Vol.

2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA: A REVIEW

Amartish Kaur*

1. Introduction
The State maintains the framework of social order by implementation of various
laws without which well ordered social life would not be possible. Various
philosophers of social contract theory are of the view that object of the creation of state
is to maintain and protect the rights of individuals. According to Aristotle, State came
into existence out of base necessities of life and continues for the sake of good life.1 Prof.
Laski expressed that State is known by the rights it maintains.2 Similarly Locke was of
the view that end of state is to remove the obstacles that hinder the development of an
individual.3Thus, the existence of the state is recognized with the protection of rights
and liberties of individual which is the main object of state.

Protection of the dignity of an individual is essential for harmony in the society,

as its violation can have grave impact on individual in particular and on society in
general. Each individual is entitled to some rights which are inherent to human
existence. Such rights should not be violated on the grounds of gender, race, caste,
ethnicity, religion etc. these are called human rights. Human rights are also known as
basic rights, fundamental rights, natural rights or inherent rights. The concept of human
right is not a new phenomenon, ‘Human Rights’ is a twentieth century term but its
notion is as old as humanity. It has gone through various stages of development and
has taken long time to become the concept of present day. These rights had place in all
ancient societies though referred by different names4, it includes civil rights, liberties
and social cultural and economic rights. These rights are essential for all individual as
these are consonant with the freedom and dignity and ultimately contribute to social
welfare.5

Protection of human rights is a necessity for the development and growth of an

individual personality, which ultimately contributes in the development of the nation as
a whole. It is an internationally recognized issue and various international instruments
have been established for the protection of human rights. The concept of human rights

*
Advocate, Punjab and Haryana High Court, Chandigarh
1
J.S. Badyal, Abc of Political Science 73 (Raj publishers (Regd.), Jalandhar, 2005).
2
Id. at 40.
3
Supra note 1.
4
Dr. S. Subramanian, Human Rights International Challenges Vol.1 3 (Manas Publication, New Delhi, 1997).
5
Available at http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/8112/10/10_chapter%201.pdf (Last visited on
September 28, 2016).

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

is dynamic and adapts to the needs of the nation and its people. The ultimate purpose
of the national as well as international law is to safeguards the human rights of the
people.

At international level various efforts have been made for the protection of human
rights. The United Nations through its charter represents a significant advancement in
the direction for the promotion as well as protection of human rights. International bill
on human rights has been incorporated in the UN Charter. The UN Charter contains
various provisions for the promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
Preamble and in various Articles 1, 13(b), 55, 56, 62 (2), 68 and 76(c). 6 Apart from UN
Charter there are four international instruments created under the auspices of the
United Nations known as International Bill of Human Rights, which include the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights 1966, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural
Rights 1966, the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, 1966.7 The international human rights regime is continuously growing with the
passage of time, it provides certain accepted legal standards which all the nations
should accept and implement in their domestic laws. The Governments of all the
nations must work to promote the welfare of people by eliminating all forms of
discriminations and provide right to equality and justice to all.

2. Human Rights in India

India is the biggest democracy in the world. Being a democratic country one of
the main objectives is the protection of the basic rights of the people. Government of
India has given due consideration to the recognition and protection of human rights.
The Constitution of India recognizes these rights of the people and shows deep concern
towards them.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights contains civil, political, economic,

social and cultural rights. Constitution guarantees most of the human rights contained
in Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Part III of the constitution contains civil and
political rights, whereas economic, social and cultural rights have been included in Part
IV of the Constitution.8 All the statutes have to be in concurrence of the provisions of
the Constitution.

6
S. K. Kapoor, International Law & Human Rights 800(Central Law Agency, Allahabad, 17th edition 2009).
7
Id. at 817.
8
Supra note 6 at 886.

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Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

The philosophy and objective of the Constitution of India is enshrined in the

preamble which include the protection of the dignity of an individual. For the
fulfillment of this objective Part III of the constitution guarantees fundamental rights to
people which are essential for the development of an individual personality, these
rights include right to equality, the right to freedom, the right against exploitation, the
right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and the right to
constitutional remedies. It is the duty of the central as well as state Governments to
provide adequate conditions to each individual to enjoy their human rights. The
constitution through Directive Principles of State Policy enshrined in the Part IV of the
Constitution, ascertains the duties on the government to work for the welfare of the
people and protection of human rights of the people. These are guiding principles for
the state to make policies regarding distributive justice, right to work, right to
education, social security, just and humane conditions of work, for promotion of
interest of weaker section, raise the standard of nutrition and standard of living and to
improve public health, protection and improvement of environment and ecology etc. so
that each individual can enjoy rights to the fullest.

3. Role of the Judiciary

Only provision for the fundamental rights does not fulfill the objective of
‘protection of dignity of an individual’, but free enjoyment of the rights has to be
ensured. Therefore, Article 32 guarantees right to constitutional remedies, i.e. right to
move to Supreme Court to enforce fundamental rights.

It is constitutional mandate of judiciary to protect human rights of the citizens.

Supreme Court and High Courts are empowered to take action to enforce these rights.
Machinery for redress is provided under Articles 32 and 226 of the constitution. An
aggrieved person can directly approach the Supreme Court or High Court of the
concerned state for the protection of his/her fundamental rights, redress of grievances
and enjoyment of fundamental rights. In such cases Court are empowered to issue
appropriate order, directions and writs in the nature of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus,
Prohibition, Quo-Warranto and Certiorari.

Judiciary is ultimate guardian of the human rights of the people. It not only
protects the rights enumerated in Constitution but also has recognized certain un-
enumerated rights by interpreting the fundamental rights and widened their scope. As
a result people not only enjoy enumerated rights but also un-enumerated rights as well.

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

Supreme Court in Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India,9 interpreted the right to life and to
widen its scope and deduced un-enumerated right such as “right to live with human
dignity”. Supreme Court propounded the theory of “emanation” to make the existence
of the fundamental right meaningful and active. Thereafter, in many cases court such as
People's Union for Civil Liberties and another v. State of Maharashtra and
others,10 Francis Coralie Mullin v. The Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi11 held that
right to life includes right to live with human dignity. Therefore, through the judicial
interpretations various rights have been recognized though they are not specifically
provided in Part III of the Constitution.

The rule of locus standi, i.e. right to move to the court, whereby only aggrieved
person can approach the court for redress of his grievances has been relaxed by the
judiciary. Now court through public interest litigation permits public spirited persons
to file a writ petition for the enforcement of rights of any other person or a class, if they
are unable to invoke the jurisdiction of the Court due to poverty or any social and
economic disability. In S.P. Gupta v. Union of India and others,12 Supreme Court held that
any member of the public can approach the court for enforcing the Constitutional or
legal rights of those, who cannot go to the court because of poverty or any other
disabilities. Person can even write letter to the court for making complaints of violation
of rights. Public interest litigation is an opportunity to make basic human rights
meaningful to the deprived and vulnerable sections of the community. To assure
vulnerable section social, economic and political justice, any public spirited person
through public interest litigation can approach the court to protect their rights on behalf
of aggrieved persons who cannot approach the court themselves due to their vulnerable
conditions. Similar observations have been made by Supreme Court in various
judgments such as in Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India,13Ramsharan Autyanuprasi
and another v. Union of India and Others,14 Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India.15
Therefore, public interest litigation has become the tool for the protection of human
rights of the people in India.

The oppressed sections of the society are more prone to the violation of human
rights. Most vulnerable sections of society are children, women and socially and

9
AIR 1978 SC 597.
10
2014 (10) SCC 635.
11
(1981) 2 SCR 516.
12
AIR 1982 SC 149
13
(1984) 2 SCR 67.
14
AIR 1989 SC 549.
15
(2000) 4 SCJ 261.

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Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

educationally weaker sections of society. Judiciary has taken many steps to ensure
protection of human rights of these sections.

Children are more prone to exploitation and abuse. The rights of the children are
needed to be specially protected because of their vulnerability. For this reason United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted in 198916. This convention
brings together children’s human rights, as children require safety and protection for
their development. Judiciary is playing a commendable role in protecting the rights of
children from time and again.

There are various instances where judiciary intervened and the rights of children.
In the case of Labourers working on Salal project v. State of Jammu and Kashmir17, Supreme
Court held that child below the age of 14 years cannot be employed and allowed to
work in construction process. Court has issued various directions related to child
labour. Supreme Court in Vishal Jeet v. Union of India18 asked governments to setup
advisory committee to make suggestions for eradication of child prostitution and to
evolve schemes to ensure proper care and protection to the victim girls and children.
The Supreme Court further in Gaurav Jain v. Union of India19showed its concern about
rehabilitation of minors involved in prostitution and held that juvenile homes should be
used for rehabilitation of them and other neglected children.

Mumbai High Court in Public at large v. State of Maharashtra20rescued children

from flesh trade and passed order for checking sexual slavery of children and for their
rehabilitation. Children are not only prone to sexual abuse but they are also sometimes
kept as bonded labourers as was in the case of People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) v.
Union of India21 where the Supreme Court released child labourers and also ordered for
grant of compensation to them. Concern of the Supreme Court about the protection of
rights of children does not ended here it reiterated the importance of compulsory
primary education vis-a-vis eradication of child labour in the case of Bandhua Mukti
Morcha v. Union of India.22

16
Available at http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx (Last visited on October 5, 2016).
17
AIR 1984 SC 117.
18
1990 (3) SCC318.
19
1997 (8) SCC 114.
20
(1997) 4 Bom CR 171.
21
1998(8) SCC 485.
22
(1997)10 SCC549.

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

Supreme Court in Sakshi v. Union of India23 highlighted the need to establish

procedure that would help the child victim to testify at ease in the court and held that
proceedings should be held in cameras. Delhi High Court in Sheba Abidi v. State of
Delhi24observed that child victims are entitled to get support person during trial and
also established that child victims can testify outside the court environment.

Women are considered weak in our society which has resulted in the
backwardness of women in every sphere. Women remains oppressed ones and are
often denied basic human rights. They are subjected to violence in society whether it is
within four walls of the house or at workplace. Despite the provision of right to
equality enshrined under Article 14 of the Constitution, they are subjected to
discrimination. Gender is considered to be the most important factor as for as Indian
labour market is concerned. Discrimination against women laborer in terms of wage
payments is a very common phenomenon in India. Wages earned by women are
generally lesser than their male counterparts.25 However, Article 39 of the Constitution
guarantees the principle of equal pay for equal work for both men and women. Despite
the guarantees of equal rights to women still they are not equally treated with men.
Supreme Court has played remarkable role in protection of their rights such as in case
of Associate Banks officers Association v. State Bank of India,26 Supreme Court protected the
rights of women workers and held that women workers are in no way inferior to their
male counterparts and hence there should be no discrimination on the ground of sex
against women. In State of Madhya Pradesh v. Pramod Bhartiya27Supreme Court held that
under Article 39 the State shall direct its policy towards securing equal pay for equal
work for both men and women.

Article 21 i.e. protection of life and personal liberty was invoked for the dignified
life for the prostitutes by Supreme Court in case of State of Maharashtra v. Madhukar
Narayan Mandlikar28 held that even a woman of easy virtue is entitled to privacy and no
one can evade her privacy. In Bodhi Satwa Gautam v. Subra Chakarborty29Supreme Court
has held that rape is a crime against basic human rights. Supreme Court laid down
guidelines for protection of women against sexual harassment at work place in case of

23
AIR 2004 SC 3566.
24
113(2004) DLT 125.
25
Shayan Javeed and Anupam Manuhaar, “Women and Wage Discrimination in India: A Critical Analysis March
19 – 2013” 2 IJHSSI 7(2013)
26
AIR 1998 SC 32.
27
AIR 1993 SC 286.
28
AIR 1991 SC 207.
29
AIR 1996 SC 922.

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Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan30 and reiterated the same in Medha Kotwal Lele v. Union of
India.31 Guidelines for ensuring the safe work environment for women were given and
made it mandatory for employer to take responsibility in cases of sexual harassment at
work.

Supreme Court also protected the rights of workman in BALCO Employees Union
(Regd.) v. Union of India,32 Consumer Edu. & Research Centre v. Union of India.33 In People's
Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India34 the Supreme Court stated that releasing
persons from bonded labour was connected to rehabilitation process in order to give
full remedy. In Workmen v. Rohtas Industries35 the Supreme Court observed that the right
to equality became instrumental in protecting right of workers against unreasonable
closures and discriminations in payment of pensions.

Judicial system protects the rights of its citizens including prisoners.The Supreme
Court by interpreting Article 21 of the Constitution protected and preserved the rights
of the prisoners. In case Prem Shankar v. Delhi Administration36 Supreme Court held that
practice of using handcuff and fetters on prisoners violates the guarantee of human
dignity. A landmark judgment in D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal,37 protected the rights
of the prisoners and laid down various guidelines for arrest and detention to prevent
the custodial violence and observed that right to life include right to live with human
dignity. Similarly Court in Sheela Barse v. State of Maharashtra38 dealt with an issue of
mistreatment of women in police station and court laid down various guidelines for the
protection of rights of women in custodial/correctional institutions. Further in Citizens
for Democracy v. State of Assam and others,39 Supreme Court held that handcuffing and
tying with ropes is inhuman and in utter violation of human rights guaranteed under
the international laws and the laws of the land. Court directed that handcuffs or other
fetters shall not be forced on prisoners- convicted or under trial while lodged in jail or
even while transporting, police and jail authorities shall have no authority to direct
handcuffing of any inmate of jail or during transportation without permission from the

30
1997(6) SCC 241.
31
2013(1) SCC 297.
32
2002(2) SCC 333.
33
1995(3) SCC 42.
34
1982(3) SCC 235.
35
AIR 1996 SC 467.
36
(1980) 3 SCC 538.
37
(1997) 1 SCC 416.
38
AIR 1983 SC 378.
39
(1995) 3 SCC 743.

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

magistrate. While executing of arrest warrant person arrested cannot be handcuffed

without obtaining orders from magistrate.

Therefore, Judiciary is playing a crucial role in the protection of the human rights
of the people from time and again by expanding the scope of the rights and recognizing
new rights with the need of time. Judiciary has expanded the scope of right to life to
include entitlements which are vital for the enjoyment of right to life with dignity.
Courts have protected right of the people in numerous cases whether it is a right
against violence in custody, to live in a pollution free environment, right to health, right
to adequate wages of the workers, safety of the women at workplace, compensation to
rape victim and rights of the child labourers and so on.

4. The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993

The need for the protection of human rights issues both at national and
international level led to the enactment of an Act which specifically deals with the
protection of Human rights called ‘The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993’.

The objective of the Act is to provide organizational structure for protecting

human rights. The Act provides for Human Rights Commission at national level as well
as at State level in each state and further for setup of Human Rights Courts at district
level for better protection of human rights and matters connected therewith.

The Act defines human rights in Section 2(d) as “the rights relating to life, liberty,
equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the
International Covenants and enforceable by courts in India.” The above definition, however,
limits the scope of the functioning of the National Human Rights Commission. Though
India ratified the two Covenants, these are International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.40
International covenants are not justifiable before the courts, so there should be laws in
the country which is to be with the conformity of these conventions. Therefore, the
rights guaranteed in the Constitution are in conformity with these International
Conventions.

40
Justice J.S. Verma, Second Justice M. Hidayatullah Memorial Lecture “Protecting Human Rights through the
Judicial Process” on 21 December 2002 at Raipur, 15, available at http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents/JHidyaMemo-II.pdf
(Last visited on August 8, 2016).

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Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

i) National Human Rights Commission

It is the State’s primary responsibility not only to protect the human rights of the
people from any violation but also the prevention of such violations by providing the
requisite means for its realization and further ensuring human development. State
discharged such responsibility through its institutions. So at national level, National
Human Rights Commission was established under the Protection of Human Rights Act
of 1993 to fulfill this responsibility.

Section 3 of the Act provides for the composition of National Human Rights
Commission. Commission is composed of a Chairperson and four other members. In
order to provide representation to the backward and oppressed sections of the society,
besides these members, the chairmen of the National Commission for Minorities, the
National Commission for SCs, the National Commission for STs and the National
Commission for Women are given ex-officio membership of the Commission.

The functions of the National Human Rights Commission are provided under
Section 12, from the perusal of Section Commission performs various functions which
are as follow:-
a) Inquire into the cases of violation of human right suo motu, on petition presented to
him or on the direction of the Court.
b) Intervene in any proceeding involving any allegation of violation of human rights
pending before a court with the approval of such court.
c) Visit into any jail or other institution under the control of the State Government,
where persons are detained or lodged for purposes of treatment, reformation or
protection, for the study of the living conditions of the inmates thereof and to make
recommendations thereon to the Government;
d) Conduct a systematic review of the Government’s human rights policy in order to
detect shortcomings in human rights observance and to suggest ways of
improvement. The National Human Rights Commission has been doing this task
by commenting on the draft legislation, drawing the attention of the Government to
the lacuna in the existing law and forming a human rights policy for the nation
according to the local needs.
e) Review the factors, including acts of terrorism that inhibit the enjoyment of human
rights and recommend appropriate remedial measures.
f) Study treaties and other international instruments on human rights and make
recommendations for their effective implementation.
g) Undertake and promote research in the field of human rights.

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

h) Spread human rights literacy among various sections of society and promote
awareness of the safeguards available for the protection of these rights through
publications, the media, seminars and other available means.

Commission is empowered to exercise the powers of civil court in respect of

summoning and enforcing attendance of witnesses and their examination on oath,
discovery and production of documents, receiving evidence on affidavit etc. The
commission for the purpose of conducting any investigation pertaining to the inquiry
can utilize the services of any officer or investigation agency of the Central Government
or any State Government with the concurrence of the Central Government or the State
Government, as the case may be. National Human Rights Commission also performs an
important function of making guidelines and recommendations to various authorities.
It has provided many recommendations on various matters such as health, education,
jails reforms, police encounters, police public relations, guidelines on arrest, food
security bill, violence against women etc. from time to time. Recently, Commission has
given recommendations on Prison Reforms, Human Rights Defenders, Leprosy and
Mental Health.41 Commission has rendered a significant role for the observation of
human rights. In various instances of human rights violation it took suo motu
cognizance and took cognizance on the complaints filed before it. References may be
made to few cases, which are discussed below:

In Gujarat Communal Riot’s Case,42 the commission took suo motu action on
communal riots, took place in Gujarat in early 2002; based on media reports. 43 The
Commission also received an e-mail communication requesting the Commission to
intervene. A team of the Commission had visited Gujarat in March, 2002 and prepared a
confidential report, which was later published. The Commission observed that the
State has failed to discharge its primary and inescapable responsibility to protect the
rights to life, liberty, equality and dignity of all of those who constitute it.

In Bonded Labourers Working in Chauna Stone Mines, District Gwalior Madhya

Pradesh,44 Bonded Labour Liberation filed a complaint that 400 bonded labourers had

41
These recommendations were made on the basis of the National Seminar on “Prison Reforms” held on 13 - 14
November, 2014, the National workshop on “Human Rights Defenders” held on 19 February, 2015, National
Conference on “Leprosy” held on 17 April, 2015 and State Mental Health Secretaries held on 5 September, 2015
“Journal of the National Human Rights Commission”, vol.14 at 335 – 355(2015).
42
Arun Ray, National Human Rights Commission of India: Formation, Functioning, and Future Prospects 518
(Khama Publisher, New Delhi, 2nd edn., 2004).
43
Case No. 1150\6\2001-2002, 6 March 2002.
44
Case No: 1351/12/2001-2002(FC).

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Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

been working in Chauna Stone mines in District Gwalior and they were not paid their
wages; besides they were tortured and harassed. Commission asked government to
direct Labour Commissioner, MP to ensure the inspection of these establishments and
strict enforcement of all labour laws. 44 persons were released and sent to other districts
as per their wishes. In a subsequent report, Labour Department, Government of M.P.
stated about the rehabilitation of released labourers and also indicated the action taken
against the guilty employers. On consideration of the report, Commission closed the
case.45

In Case No. 2432/4/39/2012,46 the Commission has taken suo motu cognizance of a
press report titled "Kids thrashed for refusing insect infested school meal" The report
alleged that students of a school at Mithani Milki village of Vaishali district near Patna
were allegedly thrashed by their headmaster till they fainted for refusing to eat a mid-
day meal of khichdi in which they found insects. The Commission issued notice to the
Chief Secretary, Government of Bihar and the District Magistrate, Vaishali to submit a
report in the matter and also about the steps taken by them. The SP Vaishali, Bihar
submitted report that chargesheet has been filed before the Court against the Head
Master of the school. District Magistrate, Vaishali, Bihar, further directed to send a
report along with proof of payment within six weeks, regarding payment of interim
monetary relief to the victim students of SC community under the provision of Rule 12
(4) of SC/ST (PA) Rules 1995. Response received in the matter is under consideration of
the Commission.

In Case No.1155/35/5/201447commission took the suo motu cognizance of the

matter on report published in Hindi Newspaper titled ‘Is school main bachche helmet
pehan kar karteh hain padhai’. According to the newspaper report, in a school in village
Doodhli, 25 kms from Dehradun, children wear helmet while studying in the class
room. It has been mentioned that building of the school in which they study is in
dilapidated condition and plaster from the roof continuously falls. This fall of plaster
from the roof has resulted in injuries to many students. Therefore, for protecting the
heads of children from injuries, the parents have provided helmets to the children for
use in the school. The contents of the press report raised a serious issue of violation of
human rights of school children. Commission issued notice to the Secretary,
Department of Education, and directed to submit a report in respect of the various
school buildings in a dilapidated condition in the State and the corrective measures
45
Available at http://nhrc.nic.in/LabourCases.htm (Last visited on October 4, 2016).
46
Available at http://nhrc.nic.in/ (Last visited on January 4, 2015).
47
Available at http://nhrc.nic.in/ (Last visited on October 10, 2016).

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

taken/ proposed to be taken by the State Government. District Magistrate, Dehradun

was also directed to submit a report in respect of the number of children who have
suffered injuries in the school, details of medical treatment provided to them as well as
any ex gratia relief granted by the State Government. The matter is pending under
consideration of the commission.

On 5 October, 2016 the National Human Rights Commission has taken suo motu
cognizance of a media report that a prisoner of the Greater Noida Jail, an accused in the
lynching of Mohammed Ikhlaq of Dadri, has died in a Delhi hospital during treatment.
Observing that the contents of the news report raised a serious issue of violation of
human rights of the prisoner, the Commission issued notices to the Director General,
Prisons and the Director General of Police, Uttar Pradesh calling for a report in the
matter within four weeks. The allegations regarding beating of the prisoner by some
police personnel in judicial custody are serious in nature. Even in the judicial custody, a
prisoner cannot be deprived of his Right to Life ensured by the Constitution of India.
The family members have all the rights to know about ill health of the prisoner.
Someone, who is suffering from illness in judicial custody can not avail the medical
treatment of his own. Therefore, the Commission observed, it is the duty of the
authority under whose guardianship he is being detained, to protect his Right to life,
which cannot be exercised, if proper medical treatment is not provided to him in time.
The family members have alleged that Ravi, the deceased was being kept in a separate
cell by the jail authorities and mercilessly beaten up by some police officials inside jail
on the 30th September, 2016, due to which his condition deteriorated. According to the
media report, the authorities did not inform the family about the deteriorating
condition of the prisoner. It was only after his death on the 4th October, 2016, that his
family was informed.48 The matter is pending before the Commission.

ii) State Human Rights Commission

Power to constitute commission at state level is conferred on the state government
under Section 21 (1) of the Act. The Commission is composed of chairperson and four
other members. The State Commission is empowered to perform similar functions,
which have been entrusted to the National Human Rights Commission. State
Commission inquires into violations of human rights only in respect of matters related
to any of the entries enumerated in List II and III in the Seventh Schedule of the
Constitution. The study of treaties and other international instruments on human rights
have been excluded from the purview of State Human Rights Commission.

48
Available at http://nhrc.nic.in/dispArchive.asp?fno=24120 (Last visited on 10 October, 2016).

33

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Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

As regards the mechanism for the redress of human rights grievances in Union
Territories, the Minister of Human Affairs had taken the position that the best way of
proceeding may be through the extension of the jurisdiction of the State Commissions
of neighbouring States into the adjoining Union Territories, as has been done in respect
of High Courts.49

iii) Human Rights Courts

State government set up these courts with concurrence of the Chief Justice of the
High Court, by notification specifying for each district a Court of Session to be a Human
Rights Court under Section 30. State Government appoints Special Public Prosecutor to
conduct cases in human rights court under Section 31 of the Act.

Human Rights Courts have been set up in the States of Assam, Andhra Pradesh,
Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.50 Commission stays in touch with the
concerned High Courts with a view to making clear the precise nature of the offences to
be tried in such courts and other details regarding the conduct of their business.51

The National Human Rights Commission has made an inquiry into thousands of
complaints it has submitted reports to the government on various matters wherein it
has made a number of recommendations suggesting measures to be taken to curb the
human rights violations. In August 2016 it has received 7822 fresh complaints and has
disposed of 7772 fresh as well as old cases.52

iv) Role of NGOs

Besides the government there are non-government entities which play an important
role in protection of human rights. NGOs are playing remarkable role in the society.
These organizations pickups the government’s deficits in service and help in protecting
rights of the people. NGOs are non profit making organisations ranging from small
groups to international organizations having branches all over the world. NGO is
independent organization of state and managed by group of private individuals and
they draw strength from the people who offer voluntary support to their causes. NGOs

49
Supra note 42 at 511.
50
Shashi Motilal and Bijayalaxmi Nanda, Human Rights, Gender and Environment 113 (Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
Mumbai, 2010).
51
Supra note 42 at 510.
52
Available at http://nhrc.nic.in / (Last visited on October 10, 2016).

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

raise awareness among people about their rights by imparting education and uplifting
them.

NGOs have key role to play in planning, monitoring and evaluation of the process
of the protection of human rights. B.R.P. Bhasker53 points out that “in the field of
human rights, the role of NGO is particularly important as Government or their
agencies often become violators of the very rights they are committed to protect and
promote vast sections of the people who are illiterate and ill- informed, and that makes
it easy for rights violators to act with impunity. Against this background human rights
education assumes importance and this task is primarily performed by NGOs”.

Even the Government has also recognised the crucial role played by the NGOs in
various fields. They are playing a remarkable role in various fields such as education,
health, environment protection and protection of the rights of the various classes of
people. Some of the NGOs working in this field are - Saheli for women’s rights, Youth
of Voluntary Action for eradication of child labour, Bandhua Mukti Morcha for
eradicating bonded labour, People’s Union for Civil Liberties and citizens for
democratic rights have also playing a crucial role as they have taken up various
instances of human rights violation before the Supreme Court of India.

There are several instances where NGOs were the first to report the violation of
human rights to the concerned authorities. The National Human Rights Commission
has taken action on several complaints, mainly reports by local NGOs from different
parts of the country.54

NGOs are also having effective role in enforcing the policies of the Government.
The exceptional role of NGOs in furthering human rights is given recognition in the
Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 not only this Act alone but also Vienna
Declaration and Programme of Action 1993 also recognized the role of NGOs in
promotion of human rights. This declaration insisted upon the cooperation of nations
with the NGOs in creating favourable conditions for enjoyment of human rights.

The Protection of Human Rights Act under Section 12 (i) expressly provided the
Commission to “encourage the efforts of non-governmental organisations and
institutions working in the field of human rights”. This is a responsibility which
53
P. Sukumar Nair, Human Rights in a Changing World 35(Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, 2011).
54
S.N. Chaudhary, Human Rights and Poverty in India: Theoretical Issues and Empirical Evidences, Vol. 5, 216
(Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1st edn., 2005).

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 Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

Commission readily assumes, for the cause has much to gain both from practical help
and from the constructive criticism that NGOs and the Commission can bring to bear in
their mutual interaction and growing relationship.55 To this end the Commission has,
from time to time, invited leading human rights activists and NGO representatives for
discussions and advice and sought their help in practical ways. In addition, in every
visit to a State, the Commission has made it a point to benefit from experience and
knowledge of NGOs, whose contacts at the “grass-roots” level give strength and
meaning to the human rights movement where it matters most.56

6. Critical Evaluation
Constitution of India provides safeguards for the protection of human rights,
however, for the effective implementation of the human rights Government of India has
enacted the ‘Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993’, which provides for the
establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, State Human Rights
Commission in various states and also the Human Rights Courts at the district level and
Indian judiciary is also working to protect the human rights of the people of India as
well as to provide speedy remedy to the victim of human rights violation. Despite such
efforts by the Government sought objectives have not yet been achieved due to the
following reasons:-
i. Though Constitution of India has enumerated various rights but there are large
number of people who are not even aware of these rights guaranteed by the
Constitution due to their vulnerable conditions and struggle of every day survival.
These are the people who are mostly victims of human rights violation but they
cannot think to approach court as they are more worried about their daily wages
instead of protecting their basic human rights.
ii. Though Constitution enshrined duties of the State under Part IV i.e. Directive
Principles of State Policy to enacts laws and to work for the welfare of the people
of India in various spheres whereas these directive principles are not enforceable
in the Courts and one cannot approach court if the Government does not enforce
these principles.
iii. The Human Rights Commission is expected to be completely independent in its
functioning. But there is no provision for the independence of the Commission. In
fact, there are provisions in the Act which draw attention to the dependence of the
Commission on the Government these are discussed as follow:-

55
Supra note 42.
56
Ibid.

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

a) Commission is dependent upon the Government for its human resources for
its functions as per Section 11 of the Act.
b) Finance is considered as the blood of an organization. Section 32 of the Act
makes the commission dependent on central government for its finances as the
section stated that “the Central Government shall pay to the Commission by
way of grants such sums of money as it may consider fit”.
c) Human Rights commission is only fact finding body and it has got no power
to adjudicate upon the disputed facts and also to issue any order to any party
or government so as to be complied with.57The Commission’s findings are
only advisory to the government. It is on the discretion of the government
whether to accept or reject the findings and recommendations of the
commission as there is no provision which makes the recommendations
binding on the government.
d) Commission does not have power to constitute special investigation teams for
purposes of investigation and prosecution of offences arising out of violations
of human rights.
iv. Unlike Supreme Court and High Courts Commission cannot inquire into any
matter which is pending before state human rights commission or before human
rights courts despite the gravity of matter concern as provided under Section 36(1)
of the Act.
v. Act has puts 1 year limitation period for seeking redressal of grievances before the
human rights commissions. Human rights commissions cannot investigate an
incident if the complaint was made more than one year after the incident as
provided under Section 36 clause 2. Therefore, a large number of genuine
grievances go unaddressed if victim fails to approach the commission on time due
to whatsoever reasons.
vi. It is not mandatory on the State government to established state human rights
commission and human rights courts. Sections 21 provide “A State Government may
constitute a body to be known as the………. (name of the State) Human Rights
Commission to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform the functions assigned
to, State Commission under this chapter”. Section 30 provide that “For the purpose of
providing speedy trial of offences arising out of violation of human rights, the State
Government may, with the concurrence of the Chief Justice of the High Court, by
notification, specify for each district a Court of Session to be a Human Rights Court to try
the said offences.”

57
State of Karnataka v. Union of India and another, (1977) 4 SCC 608.

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Vol. 2 Jamia Law Journal 2017

7. Conclusion and Suggestions

Human rights are basic fundamental rights which are integral part for the
development of human being in the absence of which person cannot live life with
dignity. Constitution of India protects the fundamental rights or human rights of the
people, provisions for the same have been made not only in the Articles of the
Constitution but in fact Preamble also talks about the fundamental freedoms and
protection of the dignity of the individual. The Indian Judiciary had even relaxed the
rule of locas standi for the protection of human rights which pave the way for the
development of the concept of Public Interest Litigation. Through public interest
litigation various incidents of violation of human rights had been put before the Courts.
Courts protected the rights of women, workers, children, prisoners and so on. Thus
judiciary is playing a role of savior of the human rights of the people so that each
individual can live with dignity. Protection of human rights is important issue of
concern throughout the world various international instruments have been
incorporated for the protection of human rights and on the basis of the provisions of the
international instruments, national endeavors have been made such as enacting the
Protection of Human Rights Act 1993. Provisions have been made under the Act for the
establishment of the National Human Rights Commission as well as State Human
Rights Commission in various States and it also provide for the constitution of Human
Rights Courts at the district level so that the justice can be provided to the victims of
human rights violation at every level. Since the establishment of the National Human
Rights Commission it has been playing a commendable task in protecting the human
rights of the people and it also gave monetary relief to the victims and to their families.
Although some amendments are necessary to the be made in the Act and for the same
some following suggestions have been made if such changes may be made than it can
strengthen the position of the human rights commission and it would be possible to
achieve the objectives of the Act easily.
i. With regard to personnel and financial matters the National Human Rights
Commission must be made independent body, as it has to look towards the
Government. It should be provided with its own staff for investigation of cases
instead of keep it dependent on police department and such other officials, as may
be necessary for the efficient working of the Commission.
ii. The National Human Rights Commission may be empowered to observe the
decisions of the Supreme Court for protecting Human Rights and if there is any
delay or failure in the implementation of such decisions, it can brought it before the
Supreme Court of India for taking further adequate actions.

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 Protection of Human Rights in India

iii. Section 21(1) and Section 30 of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 should be
amended so to make it mandatory for the State Governments to constitute Human
Rights Commissions at the state level as well to constitute Human Rights Courts at
district level and further the jurisdiction of these courts as well as the procedural
requirements should also be specified for the smooth and effective functioning.
iv. Section 36(1) should be amended and to empower National Commission to take up
or investigate any matter pending before any state human rights commission or
human rights courts to provide speedy justice.
v. The provision of 1 year limitation within which person can approach commission
for redress of his grievances should be relaxed so as to enable such cases where
complaint could not be filed before commission within period of 1 year due to
unavoidable reasons or circumstances.
vi. There should be a provision in the Act which specifically provide the time period
with in which the decisions of the commission should be implemented by the
concerned Government.
vii. Provision can be made for the conduct of seminars in every district each month for
educating people about their human rights and the protections granted by
Constitution as well as under the Act of 1993.
viii. The provision can be made for conducting of periodical survey. The periodical
survey should be conducted for checking the progress in the field of the
implementation of the provisions as well as in achieving the objectives of the Act.
ix. The special cell can be established in every human rights court at district level
where free legal aid should be provided to victims of human rights violation who
due to their poverty and vulnerable conditions enable to approach court for the
redressal of their grievances.
x. The provisions for the grants to NGOs can also be made in the Act. Where in
Government can promote the NGOs by giving funds to them who are working in
the field of protection of human rights and duty should be confer on such NGOs for
conducting seminars for educating people about the human rights and their
protections.
xi. In schools as well in colleges one compulsory subject can be introduce in which
students may study about human rights.
xii. The local offices in each state can also be established for the National Human Rights
Commission for the convenience of the general public for speedy disposal of cases
and to provide justice in time as it might not be possible for every person to
approach the national human rights commission at New Delhi for seeking redressal
of their grievances.

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