POWER SUPPLY:

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical

power. A device or system that supplies electrical or
other types of energy to an output load or group of loads
is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most
commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less
often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others. Here in
our application we need a 5v DC power supply for all
electronics involved in the project. This requires step
down transformer, rectifier, voltage regulator, and filter
circuit for generation of 5v DC power. Here a brief
description of all the components is given as follows:

TRANSFORMER:
transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another through inductively coupled
conductors — the transformer's coils or "windings".
Except for air-core transformers, the conductors are
commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or
around separate but magneticallycoupled cores. A
varying current in the first or "primary" winding creates
a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the
transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the
"secondary" winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric

charge will flow in the secondary winding of the
transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit
to the load connected in the secondary circuit.

The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal

transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a factor
 equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their
respective windings:

By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a

transformer thus allows an alternating voltage to be
stepped up — by making NS more than NP — or stepped
down, by making it

BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER

In its most basic form a transformer consists of:

• A primary coil or winding.

• A secondary coil or winding.
• A core that supports the coils or windings.

Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the

following explanation: The primary winding is
connected to a 60-hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic
field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts)
about the primary winding. The expanding and
contracting magnetic field around the primary winding
cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating
voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating
current to flow through the load. The voltage may be
stepped up or down depending on the design of the
primary and secondary windings.

THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER

Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some

type of core material. In some cases the coils of wire
are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard
form. In effect, the core material is air and the
transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER.
Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz
 and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance
magnetic material, usually iron. This type of
transformer is called an IRON-CORE
TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the
iron-core type. The principle parts of a transformer and
their functions are:

• The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines

of flux.
• The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy
from the ac source.
• The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy
from the primary winding and delivers it to the load.
• The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above
components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical
damage.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge
arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a
widely used configuration, both with individual diodes
wired as shown and with single component bridges
where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Basic operation

According to the conventional model of current flow

originally established by Benjamin Franklin and still
followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to
flow through electrical conductors from the positive to
the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in a
conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the
positive pole. In the vast majority of applications,
however, the actual direction of current flow is
irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the
conventional model is retained.

In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the

left corner of the diamond is positive, and the input
connected to the right corner is negative, current flows
from the upper supply terminal to the right along the
red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the
lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.

When the input connected to the left corner is negative,

and the input connected to the right corner is positive,
current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right
along the red path to the output, and returns to the upper
supply terminal via the blue path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and

lower right output negative. Since this is true whether
the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a
DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is
sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is,
it permits normal functioning of DC-powered
equipment when batteries have been installed
backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power
source have been reversed, and protects the equipment
from potential damage caused by reverse polarity.

Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a

bridge rectifier was always constructed from discrete
components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal
component containing the four diodes connected in the
bridge configuration became a standard commercial
component and is now available with various voltage
and current ratings.

OUTPUT SMOOTHING

For many applications, especially with single phase AC

where the full-wave bridge serves to convert an AC
input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may
be desired because the bridge alone supplies an output
of fixed polarity but continuously varying or "pulsating"
magnitude (see diagram above).

The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir

capacitor (or smoothing capacitor) is to lessen the
variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage
waveform from the bridge. One explanation of
'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low
impedance path to the AC component of the output,
reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current
through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any
drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends
to be canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This
charge flows out as additional current through the load.
Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced
relative to what would occur without the capacitor.
Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess
charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in
output voltage / current.

The simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved

reputation for being dangerous, because, in some
applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge
after the AC power source is removed. If supplying a
dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a
reliable way to safely discharge the capacitor. If the
normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this
function, perhaps because it can be disconnected, the
circuit should include a bleeder resistor connected as
close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor
should consume a current large enough to discharge the
capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough to
minimize unnecessary power waste.
Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the
regulation of the circuit, defined as percentage voltage
change from minimum to maximum load, is improved.
However in many cases the improvement is of
insignificant magnitude.

The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time

constant τ = RC where C and R are the capacitance and
load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor
is large enough so that this time constant is much longer
than the time of one ripple cycle, the above
configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage
across the load.

In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the

capacitor is added. The smoothing can then be
improved by adding additional stages of capacitor–
resistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to
critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to
supply voltage noise.
The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both
voltage and current when the load on the bridge is
resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor,
both the voltage and the current waveforms will be
greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed, as
described above, current will flow through the bridge
only during the time when the input voltage is greater
than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load
draws an average current of n Amps, and the diodes
conduct for 10% of the time, the average diode current
during conduction must be 10n Amps. This non-
sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a
poor power factor in the AC supply.

In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly

connected to the output of a bridge, the bridge diodes
must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs
when the power is turned on at the peak of the AC
voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes
a small series resistor is included before the capacitor to
limit this current, though in most applications the power
supply transformer's resistance is already sufficient.
Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second
capacitor. The choke tends to keep the current (rather
than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relatively
high cost of an effective choke compared to a resistor
and capacitor this is not employed in modern equipment.

Some early console radios created the speaker's constant

field with the current from the high voltage ("B +")
power supply, which was then routed to the consuming
circuits, (permanent magnets were then too weak for
good performance) to create the speaker's constant
magnetic field. The speaker field coil thus performed 2
jobs in one: it acted as a choke, filtering the power
supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the
speaker.

REGULATOR IC (78XX)

It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts

unregulated DC current into regulated DC current.
Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage
regulator at the output of the filtered DC (see in above
diagram). It can also be used in circuits to get a low DC
voltage from a high DC voltage (for example we use
7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of
voltage regulators 1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx,
79xx) 2. variable voltage regulators(LM317) In fixed
voltage regulators there is another classification 1. +ve
voltage regulators 2. -ve voltage regulators POSITIVE
VOLTAGE REGULATORS This include 78xx voltage
regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and
7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage
is in (7.5V, 20V).
The Capacitor Filter

The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of

power supply filter. The application of the simple
capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on
extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for
cathode-ray and similar electron tubes, which require
very little load current from the supply. The capacitor
filter is also used where the power-supply ripple
frequency is not critical; this frequency can be relatively
high. The capacitor (C1) shown in figure 4-15 is a
simple filter connected across the output of the rectifier
in parallel with the load.

Full-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter.

When this filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter

capacitor (C1) must be short and the RC discharge time
must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words,
the capacitor must charge up fast, preferably with no
discharge at all. Better filtering also results when the
input frequency is high; therefore, the full-wave rectifier
output is easier to filter than that of the half-wave
rectifier because of its higher frequency.

For you to have a better understanding of the effect that

filtering has on Eavg, a comparison of a rectifier circuit
with a filter and one without a filter is illustrated in
views A and B of figure 416. The output waveforms in
figure 4-16 represent the unfiltered and filtered outputs
of the half-wave rectifier circuit. Current pulses flow
through the load resistance (RL) each time a diode
conducts. The dashed line indicates the average value of
output voltage. For the half-wave rectifier, Eavg is less
than half (or approximately 0.318) of the peak output
voltage. This value is still much less than that of the
applied voltage. With no capacitor connected across the
output of the rectifier circuit, the waveform in view A
has a large pulsating component (ripple) compared with
the average or dc component. When a capacitor is
connected across the output (view B), the average value
of output voltage (Eavg) is increased due to the filtering
action of capacitor C1.

UNFILTERED

Half-wave rectifier with and without filtering.

FILTERED
The value of the capacitor is fairly large (several
microfarads), thus it presents a relatively low reactance
to the pulsating current and it stores a substantial charge.

The rate of charge for the capacitor is limited only by

the resistance of the conducting diode, which is
relatively low.

Therefore, the RC charge time of the circuit is relatively

short. As a result, when the pulsating voltage is first
applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges rapidly and
almost reaches the peak value of the rectified voltage
within the first few cycles. The capacitor attempts to
charge to the peak value of the rectified voltage anytime
a diode is conducting, and tends to retain its charge
when the rectifier output falls to zero. (The capacitor
cannot discharge immediately.) The capacitor slowly
discharges through the load resistance (RL) during the
time the rectifier is non-conducting.

The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined by

the value of capacitance and the value of the load
resistance. If the capacitance and load-resistance values
are large, the RC discharge time for the circuit is
relatively long.

A comparison of the waveforms shown in figure 4-16

(view A and view B) illustrates that the addition of C1
to the circuit results in an increase in the average of the
output voltage (Eavg) and a reduction in the amplitude of
the ripple component (Er) which is normally present
across the load resistance.

Now, let's consider a complete cycle of operation using

a halfwave rectifier, a capacitive filter (C1), and a load
resistor (RL). As shown in view A of figure 4-17, the
capacitive filter (C1) is assumed to be large enough to
ensure a small reactance to the pulsating rectified
current. The resistance of RL is assumed to be much
greater than the reactance of C1 at the input frequency.
When the circuit is energized, the diode conducts on the
positive half cycle and current flows through the circuit,
allowing C1 to charge. C1 will charge to approximately
the peak value of the input voltage. (The charge is less
than the peak value because of the voltage drop across
the diode (D1)). In view A of the figure, the charge on
C1 is indicated by the heavy solid line on the waveform.
As illustrated in view B, the diode cannot conduct on the
negative half cycle because the anode of D1 is negative
with respect to the cathode. During this interval, C1
discharges through the load resistor (RL). The discharge
of C1 produces the downward slope as indicated by the
solid line on the waveform in view B. In contrast to the
abrupt fall of the applied ac voltage from peak value to
zero, the voltage across C1 (and thus across RL) during
the discharge period gradually decreases until the time
of the next half cycle of rectifier operation. Keep in mind
that for good filtering, the filter capacitor should charge
up as fast as possible and discharge as little as possible.

Figure 4-17A. - Capacitor filter circuit (positive and

negative half cycles). POSITIVE HALF-CYCLE
Figure 4-17B. - Capacitor filter circuit (positive and
negative half cycles). NEGATIVE HALF-CYCLE

Since practical values of C1 and RL ensure a more or less

gradual decrease of the discharge voltage, a substantial
charge remains on the capacitor at the time of the next
half cycle of operation. As a result, no current can flow
through the diode until the rising ac input voltage at the
anode of the diode exceeds the voltage on the charge
remaining on C1. The charge on C1 is the cathode
potential of the diode. When the potential on the anode
exceeds the potential on the cathode (the charge on C1),
the diode again conducts, and C1 begins to charge to
approximately the peak value of the applied voltage.

After the capacitor has charged to its peak value, the

diode will cut off and the capacitor will start to
discharge. Since the fall of the ac input voltage on the
anode is considerably more rapid than the decrease on
the capacitor voltage, the cathode quickly become more
positive than the anode, and the diode ceases to conduct.

Operation of the simple capacitor filter using a full-wave

rectifier is basically the same as that discussed for the
half-wave rectifier. Referring to figure 4-18, you should
notice that because one of the diodes is always
conducting on. either alternation, the filter capacitor
charges and discharges during each half cycle. (Note
that each diode conducts only for that portion of time
when the peak secondary voltage is greater than the
charge across the capacitor.)

Figure 4-18. - Full-wave rectifier (with capacitor filter).

Another thing to keep in mind is that the ripple

component (E r) of the output voltage is an ac voltage
and the average output voltage (Eavg) is the dc
component of the output. Since the filter capacitor offers
a relatively low impedance to ac, the majority of the ac
component flows through the filter capacitor. The ac
component is therefore bypassed (shunted) around the
load resistance, and the entire dc component (or Eavg)
flows through the load resistance. This statement can be
clarified by using the formula for XC in a half-wave and
full-wave rectifier. First, you must establish some values
for the circuit.
As you can see from the calculations, by doubling the
frequency of the rectifier, you reduce the impedance of
the capacitor by one-half. This allows the ac component
to pass through the capacitor more easily. As a result, a
full-wave rectifier output is much easier to filter than
that of a half-wave rectifier.
Remember, the smaller the XC of the filter capacitor with
respect to the load resistance, the better the filtering
action. Since

the largest possible capacitor will provide the best

filtering.

Remember, also, that the load resistance is an important

consideration. If load resistance is made small, the load
current increases, and the average value of output
voltage (Eavg) decreases. The RC discharge time
constant is a direct function of the value of the load
resistance; therefore, the rate of capacitor voltage
discharge is a direct function of the current through the
load. The greater the load current, the more rapid the
discharge of the capacitor, and the lower the average
value of output voltage. For this reason, the simple
capacitive filter is seldom used with rectifier circuits that
must supply a relatively large load current. Using the
simple capacitive filter in conjunction with a full-wave
or bridge rectifier provides improved filtering because
the increased ripple frequency decreases the capacitive
reactance of the filter capacitor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

DIODE

The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the

component used to control the flow of the current in any
one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.
Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction.
Then it is in forward bias. The Zener diode is used in
reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the
identification of the diode`s terminal can be done by
identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black line is
the negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is
the positive terminal (cathode).

APPLICATION

•Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

•Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

•Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier

circuit, etc
RESISTORS

The flow of charge through any material encounters an

opposing force similar in many respects to mechanical
friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the
material .in some electric circuit resistance is
deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor used
fall in three categories , only two of which are color
coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the
third category is the wire wound type ,where value are
generally printed on the vitreous paint finish of the
component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in
Greek letter omega, looks as an upturned horseshoe.
Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them
work properly and it is obliviously important to find out
something about the different types of resistors
available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol
for ohm is an omega ohm. 1 ohm is quite small for
electronics so resistances are often given in kohm and
Mohm.
Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low
as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

FUNCTION

Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example

a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting
diode(LED) to limit the current passing through the
LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and

metal film
.These two types are explained under

CARBON FILM RESISTORS

During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited

onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is
spiraled away in an automatic machine until the
resistance between there two ends of the rods is as close
as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps
are added, the resistors is covered with an insulating
coating and finally painted with colored bands to
indicate the resistor value

Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22

Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5% tolerance: Band 1
= Red, 1st digit Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit Band 3 =
Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3
zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5% METAL FILM
RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a

similar way, but can be made more accurately to within
±2% or ±1% of their nominal vale there are some
difference in performance between these resistor types,
but none which affects their use in simple circuit.

WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire,

and because of this, they can be manufactured to precise
values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by
using a thick wire material. Wire wound resistors cannot
be used for high frequency circuits. Coils are used in
high frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a
ceramic case, strengthened with special cement. They
have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens
of watts. These resistors can become extremely hot
when used for high power application, and this must be
taken into account when designing the circuit.
TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter.

For a defective resistor the ohm-meter shows infinite
high reading.

CAPACITORS

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although

they work in completely different ways, capacitors and
batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read
How Batteries Work , then you know that a battery has
two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions
produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons
at the other terminal.

BASIC

Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the

capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates
separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper,
plastic or anything else that does not conduct electricity
and keeps the plates from touching each other. You can
easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum
foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a particularly good
capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it will
work.

In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what

happens:

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative

terminal of the battery accepts electrons that the battery
is producing.

•The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive

terminal of the battery loses electrons to the battery.
TESTING

To test the capacitors, either analog meters or specia l

digital meters with the specified function are used. The
nonelectrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the
digital meter.

Multi – meter mode : Continuity Positive probe : One

end Negative probe : Second end Display : `0`(beep
sound occur) `OL` Result : Faulty OK

LED

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The

light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off
visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased
P-N junction there is, with in the structure and primarily
close to the junction, a recombination of hole and
electrons. This recombination requires that the energy
possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to
another state. The process of giving off light by applying
an electrical source is called electroluminescence.

LED is a component used for indication. All the

functions being carried out are displayed by led .The
LED is diode which glows when the current is being
flown through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs
are available in the round shell and also in the flat shells.
The positive leg is longer than negative leg.