is really only suitable for
experienced clients.

Analysis:
This method is characterized by a high level of skillful input since
the subcontractors engaged are experts in their various fields. The

result is that the construction process is characterized by some

level of precision synonymous with manufacturing industry. There
is equally minimal supervision and the whole arrangement seem to

favour each party. The major challenge in this method is

organization, unless the team of contractors are pulled from

companies who are used to team working, the whole system may
be frustrating.
 4) Public-Private Partnership:
This procurement method refers to the collaboration between

public and private sector in order to achieve financing, management

or maintenance of a project or the provision of services. Public–

private partnership (PPP) describes a government service or private

business venture which is funded and operated through a

partnership of government and one or more private sector
companies. PPP is, therefore, regarded as a tool for infrastructure

development. Public and Private sectors may co-operate in the

following sectors:
 transport,

 public health,
 education,
 safety,
 waste management,

 water supply and energy.

A PPP project is not different from the other procurement forms. It is

the financing of the project that is different.
The responsibility of each of the sectors in the realization of a project
are as follows:

The Private sector:

 Is responsible to provide the whole, or part of the project

financing is responsible for the risks that are related to the

construction or operation of the project.

 Has long term benefits from the

project designs
 The project (or part of the design)
manages and

 Operates or maintains the facility

 Returns the project to the public after the completion of the
contract period

The Public sector:

 Determines the drawing, technical, operational and financial

requirements of the project

 Assesses the proposal of the private sector

 Supports the construction of the project

  Monitors the project and makes sure the private sector
conforms with the contract

 Proceeds with payments to the private sector.

Models of Public-Private Partnership:

PPP agreement may take the following forms:

 Design-Build (DB) or “Turnkey” contract: In this case, the
private sector designs and builds infrastructure according to
public sector performance specifications for a fixed price, thereby
transferring the risk of cost overruns to the private sector.

 Management contract: Here, the private sector contracts to

manage a Government owned project and manages the

marketing and provision of a service.

 Lease and operate contract: A private operator contracts to

lease and assume all management and operation of a

government owned facility and associated services, and may

invest further in developing the service and provide the service

for a fixed term.

 Design-Build-Finance-Operate (DBFO): The private sector

designs, finances and constructs a new facility. It is then required

to operate the within a lease period. The private partner then

transfers the new facility to the public sector at the end of the
lease period.

 Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT): A private entity receives the

license to finance, design, build and operate a facility for a

specified period, after which ownership is transferred back to the
public sector. This has been used in telecommunications service
contracts.

 Buy-Build-Operate (BBO): If there is need to revive a public

asset, the government can transfer it to a private or quasi-public

entity usually under contract that the assets are to be upgraded

and operated for a specified period of time. Public control is
exercised through the contract at the time of transfer.
 Build-Own-Operate (BOO): In this case, the private sector

finances, builds, owns and operates a facility or service in

perpetuity. The public constraints are stated in the original

agreement and through on-going regulatory obligations.

 Build-Own-Operate & Transfer (BOOT): The Private Sector

builds, owns, operates a facility for a specified period as agreed in

the contract and then transfers to the Public.

 Operating License: A private operator receives a license or rights

to build and operate a public service, usually for a specified term.
This is similar to BBO arrangement and is often used in

telecommunications and ICT projects.

 Finance Only: A private entity, usually a financial services

company, funds a project directly or uses various mechanisms

such as a long-term lease or bond issue.
Advantages:

 The Public sector gains the advantages the private sector offers
such as: ability to design, construct, manage and finance a

project.
 Public money is better used and at difficult economic periods

for a government, this method is good.

 They promote and help the innovation in the public sectors with

the transfer of knowledge and new techniques.

 Better quality infrastructure and better operation throughout
the life of the project (maintenance of the project by the
private sector) is assured. There is more efficient and more

economical maintenance of the project.

 Reduction of the construction cost and maintenance of the
project.

 Use of private sector in areas where there are ‘weaknesses’ in

the public sector such as: lack of expertise and qualified
employees, no ability to promote new technoeconomical

solutions, lack of efficient and effective use of human resources,

lack of sensitivity and knowledge and expertise in the use of

available energy sources.
Disadvantanges.
 The use of the project by the private sector is difficult for low

income people.

 However, it has the advantage that only the users pay and not
the tax payer.

 In some cases, there may be in the contract some clauses or

provisions which do not favour the public interest but aim at
increasing the profit of the private investor, allow monopoly or

even allow the private sector to increase the price of a service or

a product after completion of the project.

 Since much of funding the project is done by the private

investor, there is every tendency to aim at reducing the cost of
a project which might lead to the use of substandard materials

and works

 Generally, the public sector can get cheaper loans than the
private sector.
  Layout of Building:
 Layout of a building or a structure shows the plan of its

foundation on the ground surface according to its drawings, so

that excavation can be carried out exactly where required and

position and orientation of the building is exactly specified.

 It is set out according to foundation plan drawings and

specifications provided by the engineer or an architect. In
order to understand layout or setting out of a building we

must understand some of the technical terms related to this

job which are described below.

BASELINE:

A baseline is a straight reference line with respect to which corners

of the building are located on the ground. It may be outer boundary

of a road or curb or boundary of the area or simply a line joining

any two points.

HORIZONTAL CONTROLS:

Horizontal controls are the points that have known co-ordinates with

respect to a specific point. These points are then used to locate other

points such as corners of a layout using various techniques. There

should be plenty of control points so that each point of foundation
plan can be located precisely on the ground.
 VERTICAL CONTROLS:

In order that design points on the works can be positioned at their

correct levels, vertical control points of known elevation relative to

some specified vertical datum are established. In practice, 20mm

diameter steel bolts and 100mmlong, with known reduce levels

driven into existing steps, ledges, footpaths etc. may serve as vertical

controls.
BATTERBOARDS AND OFFSET PEGS:

Once points specifying the

layout are located on ground

pegs are driven in the ground at

that spot. Once excavations for

foundations begin, the corner

pegs will be lost. To avoid these

extra pegs called offset pegs are
used. Batter boards are normally
erected near each offset peg and are used to relocate the points after
the excavation has been done.

LAYING OUT A RECTANGULAR BUILDING SITE:

Starting from a baseline (line AB in Figure 4-1) that is parallel to

construction, establish the maximum outer borders (AB, CD, AC, BD)

of the building area.

Suppose we know the co-ordinates(x,y) of the points X with respect

to point A then we can locate it by measuring their x distance along

line AB and y distance along line AC and BD respectively to locate

them. These two points can be joined to make line XX. To locate point
G and H, straight line are set out using 3-4-5 triangle rule and distance

XG and XH which is known is marked on those lines. After the four

corners (X, X, G. and H) have been located, drive stakes at each corner.

Dimensions are determined accurately during each step.

LAYING OUT AN IRREGULAR BUILDING SITE:

Where the outline of the building is other than a rectangle, the

procedure in establishing each point is the same as defined for laying

out a simple rectangle. However, more points have to be positioned,

and the final proving of the work is more likely to disclose a small

error. When the building is an irregular shape, it is sensible to first lay

out a large rectangle which will includes the entire building or the
greater part of it. This is shown in Figure 4-2 as HOPQ When this is
established, the remaining portion of the layout will consist of small
rectangles, each of which can be laid out and shown separately. These
rectangles are shown as LMNP ABCQ, DEFG, and IJKO in Figure
 EXTENDING LINES:

Since the corner pegs of the building are to be removed during

excavation these points are transferred outside that periphery by

extending lines and driving pegs in the ground. The following

procedure applies to a simple layout as shown in Figure 4-4, page 4-

4, and must be amended to apply to different or more complex

layout problems:

Step 1. After locating and dipping stakes A and B. erect batter

boards 1, 2, 3, and 4. Extend a chalk line (X) from batter board 1 to

batter board 3, over stakes A and B.

Step 2. After locating and dipping stake C, erect batter boards 5

and Extend chalk line Y from batter board 2 over stakes A and C

to batter board 6.
Step 3. After locating and dipping stake D, erect batter boards 7 and

Extend chalk line Z from batter board 5 to batter board 7, over stakes
C and D.

Step 4. Extend line O from batter board 8 to batter board 4, over

stakes D and where foundation walls are wide at the bottom and

extend beyond the outside dimensions of the building, the

excavation must be larger than the laid-out size. To lay out
dimensions of this excavation, measure out as far as required from
the building line on each batter board and stretch lines between

these points, outside the first layout.

 Tests conducted at the building site:
Soil tests conducted at the site:
1) Standard penetration test:
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is widely used to determine the
in-situ properties of soil.This test can be used to determine:
 Angle of shearing resistance (ϕ)
 Relative Density / Density index (ID%)
 Ultimate bearing capacity based on shear criteria
 Allowable bearing pressure based on permissible settlement
criteria
 Unconfined compressive strength (qu)
 Ultimate load capacity of the pile
 Split spoon sampler

Tools for Standard Penetration Test:

The requirements to conduct SPT are:

 Standard Split Spoon Sampler

 Drop Hammer weighing 63.5kg
 Guiding rod
 Drilling Rig.
 Driving head (anvil).

Procedure:

The test consists of driving a split spoon sampler into the soil
through a borehole 55 to 100 mm in diameter at the desired depth.
It is done by a hammer weighing 63.5 kg dropping onto a drill rod

from a height of 750 mm.

This test is usually performed in three stages 150mm in each stage

i.e., total of 450mm.

The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of

150mm is counted. Further it is driven by 150 mm and the blows are

counted.

In the similar manner the sampler is once again further driven by

150mm and the number of blows recorded. The first 150mm

increment is the seating drive. The number of blows recorded for

the first 150mm not taken into consideration. The number of blows
N required to produce a penetration of the last 300 mm (12 inches)

is regarded as the penetration resistance. To avoid seating errors,

the blows for the first 150 mm (6 inches) of penetration are not
taken into account. Those required to increase the penetration from
150 mm to 450 mm constitute the N-value.

Termination of Standard Penetration Test (SPT):

The test can be terminated if the following three conditions appear
in the field.

 A total of 50 blows have been applied during any one of the

three 150 mm (6 in.) increments.

 A total of 100 blows have been applied.
  There is no observed advance of the sampler during the

application of 10 successive blows of the hammer.

Procedure:
1. Bore hole is made up to a depth at which value of N is to be

calculated.

2. Split spoon sampler is allowed to penetrate into the soil by

applying impact by hammer.
3. Penetration per blow of hammer is called as SET.
4. The N value is taken corresponding to the second and third

150mm penetration.

Corrections to be applied:
A. Overburden pressure correction
B. Dilatancy correction

A. Overburden pressure correction:

 The N0 value will be affected due to confinement of soil at

various depth.
  If two granular soils possessing the same relative density but

having different confining pressure are tested, then one with a

higher confining pressure will give a higher value.

 If N0 is observed value S.P.T number then after overburden it is

termed as N1.

N1= N0CN

Where,
2000
CN=0.77𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝜎0′

Where 𝜎0′ is in KN/m2 or KPa.

B. Dilatancy correction:

 If water table is present at or above the test level then W.T

correction is required.
 If W.T is below test level then W.T correction is not required.
 The S.P.T value is further corrected for presence of W.T and this

S.P.T no. is called as final S.P.T number.

1
𝑁2 = 15 + (𝑁1 − 15)
2
N1 = Corrected S.P.T for overburden

N2 = Corrected S.P.T no. for is called final S.P.T number

 This correction is required when N1>15
 If N1<15 then correction is not required.
Precautions taken for Standard Penetration Test:

 Split spoon sampler must be in good condition.

 The cutting shoe must be free from wear and tear

 The height of fall must be 750mm. Any change from this will
affect the ‘N’ value.

 The drill rods used must be in standard condition. Bent drill

rods are not used.

 Before conducting the test, the bottom of the borehole must

be cleaned.

Advantages of Standard Penetration Test:

The advantages of standard penetration test are:

 The test is simple and economical

 The test provides representative samples for visual inspection,

classification tests and for moisture content.

 Actual soil behaviour is obtained through SPT values

 The method helps to penetrate dense layers and fills

 Test can be applied for variety of soil conditions

Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test

The limitations of standard penetration tests are:

  The results will vary due to any mechanical or operator
variability or drilling disturbances.

 Test is costly and time consuming.

 The samples retrieved for testing is disturbed.

 The test results from SPT cannot be reproduced

 The application of SPT in gravels, cobbles and cohesive soils

are limited

2) Pile load test:

TERMINOLOGY
Cut-Off Level — It is the level where a pile is cut-off in order to make
structural connection to the pile caps or beams or any other structural
components at that level.
Datum Bar — A rigid bar placed on immovable supports.
Total Elastic Displacement — This is the magnitude of displacement of the
pile head during rebound on removal of a given test load. This comprises
two components:
a) Elastic displacement of the soil participating in the load transfer; and b)
Elastic displacement of the pile shaft.
Factor of Safety — It is the ratio of the ultimate load capacity of a pile to
the safe load on the pile.
Gross Displacement — The total movement of the pile top under a given
load.
Group Test — A minimum of three piles shall be considered as group for
the purpose of testing.
Initial Test Pile — One or more piles, which are not working piles, may be
installed to assess the load carrying capacity of a pile.
Kentledge — Dead-weight used for applying a test load on piles.
Net Displacement — The net vertical movement of the pile top after the
pile has been subjected to a test load and subsequently released.
Safe Load — It is the load derived by applying a factor of safety on the
ultimate load capacity of the pile or as determined from load test.
Ultimate Load Capacity — The maximum load which a pile can carry
before failure, that is when the founding strata fails by shear as evident
from the load settlement curve or the pile fails as a structural member.
Working Load/Design Load — The load assigned to a pile as per design.
Pile load test is the only direct method for determining the

allowable loads on the piles and is considered to be the most

reliable because it is an IN-SITU test.

It is used for determining ultimate load capacity, safe load value

and settlement of under different values of loads.

The pile load test is divided into two categories:

i. Initial test
ii. Routine test
 Initial tests are carried out on the test pile to assess the load

or to check the settlement at working load.

 Routine tests are carried out on working piles for the
assessment of settlement under working load.

Working pile is a part of foundation and is being used for the

testing at present.
Initial Test:
This test is required for one or more of the following purposes:
a) Determination of ultimate load capacity and arrival at safe load by

application of factor of safety

b) To provide guidelines for setting up the limits of acceptance for

routine tests
c) To get an idea of suitability of piling system and

d) To have a check on calculated load by dynamic or static

approaches.
The number of initial tests may be selected as given below

depending upon the nature of sub-strata, number of piles and past

experience at the site.

a) For small size projects (for piles less than 1000 numbers), a
minimum of two tests.

b) For large size projects (for piles more than 1000 numbers), a
minimum of two tests for first 1000 piles and additional one test for

every additional 1000 piles and part thereof.

The frequency of testing stipulated above is applicable for each
diameter of pile and rated capacity of pile in each type (mode) of
loading. The number of tests may be increased/decreased

depending upon whether the strata is erratic/uniform, subjected to

a minimum of two tests.
The test load provision in the initial load test shall not be less than

the estimated safe load multiplied by the minimum factor of safety

of 2.5.
Initial test piles should be installed by the same technique, same

type of equipment as that proposed for working piles. Separate test

piles shall be installed for different type (mode) of loadings (namely,

vertical, lateral and pull-out). Initial pile load tests shall preferably be
carried out prior to execution of piling job.
Routine Test:
This test is required for one or more of the following purposes:
a) Checking the safe load as determined from static analysis

b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of

the initial test, if already done; and
c) Workmanship.
The number of tests shall be 0.5 percent of the total number of

piles, subject to a minimum of one (1) test. The number of tests may
be increased up to 2 percent in particular cases depending upon the
nature, type of structure and sub-strata condition.
The piles to be tested for routine tests may preferably be selected

on the basis of the following:

a) Abnormal variation in concrete consumption.
b) Sudden drop in concrete level during construction of piles.

c) Problems encountered during boring and tremie operation.

d) Significant variation in depth of pile with respect to other

adjoining piles and boring record.

e) Anomalies observed during the driving operation in case of

driven piles.
f) Piles under sensitive locations of structures.
g) Any doubt arising from non-destructive test results.
Types of pile load test:
 Vertical load test is carried out to establish load settlement

relationship under compression and determine allowable load

on pile.
 Lateral load test is carried out to determine safe lateral load
on pile.

 Pull out test is carried out to determine the safe tension on

pile.
 Cyclic load test is carried out when it is required to determine
skin friction and entering separately for a pile load on a single

pile. It is generally initial test. In this test load increments are

applied in the increments 20% of the estimated safe load.
Loading and unloading is carried out alternatively at each

stage. Elastic rebound is measured at each stage with the help

of dial gauges.

 Constant rate of penetration test is carried out to determine

the ultimate load capacity of pile in this test the load on the

test is continuously increased to maintain a constant rate of

penetration (0.25mm – 5.0mm/min). The ultimate load is
determined from the load settlement curve drawn.
 3) Field Tests for Cement:

The Following are the Field Tests for Cement that are carried out in
order to ascertain the quality of Cement,

 Colour

 Physical properties

 Presence of lumps

 Floating test

(a)Colour: The colour of cement should be uniform. It should be

typical cement colour i.e., grey colour with a light greenish shade.
This is not always a reliable test. But it gives an indication of excess
lime or clay and the degree of burning.

(b)Physical properties: The cement should feel smooth when

touched or rubbed in between fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates

adulteration with sand. If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of

cement, it should feel cool and not warm. If a small quantity of
cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink and should not
float on the surface. A thin paste of cement with water should feel
sticky between the fingers. If the cement contains too much of

pounded clay and it as an adulterant, the paste will give an earthy

smell.

(c)Presence of lumps: The cement should be free from any hard

lumps. The lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from

the atmosphere. Any bag of cement containing such lumps should

be rejected. This Field tests for cement are carried out to check
lumps.

(d)Float test: If a hand full of cement is thrown into a bucket of

water, the cement should sink, not float as the Specific Gravity of

Cement is greater than that of Water

date of packing (not more than 3 months)
 The cement should be of Greenish Grey colour for
Ordinary Portland Cement, and Blackish grey colour for

Portland Pozzolana Cement and Whitish grey colour for

Portland Slag Cement.

 When hand is dipped into a heap or into a bag of cement,

it should feel cool, not warm.

 4) FIELD TEST FOR BRICKS:

 brick should have deep red cherish colour. Any Other colours
are the indication of under burnt or over burnt.

 Water absorption should not be more than 20% of its dry

weight after immersion in water for 24 hours.
 Scratch Test = A good burned brick has its surface so hard
that the fingernail cannot scratch it

 Ringing Test = When two bricks struck together, there should

be clear ringing sound
 it should have uniform shape and size.
 ROAD CONSTRUCTION METHODS:

Various road construction methods are:

 Earth road method.
 Gravel road method.
 Water Bound Macadam method.
 Bituminous method.
 Concrete road method.

(a) Earth road method:

 It mainly consists of earth as raw material which is to

be compacted.
 It is the cheapest type of road prepared from natural
soil.

 It has high camber and cross slope to

avoid erosion due to water in rainy season.

Procedure:

It consists of

I. Clearing of site.
II. Excavation and construction of fields to bring the road to
desired grade.
III. Shaping the subgrade.
IV. Then the borrowed soil is dumped and well compacted, death
not exceed 10 cm.
V. Make the soil up to optimum moisture content level.
VI. After this it is allowed to dry for few days before opening to
traffic.

It has the following merits:

 It is cheap.
 It has easy construction.
 It can be built with less skill.

It has the following demerits:

 It has low bearing capacity.

 It gets eroded very quickly.
 It becomes slippery when wet
 (b) Gravel road method:

It mainly consists of crushed stone as their raw material.

It is of superior quality than earth road.

Feather edge type: -

In t h is t h e su bg ra d e is uneven and the construction is done
over it to obtain the desired cross slope.
Trench type: -
In t h is s ub gra de is p r epa r ed by excavating a shallow trench.

Procedure for construction:

 Clean the area.

 Make the subgrade up to desired cross slope.
 Crushed gravel aggregates are placed carefully in the trench to
avoid segregation.
 Provide proper camber.
 Some water may be used to make the compaction effective.
 Left for few days before the opening.

Merits:

 It does not become slippery when wet.

 Its maintenance cost is low.

  It can hold medium traffic.

 It is easily constructed and cheap.

Demerits:
 Ride is not comfortable.
 It can be detoriated.
 It cannot hold very heavy traffic.

(c) Water bound Macadam roads:

Water bound Macadam is a dense and compact course of a road

pavement composed of stone aggregates held together by a film

consisting of gravel screenings with a minimum amount of water.

Construction procedure:

 The foundation for receiving the new layer of W.B.M may be

either the subgrade or subbase course. This foundation layer
is prepared to the required grade and camber and the dust

and other loose materials are cleaned. On the existing road

surface, the depression and potholes are filled and the

corrugations are removed.

 Provision of the lateral confinement can be done by

constructing the shoulders to a thickness equal to that of
 the compacted W.B.M layer and trimming the inner sides

vertically.
 The coarse aggregates are spread uniformly to the proper

profile and even thickness upon the prepared foundation

and checked by templates.

 After spreading the coarse aggregates properly, compaction

is done by three-wheeled power roller (6-10 tonnes) or

equivalent vibrating roller.

The rolling is started from the edges and progressed

gradually towards the centre of rod until adequate
compaction is achieved.
On super-elevated portion, rolling it started from the inner

or lower edge and progressed gradually towards the outer

or upper edge of the pavement.
 After the coarse aggregates are rolled adequately the dry
screenings are applied gradually over the surface and rolling

is continued as the screenings are being spread. The

brooming operation is carried out simultaneously.
 After the application of screenings, the surface is sprinkled

with water, swept and rolled.

  After the application of screenings and rolling, binding

materials are applied at a uniform rate and the slow rate at

two or more successive thin layers. After each application of

binding material, the surface is sprinkled with water and wet

slurry swept with brooms to fill the voids.

 After the final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set

overnight. On the next day the hungry spots are filled with

screenings or binding materials, lightly sprinkled with water

if necessary and rolled. No traffic is allowed until the W.B.M
layers sets and dries out.

(d) Bituminous method:

Materials used:

Asphalt, stone, earth materials

Bituminous road construction steps:
 As base material of WBM Road: stone ballast, concrete are
used. For bonding between concrete slab and WBM 1:2
cement wash is used.

 It is desirable to lay an AC layer over a bituminous base or

binder course. A tack coat of bitumen is applied at 6.0 to 7.5

kg per 10 sq.m area and this qty may be increased to 7.5 to

10kg for non-bituminous base.

 The premix is prepared in a hot mix plant of a required

capacity with the desired quality control. The bitumen
 may be heated upto 150 – 177 deg C and the aggregate

temperature should not differ by over 14 deg C from the

binder temperature. The hot mixed material is collected

from the mixture by the transporters, carried to the

location is spread by a mechanical paver at a temperature

of 121 to 163 deg C. the camber and the thickness of the

layer are accurately verified. The control of the

temperatures during the mixing and the compaction are

of great significance in the strength of the resulting
pavement structure.

 A mix after it is placed on the base course is thoroughly

compacted by rolling at a speed not more than 5km per
 hour.
 The initial or break down rolling is done by 8 to 12 tons

roller and the intermediate rolling is done with a fixed

wheel pneumatic roller of 15 to 30 tons having a tyre

pressure of 7kg per sq.cm. the wheels of the roller are

kept damp with water.

 The number of passes required depends on the thickness

of the layer. In warm weather rolling on the next day,

helps to increase the density if the initial rolling was not

adequate. The final rolling or finishing is done by 8 to 10-

ton tandem roller.

Tandem Roller

 The routine checks are carried out at site to ensure the

 quality of the resulting pavement mixture and the
pavement surface.
Periodical checks are made for

 Aggregate grading

 Grade of bitumen

 Temperature of aggregate

 Temperature of paving mix during mixing and

compaction.

At least one sample for every 100 tons of the mix discharged by
the hot mix plant is collected and tested for above requirements.
Marshall tests are also conducted. For every 100 sq.m of the
compacted surface, one test of the field density is conducted to
check whether it is at least 95% of the density obtained in the
laboratory. The variation in the thickness allowed is 6mm per
4.5m length of construction.
 The AC surface should be checked by a 3.0 m straight edge.
The longitudinal undulations should not exceed 8.0 mm and
the number of undulations higher than 6.0 mm should not

exceed 10 in a length of 300 m. The cross-traffic profile should

not have undulations exceeding 4.0mm.

 Road is open to traffic as soon as bitumen gets cooled to its

surrounding temperature.

(e) Concrete road method:

Rigid pavements are cheap in long run because of low

maintenance costs.

 Deformation in the sub grade is not transferred to

subsequent layers

 Design is based on flexural strength or slab action

 Have high flexural strength
 No such phenomenon of grain to grain load transfer exists
 Have low repairing cost but completion cost is high
  Life span is more as compare to flexible (Low Maintenance

Cost)

Materials used:

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Rapid hardening Portland

Cement, Fine aggregates, Coarse aggregates.

Equipments used:

A list of tools, equipment and appliances required for the

different phases of concrete road construction is given below
 Three wheeled or vibratory roller for compaction purpose
 Shovels, spades and Sieving screens
 Concrete mixer for mixing of concrete
 Formwork and iron stakes

 Watering devices - Water Lorries, water carriers or watering

cans
 Wooden hand tampers for concrete compaction
 Cycle pump/pneumatic air blower for cleaning of joint

 Mild steel sections and blocks for making joint grooves for
finishing purpose
Site Preparation:
 Before construction begins, the construction site must be
carefully prepared, this includes preparing the grade or road

base, sub grade and sub base-

 First the site is graded to cut high points and fill low areas to the
desired roadway profile elevations. Generally, cut material can
be used as embankment fill.

 A course of material is placed on the sub grade to provide

drainage and stability.
 A course of fairly rigid material, sometimes cement- or asphalt-
treated, that is placed on the sub base to provide a stable

platform for the concrete pavement slab.

Construction Process:
 Before using form work, it should free from all type material like

as dust, cement. To placing the concrete in appropriate depth

used 2.5-5cm thick and 3mtr long wooden sheeting. The depth
of wooden block must be same as level of slab thick. After 24hrs,
form work displaced next length of road. (Wooden sheets,
 battens, plywood, fibre hard board, steel plates, angles, rope etc

are generally use for form work).

 If the base of the road is dry or construction is taken place

during summer seasons Then watering is done using the

sprinkling process, after this concrete should be placed.

 Construction of joints.
 Material mixing using mixer.

 Placing of concrete which can be done by two methods:

Alternate bay method: Placed the concrete on both side of road
alternatively like as1,3,5… part at one side and 2,4,6… part other
side, This method have slow process due to road traffic

problems.
Continuous bay method: Construct one side of road regularly,
and after construction of some part of first side than construct

other side, this method have fast process without no obstruction

of traffic.
 Compaction of concrete to pull out air from void and make

concrete harden.

This can be done by Mechanical surface vibrator, Manual hand

tampering.
  After this, Floating, Belting, Screening or strike off, Bull floating

and Brooming is done as per requirement for the finishing

purpose of concrete pavement to smoothen the top surface.

 Curing: After completion of the finishing operations, the

surface of the pavement shall be entirely covered with wet

hessian cloth, burlap or jute mats. Curing is the process of

increasing the hydration of cement, after setting the concrete

curing process done till 14-28 days.

 Generally, after a month, road should be open to traffic, but If
we used rapid hardening cement, it takes 7 days to open
traffic.

Advantages of Concrete Road:

 Durability and maintenance free life
 Vehicles consume less fuel
 Resistant to automobile fuel spillage and extreme weather
 Greener process
 Saving of natural resources
 Eco friendly process
CONCRETE:
Grades
The concrete shall be in grades designated as per Table 2
The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of material
below which not more than 5 percent of the test results are
expected to fall.
The minimum grade of concrete for plain and reintorced concrete
shall be as per Table 5.
Concrete of grades lower than those given in Table 5 may be used
for plain concrete constructions. lean concrete, sttuple foundations.
foundation for masonry walls and other simple or temporary
reinforced concrete construction.
There are many tests which are conducted to check the quality of
concrete. These tests are basically divided into two categories

1.Various Lab Test On Fresh Concrete.

Under these, we have the following tests

a) Slump test- Workability

b) Compacting Factor test

c) Vee- Bee test

2.Various Lab Test On Hardened Concrete.

There are two kinds of tests which are done on hardened concrete.
These are non destructive test and destructive tests. In non
destructive test, the sample is not destroyed and this test is very
useful in determining the strength of existing buildings or structures
where as in destructive test a sample is made and then destroyed to
find out the strength of concrete.Compression test is the example of
destructive test. Here are the nondestructive tests.

a) Rebound Hammer Test

b) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Effective span
Unless otherwise specified, the effective span of a member shall be
as follows:
a) Simply Supported Beam or Slab—The effective span of a
member that is not built integrally with its supports shall be
taken as clear span plus the effective depth of slab or beam or
centre to centre of supports. whichever is less.

b) Continuous Beam or Slab – In the case of continuous beam or

slab , if the width of the support is less than 1/12 of the clear
span , the effective span shall be as in 22.2(a). If the supports are
wider than 1/12 of the clear span or 600mm whichever is less ,
the effective span shall be taken as under :

1) For end span with one end fixed and the other continuous
or for intermediate span between supports;
2) For end span with one end free and other continuous , the
effective span shall be equal to the clear span plus half the
effective depth of beam or slab or the clear span plus half
the width of the discontinuous support whichever is less;
3) In the case of spans with roller or rocket bearings , the
effective span shall always be the distance between the
centres of bearings .
c) Cantilever – The effective length of a cantilever shall be taken as
its length of a cantilever shall be taken as it’s length to the face of
the face of the support plus half the effective depth except where
it forms the end of a continuous beam where the length to the
centre of support shall be taken.
d) Frames – In the analysis of a continuous frame , centre to centre
distance shall be used

Moment and Shear Coefficients for Continuous beam

Beams
Effective Depth
Effective depth of a beam is the distance between the centroid of
the area of tension reinforcement and the maximum compression
fibre, excluding the thickness of finishing material not placed
monolithically with the member and the thickness of any concrete
provided to allow for wear. This will not apply to deep beams
T-Beams and L-Beams
A slab which is assumed to act as a compression flange of a T
beam or L-beam shall satisfy the following:

a)The slab shall be cast integrally with the web or the web and
the slab shall be effectively bonded together in any other
manner; and

b) If the main reinforcement of the slab is parallel to the beam.

transverse reinforcement shall be provided as in Fig. 3; such
reinforcement shall not be less than 60 percent of the main
reinforcement at mid span of the slab.

Effective Width of Flange

In the absence of more accurate determination. The effective width
of flange may be taken as the following
but in no case greater than the breadth of the web plus half the sum
of the clear distances to the adjacent beams on either side.
Control of Deflection
The deflection of a structure or part thereof shall not adversely affect the
appearance or efficiency of the structure or finishes or partitions. The deflection
shall generally be limited to the following:
a) The final deflection due to all loads including the effects of temperature.
creep and shrinkage and measured from the as-cast level of the supports of
floors. roofs and all other horizontal members. should not normally exceed
span/250.

b) The deflection including the effects of temperature. creep and shrinkage

occurring after erection of partitions and the application of finishes should
not normally exceed span/350 or 20 mm whichever is less.

The vertical deflection limits may. generally be assumed to be satisfied provided

that the span to depth ratios are not greater than the values obtained as below:
a) Basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans up to 10 m:

Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20
Continuous 26
b) For span above 10 m, the values in (a) may be multiplied by span 10/span in
m , except for cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be
made.

c) Depending on the area and the stress of steel for tension reinforcement. the
values in (a) or (b) shall be modified by multiplying with the modification
factor obtained as per Fig. 4.

d) Depending on the area of compression reinforcement. the value of span to

depth ratio he further modified by multiplying with the modification factor
obtained as per Fig. 5
 e) For flanged beam , the values of (a) or (b) be modified as per fig 6 and the
reinforcement percentage for use in fig 4 and 5 should be based on area of
section equal to 𝑏𝑓 d

Solid Slabs
1. For slabs spanning in two directions , the shorter of the two spans should
be used for calculating the span to effective depth ratios .
2. For two-way slab of shorter spans ( upto 3.5m) with mild steel
reinforcement , the span to overall depth ratios given below may generally
be assumed to satisfy vertical deflection limits for loading class upto 3
Kn/𝑚2
Simply supported slabs 35
Continuous slabs 40

For high strength deformed bars of grade Fe415 , the values given above
should be multiplied by 0.8.

Slenderness limit for columns

The unsupported length between end restraints shall not exceed 60
times the least dimension of a column .
If ,in any given plane , one end of a column is unrestrained ,its
100 𝑏2
supported length ,l , shall not exceed .
𝐷
Where
b = width of that cross-section, and
D= depth of that cross-section measured in the plane under
construction.
Minimum Eccentricity
All columns shall be designed for mmrmum eccentricity, equalto
theunsupported length of column! 500 plus lateral dimensions/30,
subject to a minimum of 20 mm. Where bi-axial bendingis
considered,it is sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the
minimum about one axis at a time.

Development Length of Bars

For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786 these values shall be increased by
60 percent
For bars in compression , the values of bond stress for bars in tension shall
be increased by 25 percent
The values of bond stress in working stress design , are given in B-2.1.
Tension Reinforcement
Minimum reinforcement – The minimum area of tension
reinforcement shall not be less than that given by following :
𝐴𝑠 0.85
=
𝑏𝑑 𝑓𝑦
Where
𝐴𝑠 = minimum area of tension reinforcement
b = breadth of beam or the breadth of the web of T-beam,
d = effective depth , and
𝑓𝑦 = characteristic strength of reinforcement in N/m𝑚2

Maximum reinforcement – The maximum area of tension

reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04bD.
Distribution of torsion reinforcement
Columns
a) The cross-sectional area of lonaitudinal reinforcement, shall be
notless than 0.8 percent not more than 6 percent of the gross
cross- sectional area of the column

b) In any column that bas a larger cross-sectional area than that

required to support the load, the minimum percentage of steel
shall be based upon the area of concrete required to resist the
direct stress and not upon the actual area

c) The minimum number of longitudianal bar provided in a

column shall be four in rectangular columns and six in circular
columns.

d) The bars shall not be less than 12 mm in diameter

e) A reinforced concrete column having helical reinforcement

shall have at least six bar of longitudinal reinforcement within
the helical reinforcement .

f) In a helically reinforced column. The longitudinal bars shall be in

contact with the helical reinforcement and equidistant around
its inner circumference.
 g) Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of
the column shall not exceed 300mm.

h) In case of pedestal in which the longitudinal reinforcement is

not taken in account in strength calculations, nominaI
longitudinal reinforcement not less. Than 0.15 percent of the
cross-sectional area shall be provided.

Transverse reinforcement

a) Reinforced concrete compression member shall have transverse or

helical reinforcement so disposed that every longitudinal bar nearest
to the compression face has effective lateral support against buckling
subject to provisions in (b) . The effective lateral support is given by
transverse reinforcement either in form of circular rings capable of
taking up circumferential tension or by polygonal links with internal
angles not exceeding 135degree. The ends of transverse
reinforcement shall be properly anchored.
b) Arrangement of transverse reinforcement
1) If the longitudinal bars are not spaced more than 75 mm on either
side, transverse reinforcement need only to go round corner and
alternate Bars for the purpose of providing effective lateral supports

2) If the longitudinal bars placed at a distance of not exceeding 48 times

the diameter of the tie or effectively tied in two directions, additional
longitudinal bars in between these bars need to be tied in one
direction by open ties
 3) Where the longitudinal reinforcing bars in compression member are
placed in more than one row defective lateral support to the
longitudinal bars in the inner rows may be assumed to have been
provided if:
i) Transverse reinforcement is provided for the outermost row in
accordance with 26.5.3.2 , and

ii) No bar of the inner core is closer to the nearest compression

face than three times the diameter of the largest bar in the inner row
4) Where the longitudinal bars in a compression member are grouped
and each group adequately tied with transverse reinforcement in
accordance with 26.5.3.2 , the transverse reinforcement for the
compression member as a whole may be provided on the assumption
that each group is a single longitudinal bar for purpose of
determining the pitch and diameter of the transverse reinforcement
in accordance with 26.5.3.2 the diameter of such transverse
reinforcement need not however exceed 20 mm

c) Pitch and diameter of lateral ties

1) Pitch the pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be not more than

the least of the following distances:
a) The least lateral dimension of the compression member;

b) 16 times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement

bar to be tied and;

c) 300 mm
 2) Diameter- the diameter of the polygon links on lateral ties shall be
not less than one fourth of the diameter of the largest longitudinal
bar and in no case less than 16 mm.

d) Helical reinforcement

1) Pitch- helical reinforcement shall be of regular formation with

the tons of The Helix spaced evenly and its and shall be
anchored properly by providing one and a half extra terms of
the spiral bar . Where an increased load on the column on the
strength of the helical reinforcement is allowed for the pitch of
helical turns shall be not more than 75 mm not more than one
sixth of the core diameter of the column not less than 25 mm
not less than 3 times the diameter of the Steel bar forming The
Helix .In other cases the requirements of 26.5.3.2 shall be
compiled with.

2) The diameter of the helical reinforcement shall be in accordance

with 26.5.3.2 (c)(2)

Deep Beams
a) A beam shall be Deemed to be a deep beam when the ratio of the
effective span to the overall depth,l/D is less than :

1) 2.0 simply supported beam and

2) 2.5 for a continuous beam.

b) A deep beam complying with requirements of 29.2 and 29.3 shall be

Deemed to satisfy the provisions for shear.
Lever Arm
The Lever arm z for a deep beam shall be determined as below:
a) for simply supported beams:
𝑙
z = 0.2 (l+2D) when l< <2
𝐷
or
𝑙
z = 0.6l when <1
𝐷

b) for continuous beams.

𝑙
z =0.2(l+1.5D) when l< <2.5
𝐷
or
𝑙
z=0.5l when <1
𝐷
Where l is the effective span taken as Centre to Centre distance between
supports or 1.15 times the clear span whichever is smaller and D is the
overall depth.
Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
The tensile reinforcement required to resist positive bending moment in
any span of a deep beam shall:
a) Extend without curtailment between supports;
b) The embedded beyond the face of each support so that at face of the
support it shall have a development length not less than 0.8𝐿𝑑 ; where
𝐿𝑑 is the development length for the design stress in the
reinforcement; and

c) Be placed within a zone of depth equal to 0.25D-0.05l adjacent to the

tension face of the Beam where b is the overall depth and l is the
effective span.
Negative Reinforcement
a) Termination of reinforcement- for tensile reinforcement required
to resist negative bending moment over support of deep beam:

1) It shall be permissible to terminate not more than half of the

reinforcement at a distance of 0.5D on the face of the support
where d is as defined in 29.2; and

2) The remainder shall extend over the full span

b) Distribution- when ratio of clear span to overall depth is in range

1.0 to 2.5, tensile reinforcement over the support of a deep beam
shall be placed in two zones comprising:

1) a zone of depth point 0.2D, adjacent to the tension face which

shall contain a proportion of tension Steel given by
𝑙
0.5 ( 𝐷 - 0.5)
Where
l = clear span, and
D = overall depth

2) a zone measuring 0.3D on either side of the mid depth of The

Beam , which shall contain the reminder of the tension Steel evenly
distributed.

For span to depth ratio less than Unity, the steel shall be evenly
distributed over a depth of 0.8D measured from the tension face.
Minimum Requirements for Reinforcement in Walls

The reinforcement for wall shall be provided as below:

a) The minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement to gross concrete area

shall be:
1) 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than 16 mm in diameter and
with the characteristic strength of 415N/mm or greater .

2) 0.0015 for other Types of bars

3) 0.0012 for welded wire fabric not larger than 16 mm in diameter

b) Vertical reinforcement shall be spaced not further apart than three

times the wall thickness nor 450 mm

c) The minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement to gross concrete

area shall be:
1) 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than 16 mm in diameter and
with the characteristic strength of 415N/mm or greater.

2) 0.0025 for other types of of bars

3) 0.0020 for welded wire fabric wire fabric not larger than 16 mm in
diameter

d) Horizontal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than

three times the wall thickness nor 450 mm
Limit state of Collapse
Assumptions:

The design of reinforced concrete sections for limit state of collapse in

bending, is based on the following assumptions :

(a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after

bending. It means that the strain at any point in the cross-section is
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.

(b) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression

fibre is taken as 0.0035 in bending.

(c) The relationship between the stress-strain distribution in

concrete is assumed to be parabolic For design purpose, the
compressive strength of concrete is assumed to be 0.67 times the
characteristic strength of concrete. The partial safety factor (Ymc)=1.5
shall be applied in addition to this.

(d) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

(e) The stresses in the reinforcement are taken from the stress-
strain curve for the type of steel used

For design purposes, the partial safety factor (Yms) equal to 1.15 shall
be applied.

(f) The maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the

section at failure shall not be less than:

𝑓𝑦
+ 0.002
1.15 𝐸𝑠

fy = Characteristic strength of steel

Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel.

Limit state of Collapse : Compression
Assumptions:
a) The maximum compressive strain in concrete in axial
compression is taken as 0.002.

b) The maximum compressive strain at the highly compressed

extreme fibre in concrete subjected to axial compression and
bending and when there is no tension on the section shall be
0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed
extreme fibre.
Limit state of collapse: Shear
Equivalent shear

Reinforcement in members subjected to torsion

Reinforcement for Torsion when required shall consists of
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement

Longitudinal reinforcement
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be designed to resist and
equivalent bending moment 𝑀𝑒1 , given by
𝑀𝑒1 = 𝑀𝑢 +𝑀𝑡
Where
𝑀𝑢 = bending moment at the cross section and
1+𝐷/𝑏
𝑀𝑡 =𝑇𝑢 ( )
1.7

Where
𝑇𝑢 is the torsional moment,D is the overall depth of the beam and
b is the breadth of The Beam.
Transverse Reinforcement
 ESTIMATION

The preparations of detailed construction estimate consist of

working out quantities of various items of work and then determine

the cost of each item. This is prepared in two stages.

Methods of Detailed Construction Estimation Preparation

i) Details of measurements and calculation of quantities:
The complete work is divided into various items of work such as
earthwork concreting, brickwork, reinforced concrete, plastering etc.

The details of measurements are taken from drawings and entered

in respective columns of prescribed proforma.

The quantities are calculated by multiplying the values that are in

numbers column to Depth column as shown below:

Details of measurements form

ii) Abstract of Estimated Cost:

The cost of each item of work is worked out from the quantities that
already computed in the detailed measurement form at workable

rate. But the total cost is worked out in the prescribed form is

known as abstract of estimated form. 4%of estimated Cost is

allowed for Petty Supervision, contingencies and unforeseen items.
 Abstract of Estimate Form

The detailed estimate should be accompanied with:

1. Report

2. Specification

3. Drawings (plans, elevation, sections)

4. Design charts and calculations

5. Standard schedule of rates.

Factors to be considered while Preparing Detailed Estimate:

i) Quantity and transportation of materials: For bigger project, the

requirement of materials is more. Such bulk volume of materials will

be purchased and transported definitely at cheaper rate.

ii) Location of site: The site of work is selected, such that it should

reduce damage or in transit during loading, unloading, stocking of

materials.

iii) Local labour charges: The skill, suitability and wages of local
labours are considered while preparing the detailed estimate.

Data for detailed estimate:

The process of working out the cost or rate per unit of each item is
called as Data. In preparation of Data, the rates of materials and
labour are obtained from current standard scheduled of rates and
while the quantities of materials and labour required for one unit of

item are taken from Standard Data Book (S.D.B).

Fixing of Rate per Unit of an Item:

The rate per unit of an item includes the following:

1) Quantity of materials & cost: The requirement of materials is

taken strictly in accordance with standard data book (S.D.B). The

cost of these includes first cost, freight, insurance and transportation

charges.

ii) Cost of labour: The exact number of labourers required for unit of

work and the multiplied by the wages/ day to get of labour for unit
item work.

iii) Cost of equipment (T&P): Some works need special type of

equipment, tools and plant. In such case, an amount of 1 to 2% of

estimated cost is provided.

iv) Overhead charges: To meet expenses of office rent, depreciation

of equipment salaries of staff postage, lighting an amount of 4% of

estimate cost is allocated.