Elements

of
Cartography
ARTHUR H. ROBINSON
Professor of Geogra phy
Univers1·ty of Wisconsin

John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapman & Hall, Ltd.

NEW YORK LONDON
 Original illustrations drawn by
JAMES J. FLANNERY
Lecturer in Geography
Wharton School
Univerlity of Pennsylvania

SflCOND PRINTING, JANUARY, 1958

COPYRIGHT, 1953
BY
JOHN WILEY &: SoNS, INc.

All Rights Reserved

Thit book or anll part therwf mlUt not
be reproduced in anll form without
the written permitrion of the publwher.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 52-14188

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
 Elements
of
Cartography
 Preface

Cartography, according to the late Max Eckert, the great German cartographer,
is a mixture of science and art. It is concerned on the one hand with problems of
exactitude susceptible of precise treatment and varying according to the laws of
mathematics and geometry. On the other hand a map is made to be looked at, and
in this respect it is one of the visual arts. Add to these aspects the fact that no
cartographer can intelligently represent earth relationships unless he "knows
whereof he speaks" geogflwhi cally , and it becomes apparent that a cartographer
must combine in some fashion the abilities of the geographer, the mathematician,
and the artist. Of these talents, the most important is that of the geographer, for
out of the number of decisions a cartographer must make when drawing a map, the
vast majority are of a geographical nature.
Training as a geographer will not alone, as some have maintained, produce a
cartographer. One must also learn to present his geographical knowledge so that
it will be intelligible to others. For this he must learn cartographic symbolism,
draw upon the graphic arts for principles of presentation, and look to mathematics
for methods and for principles of accuracy. Except for the utilization of the more
advanced techniques and concepts, the command of mathematics and graphic arts
necessary to the training of the geographical cartographer is relatively limited. It
is perfectly possible (as has been demonstrated repeatedly) to learn the principles of
the proper employment of projections or mathematically based symbols with little
or no mathematical baclcground; and for most black and white and flat color maps
the cartographer need only become familiar with the basic elements of visual
presentation.
Thl:l preparation of a textbook in the field of cartography is difficult because there
have been few previous attempts in any way comparable; consequently one does
not have a wealth of Pedagogical procedures and ideas from which to select. Part
of the reason for this lack lies in the general disinterest in cartography in colleges and
universities in the United States until comparatively recently. Fortunately the
situation has changed. Cartography as a profession and as an academic subject has
been gaining ground for several decades, and World War II sent interest in it to an
all-time high. This interest, which is steadily increasing, has resulted both in many
new techniques and in a better understanding of the place of cartography in the
academic curriculum.
Much of the cartography taught in the United States is appropriately done in
geography departments. Their concern with the making of maps is generally,
although not entirely, for those of smaller scales. Such large-scale geographic field
v
VI Pre/ace
mapping as is undertaken is more a research or im'entory technique than it is
cartography and should be eparately taught. Geography having taken unto itself
the responsibility for a large share of cartogmphy has thereby assumed the further
duty of providing instruction for the interested student in other fields. The e
students, like many geography majors, are commonly Ie s concerned with becoming
practicing cartographers than they are with learning how map are made and how
to use properly and intelligently the maps they see in books, periodicals, and atlases.
This book is, then, primarily designed as a textbook for a first course in cartog-
raphy for graduate and undergraduate students majoring in geography or allied
social and natural sciences. The approach is toward cartography a an intellectual
art and science rather than as a ubject primarily consisting of drafting and drawing
procedures. Cartography is a broad profession and has many facets that are inter-
esting, to say the least. It has been a difficult task indeed to decide what not to
include in a textbook of this kind. Every rubric in the field from projections to ter-
rain representation has manifold old and new concepts, materials, procedure , and
applications ranging, for example, from Murdoch's conics to the fiat polar quartic
authalic projection and from the appearance of topography on a radar scope to
relief models made of pIa tic. I haye tried to encompass the item of importance but
have made no attempt to mention or cite all the developments past or present. Such
an effort would have produced an encyclopedia, not a textbook. The student de-
sirous of ranging afield can do so with the aid of the Bibliography. The coverage of
the book has, therefore, been limited by those elements that can appropriately be
investigated in a survey course, leaving for later courses the more advanced aspects
of theory and technique.
A definite attempt has been made to restrict the textual pre 'entation of the
various elements to a minimum in order to promote the indispensable classroom
and laboratory discussion. It is expected that the instructor will supplement the
text with lectures fitted to his particular group of students and the type of course
he wishes to teach. Specific instruction on varieties of methods and media for
drafting and the more complex techniques, e.g., land-form drawing, have been held
to a minimum, for they can better be demonstrated and discu sed in the freedom
of the classroom or laboratory than on the pages of a book.
It is a pleasure to make acknowledgments in an undertaking such as thi. I
should particularly like to acknowledge my debt to Professor Vernor C. Finch, of
the University of Wisconsin, in whose class I first became interested in cartography
as an art and science, and learned that there was something more to it than mere
manual dexterity. Professor Finch's cartographic skill , his analytical attitude
toward this and other subjects, and his subsequent personal encouragement are
largely responsible for my having initially chosen to work in the field of cartography.
Likewise, I am greatly indebted to Professor Guy-Harold Smith, of the Ohio State
University, who, in addition to his many professional encouragements, has read the
entire manuscript and has made many valuable suggestions and criticisms. My
debt to such cartographic stalwarts as M. Eckert, M. A. Tissot, K. Zoppritz,
E. Raisz, J. K. Wright, O. S. Adams, and others will be readily recognized by the
professional reader. A number of persons read all, or portions, of the manuscript
 P reface vii
and made useful suggestions. Professor James A. Barnes, of the University of
Georgia, has been especially helpful with respect to the chapter on projections.
Many of my students have, perhaps unwittingly, contributed heavily toward this
undertaking, for they have constituted an invaluable sounding board for consider-
able experimentation in methods of approach and content.
The task of illustration has been made a pleasure for a number of rea ons. First,
Professor James J. Flannery, of the University of Pennsylvania, interpreted my
ideas with uncommon dispatch and skill and contributed many suggestions for
improvement. Much assistance in making illustrations available has been rendered
by Richard Edes Harrison, Dr. CarJ Mapes of Rand McNally and Company,
Myron T. Monsen of Monsen-Chicago Incorporated, and others too numerous to
mention. Permission to reproduce illustrations in books, periodicals, and catalogues
has been cordially forthcoming without exception, and the sources are noted in the
appropriate legends. The American Geographical Society of New York and Mrs.
Wilma Fairchild, the editor of The Geographical Review, have been especially help-
ful. My wife, in addition to providing indispensable encouragement, read much
of the manuscript in draft, and all of it in final form, and made many worthwhile
editorial proposals.
ARTH U R H. ROBINSON
M adiam, Wiscms:n
February, 1953
 Contents

Chapter 1. The Art and Science of Cartography 1

Chapter 2. The Earth and the System of Coordinates 14
Chapter 3. The Employment of Map Projections 25
Chapter 4. The Construction of Projections 56
Chapter 5. Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction 80
Chapter 6. .Compiling and Preparing the Map Base 106
Chapter 7. Map Design 120
Chapter 8. Map Lettering 141
Chapter 9. Symbolization and Distribution Maps 161
Chapter 10. Representing the Terrain 191

APPENDIX

A. Natural Trigonometric Functions 219

B. Squares, Cubes, and Roots 220
C. Geographical Tables 223
D. Tissot's Indicatrix 226
E. Lambert Projection Tables 228
F. Stereographic Projection Tables 230
G. Lettering Magnification Tables 235
H. Estimating Densities of Fractional Areas 239

Bibliography-Selected Literature 243

Index 247

ix
 I
The Art and Science
of Cartography

1 Maps, Indispensable Tools can observe r tangible or otherwise, can be

Man is so small and he is tied so closely mapped in its two- or three-dimen ional
to his earth habitat that he must employ, distribution on the earth. The uses of
among other techniques, that of cartog- maps may vary from that of the historian
raphy in order to see the broader spatial plotting and analyzing the' route of Marco
relation hips that exist in his complex Polo or Alexander in order to evaluate their
world. The cartographic technique enables cultural influences to the engineer analyz-
him to ri e, so to speak, above his immedi- ing the drainage characteristics of a por-
ate range of vision and contemplate the tion of a city to determine the run-off po-
salient features of larger areas. A large- tential in order to supply adequate storm
scale map of a small region , depicting its sewers. The scales may vary from a page-
land forms , drainage, settlement pattern , size map of the world presenting airline
roads, geology, or a host of other geographic route focusing on Chicago to a foot-square
and economic distributions, provides him in urance map of a city block including the
with the knowledge of the relationships building in which the airlines map was
nece ary to carryon his works intelli- made. The most meaningful listing of
gently. The building of a road, a house, a "arieties of maps is one ba ed on utility,
flood-control system, or almost any other and many such catalogs have been at-
constructive endeavor requires prior map- tempted . They include the standard divi-
ping. At a smaller scale, maps of oil sions uch a topographic maps, nautical
erosion, land llse, popUlation character, cli- charts, economic maps, hi torical maps,
mates, income, and so on, are indispen able and other broad use categorie. But they
to understanding the problems and potenti- all fail to impre s on the reader that all
alities of an area. At the smallest scale, maps are related, being of the earth; and
maps of the whole earth indicate generali- that uses , scale , varieties, and size all
zations and relationships of broad earth hade, imperceptibly, one into anothe·r.
patterns with which we may intelligently Truly, 0 far as modern map of the
consider the course of events past, present, earth are concerned, the "sky is the limit."
and future.
To attempt to catalog with precision the 2 The Beginnings of Cartography
infinite number of kinds and uses of maps In ancient times the limits of cartography
is an impossible task. Anything that man were apparently very narrow. I slanders
1
 2

23 /I
.I)JIr.7RJII/

FlO. 1. Portion of a cadastral map showing property lines.

of the Southern seas are said to have con- like them, it is probable th~t the earliest
structed, at an early date, charts of reeds maps were records of land ownership.
and sticks to record the relative positions That same kind of map still survives as one
of islands. Perhaps the oldest authentic important use category of cartography.
map which survives is a record of some Today they are called cadastral maps, and
land holdings in Babylon. Certainly, the they record land holdings the same way
valley of the Nile was mapped at an early they did several thousand years ago. (See
-time in order to record property lines. Fig. 1.) One of the principal uses of cadas-
Aside from the islanders' maps, and others tral maps is to assess taxes, which may
 The Beginnings 01 Cartography 3

FIG. 2. One of "Ptolemy's" maps. His written works were "rediscovered" during the fifteenth
century, but his maps had to be reconstructed from his directions. His world map was better
than any other, even in the fifteenth century, a thousand years after its original construction.
F rom the Library of Congress collection.

account for the fact tha.t t hey have always surface of the earth on a fiat piece of paper
been with us. and recognized the inevitability of defor-
Not for some time after the blrth of the mation in the process. Ptolemy, who lived
local cadastral map did other kinds of and worked in Alexandria, Egypt, was
maps develop. Maps of larger areas de- probably the earliest real counterpart of
pended upon the collections of travelers' the modem-day cartographer. Rather than
tales together with some rational thinking surveying in the field he gathered his ma-
about the area beyond one's immediate terials from divers sources, and leaned
surroundings. The spherical shape of the heavily on the excellent library facilities
earth, close estimates of its size, and de- of Alexandria. In general he did wh~t the
vices for plotting position on the spherical modem cartographer does. Ptolemy was
surface had all been reasoned into ' being a compiler of small-scale maps of large
by the time of Christ. The scholar Clau- areas, and he left to the surveyor the job
dius Ptolemy gathered these and other ideas of preparing large-scale maps of small
together and in the second century A.D. areas.
made a very respectable series of maps After Ptolemy, cartography gradually
(see Fig. 2). He concerned himself with declined. A thousand years later this art
the problem of presenting the spherical and science had reverted to the status of
4 The Art and Science 01 Cartography

FIG. 3. The Hereford world map. This map made in the thirteenth century illustrates the
degree to which cartography had degenerated from the time of Ptolemy, a thoueand years
earlier. The map is oriented with east at the top and J erusalem at the center. From the
Library of Congre collection.

fa.ncy and imagination (see Fig. 3). Myth- ever, one bright cartographic light in the
ical kings and kingdoms, bea ts, and places comparative darkness of the period, viz.,
on a fiat earth replaced the careful carto- the sailing charts prepared to accompany
graphic determinations of the Greek and the sailing directions, or peripli, which ap-
early Roman periods. There wa.s, how- parently exi ted in considerable number .
 The Early Modern Period 01 Cartography 5
These charts, called portolani or harbor- cept for religious, and some navigational
finding charts, were the products of the ex- data, the mapping of any geographic infor-
perience of a large amount of navigation mation beyond what we call, today, base
and coastwise sailing in the Mediterranean data was unknown. The mapping of other
and adjacent areas. They were remark- distributions had to wait for more accurate
ably accurate in their outlines and shapes internal surveys and especially for the in-
of bounding coasts of the seas, but unfor- quiring minds who would want such maps.
tunately their accuracy did not seem to
penetrate to maps of the land until toward 3 The Early Modern Period of
the end of the Dark Ages. Although many Cartography
of them must have been made, none earlier The dawning of the eighteenth century
than the fourteenth century has survived. saw the beginnings of a new and fresh atti-
Undoubtedly they were jealously guarded tude among all thinkers and investigators,
by their owners, which may account for including the cartographers. For the first
their rarity. t ime since the ending of the Greek era,
With the discovery and copying of Ptol- accuracy and the scientific method became
emy's writings and maps, after they had fashionable. This attitude, replacing the
lain dormant for a thousand years, a new dogmatic and unscientific attitude which
interest in cartography developed along was more or less dominant during the long
with the general rebirth of culture in west- Dark Ages, made itself evident in a num-
ern Europe. The Age of Discovery, the ber of ways. Feverish activity was ex-
monumental achievements of Columbus, pended on the problem of the measurement
Magellan, and others, kindled such an in- of the earth; the degrees of latitude were
terest that map publishing soon became a recalculated; Harrison's chronometer i.Q!_j
lucrative calling, and by the sixteenth cen- longitude detennination was perfected in
tury the profession was generally in good EnglanCl in- 1765; and there were many
standing and well supported, albeit its prod- Other evidences 0 curiosity about the
ucts were still far from being first-cIa s ex- earth. But perhaps the most notable and
amples of objective scientific thought. One optimistic cartographic trend was the reali-
of the circumstances that contributed zation by many that their fund of knowl-
greatly to the rapid advance of ca tography edge about the land behind the coastlines
was the invention, in Europe, of printing, was quite erroneous. Even the adminis-
which made possible the reproduction of
trators and rulers of countries, particularly
maps in numerous copies. Previously, each
in Europe, became aware that it was im-
map had had to be laboriously hand drawn.
possible to govern (or fight wars) without
Great map-pUblishing hou es such as Mer-
cator, Blaeu, Hondius, and others in Hol- adequate maps of the land.
land and France rose and flourished. This led to the establishment of the great
Their maps were still little more than national topographic surveys of Europe,
reference maps containing hardly anything such .as rance m___ID1 and England in
other than coastlines, rivers, cities, and oc- 1791, and the relatively rapid production
casional crude indications of mountains. thereafter, for the first time, of the topo-
Fancy and intricate craftsmanship was graphic kind of map. The problem of rep-
popular, and the maps were richly embel- resenting land forms arose, and, almo t as
lished with scrolls, compass roses, and quickly, devices such as the hachure and
drawings of men, animals, and ships. Ex- contour were developed. By the last half
6 The Art and Science 01 Cartography
of the nineteenth century a large portion tance, some g-reat map-publishing houses
of Europe had been covered by these maps. such as Bar omew in Great Britain and
Such maps ' were still, however, expensive Justus Perthes in Germany had come into
to make and did not have a wide distribu- bemg. The discipline most concerned with
tion. But they were the foundation upon cartography, geography, was beginning a
which all future cartography of the land rapid growth. The way was open for the
was to be based. It was to be expected small-scale, compiled map for use as an in-
that, as topographic maps became avail- vestigative and teaching tool.
able, compilations of smaller-scale maps of
diverse kinds would grow from them. Such 4 Twentieth Century Cartography
was the case. During the past fifty years or so, cartog-
Several factors influenced the growth of raphy and maps have advanced more tech-
the compiled map during the nineteenth nically and have become more widely used
century. Ii a dItion to the one mentIOned than at any other period. It is probably
above, a new reproduction process, lithog- correct to say that the number of maps
raphy, was developed. It made possible, made in the last half century is greater
for the first time, the relatively easy and than the production during all previous
inexpensive duplication of drawings. Far time, even if we do not count the millions
more important than any technical ad- made for military purposes. Almost every-
vance, however, was the branching out of one in the United States has handled nu-
science into a number of separate fields, in merous maps; maps are frequently in the
contrast to its previous state which was a newspapers; atlases have enjoyed a wide
kind of all-inclusive complex of physical sale i and a comforting proportion of the
science, philosophy, and general geography. population now knows the meaning of the
To be sure, the more exact sciences such words "cartography" and "cartographic."
as physics, chemistry, mathematics, and The profession is again attaining a position
astronomy had progressed far; but the comparable to that which it held during the
physical scientists who were preoccupied period of Flemish and French dominance
with one aspect of the earth, such as the in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
geologist, meteorologist, and biologist, as Its position is on somewhat sounder ground
well as the host of investigators whom now for it has a more universal appeal.
we now call by the general term "social sci- Several factors have combined to pro-
mote this phenomenal growth. One of the
entist" were just getting under way. Es-
most important is the fact that two world
pecially did they need maps; and in gen-
wars have occurred. Both wars have re-
eral their needs were for the smaller-scale
quired vast numbers of maps for military
maps, the compiled maps, of the land areas. purposes. Particularly the second world
By the beginning of the twentieth cen- war with its requirementa of rapid move-
tury this search for knowledge about the ment and air activity made necessary lit-
earth had led to remarkable strides in car- erally millions of maps. War-time travels
togoo,phy. Many investigations had been and military activities all over the globe
made into projection problems; the colored created a demand for information from the
lithographic 'map was fairly common; a general public which was supplied by a
serious proposal to map the earth at the flood of small atlases, separate maps, and
comparatively large scale of 1: 1,000,000 newspaper and magazine maps. War
had been made; and, of particular impor- clearly has been a great influence int he
 Present Divisions 01 Cartography 1
course of cartographic history, and the last The increasing complexity of modern
ar was probably the most influential. life with its attendant pressures and con-
Since 1940 several maps of the entire world tentions for available resources has made
have been made at a scale of 16 miles to necessary increasingly detailed studies of
1 inch. The far-flung theaters of activity, land utilization, soil characteristics, disease
new routes, new relationships, and the migrations, population and settlement dis-
necessity for world-wide understanding tributions, and numberless other social and
created feverish activity in all phases of economic factors. The geographer, pre-
cartography. eminently, as well as the historian, econo-
That, so much mapping activity was ac- mist, agriculturalist, and others of the so-
tually possible was the result of a number cial 'and applied physical science fields, has
of factors that entered the cartographic found the map a useful and often indis-
scene early in the present century or late pensable aid to his research and its presen-
in the last. tation.
Although lithography was much cheaper The map is a promoter of business, and
and easier than engraving as a process for it is seen in increasing numbers in adver-
reproducing maps, it was still highly tech- tising; and the demand for market and
nical and required considerable skill. Con- resource information encourages distribu-
sequently, the invention of photograpby tion mapping for commercial purposes.
and its union with the lithographic process The familiar and excellent road map,
late in the nineteenth century provided, standard equipment of any driver in the
at last, an easy and relatively inexpensive
means of reproducing an original drawing
United States, is prepared and distributed
free in such quantities that every year each
I
on any substance. From then on advances adult in this country could have his own
in the photo-lithographic and photo-en- personal copy.
graving fields have been rapid and con- The quantity of maps and mapping and
tinuous. Today, although costs are con- the diversity of cartographic subject mat-
siderable, the high-speed , multiple-color ter is indeed staggering. As society be-
presses are capable of handling almost any comes even more complicated, it is to be
kind of cartographic problem. Conse- expected that the demand in future years
quently , reproduction is no longer the will increase. Certainly there are numer-
fundamental problem to the cartographer ous subjects and areas of which we do not
that it once was. have adequate or, in many cases, any
Of equal significance to modern cartog- maps. The new processes and techniques
raphy is the development of the airplane. of making maps, together with the wealth

-
It has operated as a catalyst in bringing
-
about the demand for more mapping, and
at the same time the airplane has made it
of compilation material from air photog-
raphy, census activity, and other . out-
growths of modern organized society, make
possible. The need for smaller-scale ' cov- the field of cartography a broad and al-
erage of larger areas, such as the aeronau- ways interesting ende~vor.
tical chart, promoted larger-scale mapping
of the unknown areas. Furthermore the 5 Present Divisions of Cartography
earth seen from the vantage point of an As must be apparent from the preceding,
airplane in flight is like a map, and those cartography has in recent years developed
who fly above the earth develop an interest rapidly and has branched out, as it were,
in maps. into a number of somewhat separate kinds
8 The Art and Science 01 Cartography
of activity. It is a perfectly natural indi- social and physical sciences who are seek-
cation of growth, for as each science or art ing to understand and interpret the social
has developed it has separated into various and physical complex on the earth's sur-
specialized divisions. face. The subject matter and the base
The entire field of map making is usually material is unlimited. The climatic map,
thought of as consisting of two distinct the synoptic chart, the agricultural map,
phases. The first is concerned with the de- the traffic-flow map, the political map, and
tailed lar e-sc opographic mapping of many others all are products that belong
the land or charting of the sea. The re- to this second group.
maining large proportion of cartographic
activity is less clearly defined, being usu- 6 The Map Data
ally thought of merely as smaller-scale, As has been pointed out, almost any
special cartography, or simply as not the kind of information is mappable. From
first mentioned. Within each of these two this array of possibilities it may be ques-
broad categories there is also considerable tioned whether any valid generalization
specialization such as may occur among can be made concerning the kinds of infor-
the survey, drafting, and reproduction mation with which a cartographer deals.
phases of making a topographic map. All Although there are no limits to the possi-
divisions and activities shade one into an- bilities, in practice' the map maker finds
other, and it is to be expected that sharp that the entire gamut is rarely approached
compartmentalization rarely occurs. and that most of his concern is with recur..:
Notwithstanding the obvious overlap- ring kinds of information.
ping there is no doubt that large numbers By its very nature any map is the pres-
of cartographers are concerned with entation of spatial relationships. There-
smaller-scale map making and are gener- fore the cartographer's first problem is to
ally quite separate from those who do sur- transform the surface of the sphere which
vey, topographic mapping, and nautical curves away in every direction from every
charting. Although not strictly exclusive, point (called the allside curved surface)
the one group makes maps from field or into a surface that does not curve in any
air survey and is concerned with such direction at any point (a plane) . Such a
things as the shape of the earth, height of radical transformation introduces some
sea level, land elevations, and exact and unavoidable changes in the directions,
detailed locational information. Generally distances, areas, and shapes from the way
speaking, this group, which includes the they appear on the spherical surface. A
great national survey organizations, na- system of transformation from the spheri-
tional land offices, and most military map- cal to the plane surface is called a projec-
ping organizations, makes the basic maps tion, and the choice, utilization, and con-
from which the other group starts. struction of map projections is of perennial
The second category of cartographers concern to the cartographer. Properly ap-
doe not usually make maps from surveys proached, the study of projections becomes
but, using the detailed maps, compiles from a fascinating endeavor for it involves, in
them the basic data required and then pro- a sense, the weighing and balancing of the
ceeds to add relationships, generalizations, assets and liabilities of a surprisingly
and a host of other kinds of material. To large number of possibilities. The theo-
this group belong the geographers, histo- retical and actual derivation of many sys-
rians, economists, and many others of the tems of projection are undertakings that
 The Techniques of Cartography 9
require considerable mathematical com- same time allows his imagination to roam
petence, as would be expected. Their utili- widely, will be able to determine the most
zation and very often their construction re- desirable form and manner by which to
quires, however, little more than arith- serve this, the main, course.
metic, some very elementary geometry,
and, most necessary, some clear thinking. 7 The Techniques of Cartography
Of equally universal concern is what is The means whereby the map data are
usually called "Ease data." This ordi- graphically portrayed, or, in other words,
narily consists of coastlines, rivers, bound- the techniques and media of representation,
aries, and occasionally settlements, roads, make a considerable list. In the early days
or other outstanding features. On this base of cartography there was little choice of
are plotted the materials that prompted ways and means of presenting data or of
the making of the map. Of course, some the media with which to work. The meth-
small-scale maps such as general atlas ods of producing inks and colors and the
map are primarily detailed base or refer- techniques of draftsmanship were known
ence maps alone, and consequently they only to a few , and they were sufficiently
eldom emphasize or portray any pecial difficult so that great skill was necessary
information . The base data serve the very to produce an acceptable map. Today the
important function of providing orientation cartographer is fortunate indeed , for, as in
and background for the other information most other mechanical and technical fields,
being pre ented. It is useless to provide great advances have been made toward the
con iderable detail in the mapping of a dis- perfection of devices, papers, and other
tribution, such as vegetation, if the reader aids to map making. In addition drafting
has no base data with which to correlate it has become a kind of standard technique
visually. The base information , of cour e, in a number of activities, and manual skill
varies from one map to the next and must in drawing is widespread.
be selected especially for the purpose at The actual drawing is only a portion of
hand. This selection, together with the the technical effort that goes into the mak-
compilation and repre entation of the par- ing of a map. That part of the effort
ticular base information de ire , con ti- might be referred to as the mechanical
tutes the second major portion of the car-
pha e of the technique. Considerably more
tographer's concern with map data.
important is the skill with which the car-
The third kind of map material with
tographer devi es way and means of or-
which the cartographer work is that which
ga'nizing the data and of fitting the data
prompted the making of the map. As
to the media, and the general manipulation
noted earlier, it can con i t of almost any-
thing from election returns to soil constitu- of the various sub tantive elements of the
ents. Upon a clear. under tanding of its map in order to have the result equal the
significance and of the po sible inferences expectations. Unfortunately, these two
that may be derived from the readers' aspects are often confused to the end that
viewing it depend the selection and em- we mistakenly as ume that a "nicely
ployment of the base materials and the drawn" map is a good map. Likewi e, a
projection. U ually, substantive materia_l skillfully planned map may be depreciated
may be modified or presented in numerous becau e of poor drafting. Both good plan-
ways. Only the cartographer who is famil- ning and good execution are, of course, in-
iar wit h his subj ect matter, and who at the dispensable to excellent cartography, but
10 The Art and Science 01 Cartography
they are quite different in regard to the studying their difficulties and possibilities
training and skills required. will better prepare him to direct a more
Drafting is an honorable calling, and a skillful draftsman.
good, versatile cartographic draftsman is There are some drafting procedures that
rare enough to command great respect. He are better done by the cartographer if he
is fully familiar with all the tools and with is to work with certain kinds of maps. For
the use of the various media such as letter- example, the drawing of terrain as in a
ing, screens, and different kinds of papers. physiographic diagram must, except in un-
He is a good freehand letterer and is ca- usual cases, be done by the cartographer
pable of using all the various pens, brushes, who is planning and executing as he pro-
inks, and paints. There is no other trade ceeds. The dotting of a dot map, which
quite comparable to that of cartographic requires reilltively little drafting skill but
drafting. The judgment and skills re- considerable geographic understanding,
quired make it always interesting, and cannot be done by directing a draftsman,
there is considerable creative pleasure in except in extraordinary circumstances.
completing a well-drawn map. On the Similarly, the brushing on of colors in gra-
other hand, the act of drafting a map is no dation with a wet brush or an airbrush
more cartography than typing is author- must be done by the cartographer in most
ship. The analogy is not strictly correct circumstances, not by the draftsman.
for the draftsman, if good, is usually given Probably as valid a reason as any for the
some latitude in the execution of the car- would-be cartographer to learn at least the
tographer's desires. elements of drafting is that, in many cases,
It is important to understand the above the research investigator must layout pre-
relation between drafting and cartography. liminary plans for maps, and his job is
There has been and still is a tendency to much easier if he knows the limitations
think of the two as synonymous. Many and possibilities of the drafting technique.
draftsmen think of themselves as cartog- Also, frequently the teacher or researcher
raphers, and many cartographers, who are must do his own elementary map drawing
themselves good draftsmen, feel that draft- for slides and for professional papers be-
ing ability is indispensable to the cartog- cause a competent draftsman i either un-
rapher. There is no question that drafting available or too expensive. In any case,
is a desirable and useful ability, but it is the manual skills required for simple draft-
by no means indispensable. A lack of ing are capable of attainment by most
manual skill need deter no one from enter- everyone. The rare person who cannot
ing the field of cartography, and particu- learn to use the ruling pen, triangle, and
larly it should not deter the geographer T -square need not be discouraged, for the
and other physical and social scientists art and science of cartography is based pri-
from learning the principles of graphic ex- marily on intellectual and visual skills, not
pression. Since learning by doing is one of on manual skills.
the better ways of gaining a well-founded
understanding of any endeavor it is to be 8 The Science of Cartography
expected that one who would learn car- The skills or techniques of the cartog-
tography should also learn the elements of rapher are based upon the findings of many
drafting. If he finds that he is deficient in scientists. These skills generally fall into
the manual skills he should in no way be two categories, intellectual or visual, de-
discouraged. Trying the techniques and pending upon whether their main function
 The Principles 01 Cartography 11
is to stimulate the reason or the visual dot size for representing statistics and the
sense of the map reader. colors and tones to be used in representing
In the first category we find such car- gradations of amount are examples of ques-
tographic activities as generalization or tions to be answered by the characteristics
small-scale simplification. This is one of of visibility as applied to symbols and con-
t he most difficult of the cartographer's stitute problems of visual logic.
tasks, for, as was pointed out by one of The cartographer is scientific in other
the great German cartographers, "only a ways. One of the largest categories of in-
master of the subject can generalize wei!." formation with which he works is that coh-
This is one of the ways wherein cartog- tained in other maps, and since he can
raphy differs from drafting. If we are to hardly have first-hand familiarity with all
dfaw a sma11-sca e co as nne we must know places in the world he must be able to
the characteristics of that coastline or at evaluate his source materials. This means
least the characteristics of that type of that he must be familiar with the state of
coastline. Similarly, if we are to general- topographic mapping and its geodetic foun-
ize a river we must know if it is a dry-land dations. To supplement his map informa-
or a humid-land stream, something of its tion he needs to be able to evaluate and
meanderings, its volume, and other impor- rectify census data, air photographs, docu-
tant factors which might make it distinc- mentary materials, and a host of other
tive from or in character with others of its kinds of sources.
nature. The selection of the important Cartography is neither an experimental
and the subordination or elimination of the science in the sense that chemistry or
nonessential factors of the map data re- physics are nor is it searching for truth in
quire that the map maker be well trained the manner of the social sciences. Never-
in each of the fields in which he essays to theless, it employs the scientific method ' in
prepare maps. He must apply logic in his the form of reason and logic in constructing
approach to Projections, generalizations, its products. Its principles are derived
Hne characterizations, and so on, a,?d in through the analysis of scientific data. It
this respect he is a kind of practical sci- has its foundations in the sciences of geod-
entist much like an engineer. He must esy, geography, and psychology. In the
study the characteristics of his building sense that it is based on sound principles
materials and know the ways and means and seeks to accomplish its ends by way of
of fitting them together so that the end intellectual and visual logic it is scientific
product will convey the correct intellectual in nature.
meaning to the reader.
Of equal, and sometimes greater, impor- 9 Tbe Principles of Cartograpby
tance are the visual relationships inherent Any scientific activity must be founded
in this form of expression. People, o~ map on principles of procedure derived from
readers, think and react in certain ways to fundamental concepts and laws. These
visual stimuli. With knowledge of the laws may be either more precisely demon-
laws governing these reactions the cartog- strable, as in physics, or less precisely
rapher can design his product to fit these based on empirical data and inductive
habits. A great many principles of visuai reasoning. The principles of cartography
design have been established in recent are built from both kinds of concepts.
years, and the cartographer cannot afford On the one hand there have been many
to ignore these findings. The selection of investigations by psychologists and others
12 The Art and Science of Cartography
in the field of optics. We know, for ex- for political boundaries and cities, or such
ample, what colors are seen first, how many practices as north orientation, carry as
shades of gray can be detected, what sizes much authority, in many circumstances, as
of lettering are legible, and many other do more objectively based principles.
precise reactions of the eye to visual stim- However, it is to be expected in such a
uli. Since a map is, quite obviously, a conventionalized profession as cartography
visual stimulus intended to portray an in- that many conventions, especially those of
tellectual thought it is, of course, necessary recent vintage, are hardly of sound founda -
to base the selection and utilization of the tion. These must be careflilly analyzed be-
lines, colors, letters, and other map parts fore being used in the light of known prin-
on principles derived from these precise ciples in order that the purposes of presen-
determinations. tation will not be violated by the methods
On the other hand investigators of the employed. A good example of this kind of
intellectual responses to visual stimuli pro- Ilnew" convention is the use of the color
vide us with a more or less precise under- progression of the spectrum for altitude
standing of how peoples' minds react to tints on colored relief maps. Originally,
visual stimuli. Through experiment, study some fifty or seventy-five years ago it was
of fundamental de ign , and recording of thought logical to parallel increasing alti-
reactions to such standardized and wide- tude above sea level with increasing wave
spread phenomena as advertising, these re- length of light. But more recent researches
searchers have been able to compile a num- have shown that elements other than wave
ber of principles of design. For example, it length are of more significance in vision.
is known what kind of rectangle is best , Consequently, the convention does not fit
what kinds of layout or lettering can be the known principles. There are other ex-
employed (or avoided) in order to suggest amples of modern or new conventions that
(or not to suggest) such intangibles as sta- have developed in the recent history of
bility, power, movement, and so on . There cartography but which have not had t he
are widespread preferences as to colors, benefit of the judgment of time.
shapes, and designs that must be utilized
In general , however, the basic principles
to make more effective a presentation.
of optics and vision as appUed to cartog-
The number of cartographic principles
raphy are known, and the cartographer,
based on research and analysis in optics
and psychology is surprising. with these guides, may proceed without
In addition to the well-founded physical much doubt.
and intellectual principles there are a great
10 Art in Cartography
many conventions and traditions in cartog-
raphy which have almost the stature of The question is frequently raised as to
principles. Cartography is an ancient art whether cartography is a legitimate branch
and science;aDd it is to be expected that of art and what function an artistic talent
over the centuries these traditional pro- plays in the making of a map. Prior to
cedures would become almost standard the last century the question never arose
practice. Many of them have been for cartography was very definitely an art.
changed and modified by long-continued This is evident when one views the prod-
use until they have, through the process of ucts of the earlier cartographers who em-
trial and error, become Ilgood practice." bellished their maps with all sorts of imagi-
Many forms of symbolism such as that native things, together with fancy scroll
 Art in Cartography 13
work, ornate lettering, and intricate com- not to serve as adornment for an office
pass roses. Special coloring methods and wall. As a matter of fact, if a map is I
ingredients were carefully guarded secrets. made too much of a work of art, it is very I
Even as late as a hundred years ago the likely that the viewer will be stimulated
coloring of maps in one of Germany's first by its beauty and will fail to see the
greatest map houses was done by the soci- concept. Probably one of the cartograph-
ety ladies of the town . Throughout the er's major concerns is to refrain from mak-
history of cartography, great emphasis has ing the map ugJy, and in this respect he is
been laid on fine pen and brush skill, and definitely an artist, albeit in a somewhat
the aim has been to make something good negative sense.
to look at and perhaps even to hang on a Although the question of whether car-
wall as a decoration. tography is an art will always be debated
Today a great many people still think of with vigor, there is no question that it is a
cartography as being an artistic calling, creative kind of endeavor which repays the
and it is likely that a considerable number effort by the satisfaction that comes frOID
of otherwise intelligent student· hy away producing something that has never been
from it for fear they are "not artistic." done before. Every map is a different
Good judgment, based on principles, is the problem requiring a new solution in the
major requirement of design in cartog- field of design. It requires a good com-
raphy; and such judgment may be easily mand of the principles of presentation to
acquired by training. build a map anew each time. In this it is
Most maps are functional in that they like creative writing that requires new
are designed, like a bridge or a house, for combinations of technique and media. In
a purpose. Their primary purpose is to thi respect cartography is certainly a cre-
"get across" a concept or relationship ; it is ative art.
 2
The Earth and the System
of Coordinates

11 The Shape of the Earth century or so several determinations of the

The earth is in reality a complex geo- amount of bulging and flattening have
metric form. The massive plastic earth been made, and there are several oblate
ball, spinning through space, is beset by spheroids recognized. Recent geodetic in-
tremendous forces, and it assumes a form vestigation has shown, however, that the
which makes large-scale precision mapping earth is not precisely an oblate spheroid
of its surface a difficult undertaking. On but is somewhat irregular in form. The
the other hand, for the small-scale map- precise shape, called the geoid, is not yet
ping of large regions (extensive area on a known.
small sheet) most of these complications The largest of the earth's deformations
need hardly concern us at all. from a true sphere must occasionally be
Man's first ideas of the earth around him acknowledged even in small-scale map-
included little beyond that which he could ping, which is our primary concern. On
see; consequently it appeared flat. The account of its spinning on an axis the earth
earliest world maps apparently represented ball is bulged somewhat in the area mid-
it so, and the idea of sphericity was not way between the poles and consequently
generated until the philosophers of the pre- flattened a bit in the polar regions. The
Christian, Greek era -applied reason to the actual amount of flattening is of the order
of some 26 miles difference between the
problem. By the time of Ptolemy (second
polar and equatorial diameters, the equa-
century A.D.) the earth was recognized as
torial, pf course, being larger.
being a sphere. Although the idea of Because of the bulging and flattening, a
sphericity did not altogether die out during line around the earth that passes through
the Dark Ages it languished, to say the the poles and bisects the earth will not be
least, and the notion of a flat surface again a circle but will be, to exaggerate a bit,
prevailed. With the reissuance of Ptol- oval in shape. The flatter portion will be
emy's Geographia and the subsequent Age in the polar regions and the more rapid
of Discovery following the fifteenth cen- curvature will be in the equatorial areas.
tury the representation of the earth re- Since a considerable amount of navigation
verted to the sphere. In the late seven- is based upon observations aimed at find-
teenth century the idea of oblateness be- ing the angle between the horizon and some
cause of rotation was advanced by New- celestial body it is apparent that compli-
ton and eagerly pursued. During the last cations result from this departure from a
14
 Latitude 15
true sphere. Consequently, whenever maps 13 The Earth Grid
are being prepared for navigation or for In order to locate points on any surface
plotting exact courses and distances from we must have concepts of direction and
one place to another, it is necessary to take distance. Primitive man probably devel-
into account this Battening and bulging. oped these concepts in relation to the ris-
In most other cases of small-scale map- ing and setting sun and the necessity for
ping it may safely be ignored. travel. All locations are relativ'e, and
therefore they must be established in rela-
12 The Size of the Earth
tion to some reference or starting point. If
Since a.ncient times man ha.s been at- such a point is determined every other
tempting to arrive at exact measurements point on the surface can be located in terms
of the planet on which he lives. Near the of direction and distance from this point.
beginning of the Christian era several cal- On a limitless plane surface or on a
culations of the size of the earth were made spherical surface, there is no natural ref-
that apparently came quite close to the erence point; i.e., every point is the same
figures we now accept, but their closeness as every other point except for relative lo-
was the result of fortunate compensation cation. In mathematics a system of loca-
of errors rather than precision. These tion on a plane surface is developed by
early estimates were reported by Ptolemy, establishing a convenient "point of origin"
who, recognizing the observational errors, at the intersection of a horizontal axis and
accepted "corrected" values which reduced a vertical axis and then dividing the plane
the earth's circumference by nearly a into a rectangular grid by additional hori-
fourth. Unfortunately or fortunately de- zontal and vertical lines, usually equally
pending upon one's viewpoint, Ptolemy's spaced. Then any point is located by its
convictions were generally accepted. If distance above or below the horizontal axis
Columbus had known the true size of the and its distance, on either side, from the
earth he probably would not have dared vertical axis. In order to locate ourselves
set sail to find the orient by going west. on the surface of the earth a similar co-
Because of Ptolemy'S acceptance, in the ordinate system, called the earth grid, is
second century A.D., of the reduced value used; but this surface is an "allside" curved
the native of America is called an Indian one (i.e., it curves away in every direction
instead of an American, as he should be! from every point), and the use of straight
In recent times the dimensions of the lines is impossible. On the earth, however,
earth have been calculated and with rela- we are fortunate in having two convenient
tively great precision. International stand- reference points established by nature;
ardization has been proposed but not ac- they are the poles or points where t~e axis
cepted as yet. The following values are of rotation meets the spherical surface.
those generally used in the United .States Furthermore, on the surface of the sphere
and are those of the Clarke spheroid of we can conveniently measure distance in
1866: degrees of arc.
Equatorial radius 6 378 206.4 meters
Polar semi-axis 6 356 583.8 meters
a Latitude
RadiUB of sphere of The ancients appreciated this problem,
equal area 6 370 997.2 meters and as long ago as Greek times a system
Area of earth (approx.) 510 900 000 sq. km. of locating oneself between the two poles
Equatorial circumfer-
ence 40057 km. was devised. A line joining the two poles
 16 The Earth and the System 01 Coordinates
on the earth's surface is a half-circle con- observations must, of course, be made at
taining 180°. When one stands anywhere noon, and sometimes it's cloudy, but the
on this line his horizon seems to him to essential facts can be easily determined.
bound a flat (or nearly flat) circular plane. Stars can be used the same way, but the
If one can imagine himself being out in fundamental fact remains that position
space and looking at this little horizon north-south can be determined by measur-
plane he will see that the plane is tangent ing the angle between the horizon and a
to the circle, and that if he were to shift it celestial body.
north or south along the line it would To utilize this relationship in a spherical
coordinate system was natural, even for the
ancients. They imagined a series of circles
around the earth parallel to one another.
The one dividing the earth in half, equi-
distant between the poles, was named, as
might be expected, the equator. The series
north of the equator was called north lati-
tude. Similarly, the series south from the
equator was called south latitude. To de-
termine which circle one was on and hence
his distance north or south of the equator
required only the observation of the angle
between the horizon and some known celes-
tial body such as the sun, Polaris, or some
other star.
No change has been made in the ystem
since it was first devised nearly twenty-five
FlO. 4. Paraliels on the earth .
hundred years ago.
change orientation but would always be
tangent. Now, if we assume that the sun 16 The Length of a Degree of Latitude
is directly overhead at a point on the equa- In the generally accepted system of
tor the direction of the sun will make an measuring angles, a circle contains 360°;
angle of 90° with the horizon .disc on the a half-circle, 180°. Consequently, there
. equator. At that same moment the sun are 180° of latitude from pole to pole. The
would be cut in half by the horizon if the quadrant of the circle from the equator to
disc were at either pole; i.e., the sun's angle each pole is divided into 90°, and the num-
with the disc would be 0°. The relation- bering starts from 0° at the equator and
ship is complementary. If the angle of the goes to 90° at each pole. Latitude is al-
sun's direction and the horizon disc varies ways designated as north or south.
from 90° to 0° each way from the midpoint On a perfect sphere each degree of lati-
between the poles it is only necessary to tude would be the same length, but the
observe the angle made by the sun and the earth is not a perfect sphere. Rather, as
horizon to calculate how far north or south we have seen, it is bulged at the equator
, of the midpoint one's position is. and flattened near the poles. Since the
The foregoing simplifies the problem bulging makes the surface curve faster near
somewhat for the sun is overhead at the the equator one does not need to travel so
midpoint only twice a year; furthermore, far in order to observe a change of 1° be-
 Longitude 17
tween the horizon and a celestial body. set of lines, meridians, arranged at right
Conversely, one must travel farther near angles to the parallels.
the poles where the surface does not curve
so much. Consequently, the degrees of
latitude are not the same length in earth
distance but vary from a little less than 69
statute miles (68.7) near the equator to a
little more than 69 (69.4) near the poles.
It is apparent that this difference of less
than 1 mile in 69 is of little significance in
small-scale maps but it may become impor-
tant on large maps of small areas. Table 1
TABLE 1. LENGTI'IS OF DEGREES OF THE MERIDIAN.

Lat. Stat. mi. Km.

0-1° 68.703 110 .587
9-10° 68.722 110.598
19-20° 68.781 110 .692
29-30° 68.873 110 .840
39-40° 68.986 111.023
49-50° 69.108 111.220 FlO . 5. Meridians on the earth.
59-60 0 89.224 111.408
69-70 0 69 .320 111.560 All parallels, including the equator, are
79-80 0 69 .383 111 .681 circles; and since each circle is divided in
89-90 0 89.407 111.699 360 0 it is possible to arrange a series of
provides, in abbreviated form , the length
of the degree of the meridian. A more
complete table i included in Appendix C.
For ordinary small-scale use it is well to
keep in mind the fundamental fact that
degrees of latitude or parallels (as the lati-
tude lines are called) are very nearly the
same distance apart from pole to pole.

16 Longitude
The latitude pha e of the coordinate sys-
tem establishes po ition north or south of
the equator, but it cannot, of course, do
more than that. If one is, for example, on
the 45th parallel north he may in fact be
anywhere on that parallel, which is Ii circle
extending · all the way around the earth FIG. 6. The earth's spherical coordinate system.
halfway between the equator and the north
pole. In a sense, the ordinate of the co- lines through the corresponding divisions
ordinate systems is established, but an ab- of each parallel. Each of these lines (me-
scissa is also necessary to establish position ridians) will then extend due north-south
along the parallel. This is done by another and they will be equally spaced east-west
 18 The Earth and the System of Coordinates
on any parallel. They will cross the paral- of latitude. The geometrical relation be-
lels at right angles and thus give us a co- tween the two lengths anywhere is
ordinate system which is like the lines on
cross-section paper except that in this case Length of a degree of longitude
the system lies on a spherical surface rather = Cosine of the latitude X
than the plane surface of paper.
If one chooses a meridian from which to Length of a degree of latitude
start numbering he may then establish his A table of cosines (see Appendix A) will
position as so many degrees east or west show that
of that line. If he were 180° from it he cos 0° = 1.0
would be halfway around the earth from cos 60° = .50
the starting line. We have already seen cos 90° = 0.0
L that it is not difficult to find one's latitude, Thus at 60° north and south latitude the
but although longitude is actually a simpler distance between the meridians is half the
system than latitude it turns out to be very distance between the parallels. This rela-
much more difficult to determine. tionship is helpful in judging the quality of
The earth rotates once on its axis in 24 representation of the earth grid on maps,
hours. Therefore, since there are 360° in . as we shall see later. Table 2 is included
a circle the earth will rotate 15° in 1 hour.
TABLE 2. LENGTHS OJ' DEGREES OJ' THE
All that is necessary, then, is to know the PARALLELS.
difference in local sun time between two
places, and the longitude difference will be Lat. Stat. mi. Km.
a matter of arithmetic. This also was 0° 69 . 172 111.321
5° 68.911 110 .900
reasoned out by the ancients, but since they 10° 68.129 109 .641
had no way of telling the time of day at 15° 66 .830 107.553
two places simultaneously they were un- 20° 65.026 104.649
25° 62.729 100.952
able to figure longitude accurately. As a 30° 59 .956 96 .448
matter of fact it wasn't until a few hundred 35° 56.725 91.290
years ago that clocks (called chronometers) 40° 53.063 85.396
were made accurate enough so that it was 45° 48 .995 78 .849
50° 44 .552 71 .698
possible to determine longitude with any 55° 39 .766 63.996
degree of precision, by carrying one along 60° 34.674 55 .802
showing the time of the starting place. 65° 29 .315 47.177
Today this is accomplished not only by 70° 23 .729 38.188
75° 17 .960 28 .903
using chronometers, but by means of radio 80° 12.051 19.394
time signals broadcast at regular intervals. 85° 6.049 9.735
90° 0 0
17 The Length of a Degree of here as an illustration of the decreasing
Longitude length of a degree of longitude from the
The length of a degree of longitude on equator toward the pole. A more complete
the equator is very nearly the same as a table is included in Appendix C.
degree of latitude. But the meridians con-
verge and pass through the poles and, thus, 18 The Prime Meridian
everywhere except near the equator a de- Unlike the parallels, which have different
gree of longitude will be shorter than one lengths and bear different relationships to
 Distance Measurement 19,
the celestial bodies, the meridians are all of the earth. The circle established by the
alike. Consequently, the choice of the one intersection of this plane with the surface,
from which to Btart the numbering has if ,extended, divides the earth equally into
been, as might be expected, a problem of hemispheres and is termed a great circle.
international consequence. Each country, Each meridian is an arc of a great circle,
with characteristic national ambition, and if joined with its opposite (e.g.,
wished to have 0° longitude within its bor- 0°-180°, 90°E-900W) it constitutes a great
ders or as the meridian of its capital. For circle. The equator is a great circle, but all
many years each nation published its own other parallels are "small circles" since
maps and charts with longitude reckoned they do not bisect the earth.
from its own meridian of origin. This, of Great circles bear a number of geometri-
course, made for much confusion when ,re- cal relationships with the spherical ea.rth
ferring to coordinate positions while using that are of considerable significance in
maps of different countries. cartography and map use:
During the last century many nations
1. Any great circle always bisects any
began to accept the meridian of the observ-
other great circle.
atory at Greenwich near London, England,
2. An arc of a great cir(:le is the shortest
as 0°, and in 1884 it was agreed upon at
distance between two points on the spheri-
an international conference. Today this is
cal earth.
almost universally accepted as the prime
3. The plane in which any great circle
meridian. Since longitude is reckoned as
lies always bisects the earth and hence
either east or west from Greenwich (to
always includes the center of the earth.
180°), the prime meridian is somewhat
troublesome because it divides both Eu- Because a great circle is the shortest dis-
rope and Africa into east and west longi- tance between two points on a spherical
tude. The choice of the meridian of Green- surface, air and sea travel, in so far as is
wich as the prime meridian establishes the possible or desirable, move along such
"point of origin" of the earth's coordinate routes. Radio waves and certain other
system in the Gulf of Guinea, The oppo- electronic impulses tend to travel along
site of the prime meridian, the 180° merid- great circles. For this reason many maps
ian, is more fortunately located , for its po- must be made on which great circles are
sition in the Pacific provides a convenient shown to best advantage.
international date line, requiring only a
few departures. 20 Distance Measurement
Distances on the earth's surface are
19 The Great Circle always reckoned along arcs of great circles
The shortest distance between two points unless otherwise qualified. Because no
is a straight line; however, on the earth it map, except one on a globe, can represent
is obviously impractical to follow this the distance between all points correctly
straight line through the solid portion of it is frequently necessary to refer to a
the planet. The shortest distance between globe, to a table of distances, or to calcu-
two points on a sphere is the arc along late the length of the great-circle arc be-
the surface directly above the straight line. tween two places. A piece of string or the
This arc is formed by the intersection of edge of a piece of paper can be employed
t he spherical surface. with the plane pass- to establish the great circle on a globe. If
ing through the two points and the center the scale of the globe is not readily avail-
20 The Earth and the System of Coordinates
able, the string or paper may be transferred quently, north, east, south , and west are
to a meridian and its length in degrees of never the same actual directions at any two
latitude ascertained. Since all degrees of points. This does not appear to create
latitude are nearly equal and approxi- much of a problem when we look at a globe
mately 69 miles, the length of the arc in map, but if we transfer the parallels and
miles may be determined. meridians to a plane surface we find that,
There ate, of course, many units of dis- just as it is impossible for any map to show
tance measurement used in cartography. all the distances correctly, so also is it im-
For foreign maps not using the English or possible to duplicate everywhere the ori-
the metric system it is necessary to refer entation of the compass rose as it appears
to glossaries or some other source having on the globe.
the information needed for conversion.
The common English and metric units are 22 The Azimuth
given below together with some other units As we have seen, the directions on the
occasionally used m cartography. earth, established by the earth grid , con-
stantly change if one moves across the face
Feet Meters
of the sphere. Only on a meridian or on
Statute mile 520 1 609.34
Nautical mile (U.S.) 6080.20 J 853.24 the equator does direction remain con tant
Kilometer 3280.83 1000.00 along a great circle; but ince arc of a
Foot 0.304 great circle represent the shortest distances
Meter 3.280 between any two points on that great circle,
it is convenient to be able to designate the
21 The Compass Rose
"direction" the great circle has at any
The points of the compass, collectively tarting point toward a destination. This
called the compass rose, were formerly direction is reckoned by ob erving the
standard items on most maps, and they angle the great circle makes with the me-
were usually embellished and made quite ridian of the starting point. The angle is
ornate. Today the compo. s points appear usually designated as a certain number of
less frequently except that, of course , they degrees from north reading clockwise (0 0
are included on all charts for navigational to 360 0 ).
purposes. Nevertheless, the compass points In these days of radio waves and air
and their relation to the earth grid and to transport the direction and route of travel
earth directions are important concepts in along great circles are of major importance.
cartography. Hence many maps are constructed so that
The familiar compass is well known to directional relations are maintained as far
everyone. Its cardinal directions at 90 0 to as possible.
one another are the resuJt of the geometric
relations of the earth grid. Parallels and 23 The Loxodrome
meridians are perpendicular to one another A great circle, being the shortest route
everywhere on the earth. Meridians es- between points on the sphere, is the most
tablish the north-south direction, and par- economical route to follow when traveling
allels, the east-west; but the meridians con- on the earth. But it is practically impos-
verge to a point at each pole whereas the sible to do this, except when travel is along
parallels in each hemisphere simply become a meridian or along the equator. The dif-
smaller and smaller circles until the 90 0 ficulty arises from the fact that, except for
"parallel" is one point, the pole. Conse- those particular great circles, directions
 Direction and Orientation 21

FIG . 7. How azimuth (direction) is read. The drawings show a great circle on the earth grid.
The drawing on the right is an enlarged view of the center section of the drawing on the Jeft.
The azimuth, from the starting point, of any pJace along the great circle to the northeast is
the angle between the meridian and the great circle, reckoned clockwise from the meridian.
Note that the great circle cuts each meridian at a different angle.

constantly change along all other great- to following the inside of the circumference
circle routes. This is illustrated in Fig. 7. of a circle by a series of short straight-line
Because travel along a definite route must chords. It is not the same, of course, since
be directed in some manner, such as by the the great circle is the straight line, if
compass, it i not only inconvenient but viewed from above as it should be, and the
impracticable to try to change cour eat, short (rhumb) lines of constant compass
so to speak, each step. direction are curved lines and are actually
The line of constant compass direction is longer routes.
called a loxodrome. Meridians and the
equator are loxodromes as well as great 24 Direction and Orientation
circles, but all other lines of constant com- As may be een from the preceding, the
pass direction are not great circles. As a representation of directions on maps is no
matter of fact loxodrome are complicated simple matter. Consequently, the deter-
curves, and if one were to travel along a mination of directions from maps should
loxodrome (other than the meridians or the be done with caution, even from those
equator) he would spiral toward the pole maps that have been constructed especially
but in theory never reach it. for the purpo e.
In order to approximate as closely as Many conventions exist in cartography,
possible the great circle, movement is di- and one of the stronger is that of orienta-
rected along a line of constant compass tion or the way the directions on the
direction "inside" the great circle, e.g., mapped earth segment are arranged on the
northe.ast, leaving the great circle and then sheet. Naturally, on a spherical surface
coming back to it, and then taking another there is no up or down along the surface.
constant compass direction for a short dis- But a. sheet when looked at or held in the
tance, and so on. This procedure is similar hand has a top and a bottom. The top
22 The Earth and the System 01 Coordinates
seems to ,be the direction in which the surface likewise makes difficult the reckon-
reader is looking, Originally, when maps ing and representing of areas. To arrive
were made of the as yet unknown earth it at the area of a segment of the surface of a
was ' common for the medieval European sphere is not difficult, but the earth is not
cartographer to place the Itmore important" a sphere. Because it is not a sphere, and
area at the top or in the center. Because for various other reasons that were sug-
of the significance that paradise and the gested earlier, the establishment of exact
place of origin of Christianity had in men's position is difficult. If positions are doubt-
minds during that period, it was the prac- ful then the shape of the spherical segment
tice to place the east or the orient (para- is in doubt and thus the area. of it is open
dise) at the top and Jerusalem at the cen- to question. Besides, most of the areas in
ter. Hence the term Itorientation." Other which one would be interested, aside from
orientations were common in other areas. small land holdings, are extremely irregu-
Several centuries ago the convention of lar, for instance, continents, countries and
placing north at the top became the prac- such with complex boundaries or coastlines.
tice and has become so strongly established Consequently, the only way to measure
that we think of "up north" and "down uch area.s is to map them first and then
south"; upper Michigan and lower Cali- calculate in some manner the area enclosed.
fornia are examples of the unconscious ad- Of course, such a map must be one in which
justment to this convention. Needless to the earth grid has been arranged on the
say, save
I
for the convention, there is no plane surface so that areas are correctly
reason why a map cannot be oriented any represented as to size anywhere within the
way the cartographer pleases. Since we map.
think of the top of a sheet as "away" from
us it is apparent that orienting the maps 26 The Measurement of Areas
in the direction of interest or movement, The area of the irregular shape can be
if any, may well promote the purpose of determined in several ways. One simple
the map. but not pa.rticularly precise manner is to
lay cross-section paper over the region and
26 Areas on the Earth count the number of squares and part-
As the spherical earth complicates the squares enclosed by the boundary. The
determination and representation of dis- other and more precise manner is to em-
tances and directions, the allside curved ploy a polar planimeter. This instrument

FlO. 8. A polar planimeter. Courtesy Keufiel and Esser Company, Hoboken, N. J.

 Determining the Scale of a Map 23
requires merely tracing the outline of the surface. It is usually' referred to as the
area with a pointer and the result is read representative fraction, or "RF" for short.
directly in square units from a dial. Some The unit of distance on both sides of the
planimeters are capable of being set sev- ratio must be in the same units.
eral ways so that the total area may be 2. As a statement of map distance in re-
determined in square miles, centimeters, lation to earth distance. For example, the
miles, acres, or in whatever units the oper- ratio 1: 1,000,000 works out to be approxi-
ator may wish. mately 1 inch to about 16 miles. Many
Occasionally it is necessary to determine map series are commonly referred to by
the area of a region from a map that does this type of scale, e.g., I-inch or 6-inch
not have a proper scale, or, more often, the maps of the British Ordinance Survey (1
result is desired in some unit requiring a inch to 1 mile, 6 inches to 1 mile).
knowledge of square values from the map. 3. A a graphic representation or bar
Although this can usually be figured from scale. This is simply a line on the map
the scale (if the scale is expressed prop-
Miles
erly), it is frequently desirable to deter- o 234 5 6 7
mine the relationship with the planimeter
by measuring a known area on the map. FIG. 9. A graphic or bar scale. They may be
Thi has the advantages of rectifying the made in simple fashion, as above, or they may be
made in more complex form such as those shown
usual paper distortion of the map (which in Fig. 109.
would make the scale erroneous) and of
making certain the relation between the which is subdivided to show the length of
measured units and areas on the earth. a unit of earth distance. One end of the
Table 19, Appendix C, shows the area bar scale is usually subdivided further in
bounded by 10 longitude and 10 latitude order that the map reader may measure
for latitudes from the equator to the pole. distances more precisely.
4. As an area scale instead of a distance
27 The Map Scale scale. When the earth grid is constructed
Since maps must necessarily be smaller so that all area proportions on the earth
than the areas mapped, their use requires are correctly represented, the stated scale
that the ratio or proportion between the one is one in which 1 unit of area (square
and the other be expressed on the map. inches, square centimeters) is proportional
This is called the map scale and should be to a particular number of the same square
the first thing the map user reads. The units on the earth. This may be expressed,
scale is commonly expressed as a distance for exa.mple, either as ·1: 1,000,000' or as 1
on the map to distance on the earth ratio to the square of 1,000,000. Usua.lly, how-
with the distance on the map always ex- ever, the fact that the number is squared
pressed as unity. The map scale may be is assumed and not shown.
expressed in the following ways:
1. As a simple fraction or ratio. This 28 Determining the Scale of a Map
may be shown either as 1: 1,000,000 or Sometimes maps are made that do not
include a scale. This is poor practice, to
1 . The former is preferred. This
1,000,000 . say the least, but nevertheless it occurs.
means that 1 inch or 1 foot or 1 centi- More often it is necessary to determine the
meter on the map represents 1,000,000 scale for a particular part of the map, for,
inches, feet, or centimeters on the earth's as was emphasized previously, the distance
 24 The Earth and the System 01 Coordinates
scale can never be the same all over a flat formation one can change each of the
map. Determination of the map scale may linear scales (RF, graphic, inch to mile)
be accomplished by measuring the map dis- previously described to the others. Exam-
tance between two points that are a known ples folJow.
earth distance apart and then computing
the scale or making a bar scale. Certain If the RF of the map is shown as
known distances of the earth grid are easy 1 :75,000
to use, such as the distance between paral-
Example 1. The inch/ mile scale will be
lels (average of 69 miles) or the distance
between meridians (see Table 17, Appendix (1) 1 inch (map) represents 75,000
C). Care should be exercised that the inches (earth), and
measurement is taken in the direction the 75
(2) 6 ,000 = 1.183; therefore
scale is to be used, for frequently the dis- 3,360
tance scale of the map will not be the same (3) 1 inch represents 1.183 miles.
in all directions from a point.
Example!. To construct the graphic
If the area scale is desired, a known area
on the earth (see Table 19, Appendix C) scale a proportion is established as
may be measured on the map with a pla- (1) 1.183 miles/ 1 inch = 10 mile / x
nimeter and the proportion thus determined. inches; since
It should be remembered that area scales (2) 1.183x = 10, then
are conventionally expressed as the square (3) x = 8.45, and
root of the number of units on the right of ( 4) 8.45 inches represents 10 mi les,
the ratio. Thus if the measurement shows which may be easily plotted and
that 1 square unit on the map represents subdivided.
25,000,000,000,000 of the same units on the
earth it would not be recorded that way, If the graphic scale shows by measure-
2
but as 1: 5,000,000 or merely by the square ment that 1 inch represents 35 miles
root, 1: 5,000,000, which approximates the Example 3. The RF may be determined
linear scale.
(1) 1 inch represents 35 X 63,360 inches,
29 Transforming the Map Scale or
Frequently the cartographer is called (2) 1 inch to 2,217,600 inche ; and there-
upon to change the size of a map, that is, fore
to reduce or enlarge it. The mechanical (3) RF = 1:2,217,600.
means of accomplishing this will be dealt The number of miles to the inch may be
with in a later chapter, but the problem read directly from the graphic scale.
of determining how to change it in terms
of scale is similar to the problem of trans- If the inch/ mile scale is stated as 1 inch
forming one type of scale to another. If to 26 miles the graphic scale may be con-
the cartographer can develop a facility structed as in Example 2 above. The RF
with scale transformation he will experi- may be determined as in Example 3.
ence no difficulty in enlarging or reducing
maps. The changing of the scale of a map which
The essential information necessary for has an area scale is accomplished by con-
transforming linear scales is that 1 mile verting the known area scale and the de-
(statute) = 63,360 inches. With this in- sired area scale to a linear proportion.
 3
The Employment
of Map Projections

30 The Map Projection from a particular point of view. As a

Ever since the Greek philosophers rea- matter of fact there is considerable simi-
soned that the earth must be a ph ere the larity between architectural projection and
problem of how to represent the earth's some kinds of map projection. Properly
spherical surface as a flat map has been of done, an architectural "elevation" of a
paramount interest in cartography. The building is systematically done in perspec-
problem arise from the indisputable fact tive so that every aspect of the building
that it is geometrically impossible to trans- appears correct from that viewpoint. If
fer the relationships existing on a spherical one attempted to measure one of the fore-
surface to a plane· surface without modify- shortened sides without knowing the sys-
ing them in some manner. But it is also tern of projection, the result would prob-
a fact that there are innumerable pos i- ably be erroneous. Similarly the cartogra-
biIities of systematic transformation that pher "projects" his spherical coordinate
can retain , on the plane, one or several of ystem to a plane surface in a systematic
the spherical relationship. The essential manner, and if the map u er attempt to
problem of the cartographer, then , is the obtain some relationship from the projec-
analysis of the geometrical requirements of tion without knowing the sy tern, hi result
the proposed map and the selection of the will likewise probably be erroneous.
system or method of transformation which Actual geometric projection of the grid
will best or most nearly meet them. from the sphere to the plane includes only
The easiest way to visualize the process a few of the possibilities. There are a
of changing from the spherical surface to larger number of po sibilities for the re-
the plane surface is to think of it in terms tention of significant earth relationships
of the earth grid. The actual process of that can be determined m thematically.
transformation is called projection, and the These are also called projections, and no
term "projection" stems from the fact that purpose would be served by attempting to
many means of transformation can be ac- distingui h between geometric and mathe-
complished by "projecting," with line or matical projections.
shadows, the graticule from the sphere to a They are all ystematic representations
plane surface. It is similar to the man~er of the earth grid on a plane surface, and
in which an artist or draftsman can con- each has, for some map u e, pecific assets
struct a scale drawing of a building as seen and liabilities.
2S
26 The Employment of Map P rojections
31 The H istory of Map Projections out "to all points of the compass." One of
The ea.rliest thought of projections of the major trials of the navigator, however,
the spherical earth on a plane surface prob- was that, although he had a rough idea of
ably occurred no earlier than several cen~ where lands were and had the compass to
turies B.C., but in the few hundred years help him, he had no way of plotting or
following the realization that the earth is sailing a course with any degree of cer-
a sphere several solutions to the projection tainty. It was pointed out earlier that
problem were presented. Probably one of the problem of the navigator is that he
the first projections was a simple represen- must sail a loxodrome, a line of constant
tation of the grid as a series of rectangles, compass direction, because he cannot read-
and today we still occasionally use the ily travel any other course. Mercator's
same kind of projection. By the end of solution was to project (mathematically)
the Greek era enough had become known the earth's coordinate system in such a
about the earth, and the problem of pro- way that a straight line anywhere in any
jection was so well understood , that the direction was a loxodrome. Thus if a
great Claudius Ptolemy in his monumental mariner knew from whence he was start-
work on geography was able to include a ing he need but draw a straight line (or a
section on map projections and to devise series of straight lines) to his destination,
and give directions for their construction. and, if he made good allowances for drift
After Ptolemy, the western world lapsed and winds, he had a reasonably good
into the Dark Ages and the knowledge of chance of arriving somewhere near his des-
projection was one of the casualties. tination. The projection suited perfectly
Elsewhere however, notably in the Ar- the purpose of the map. It still does.
abic world, mathematics, geography, and In the less than four hundred years since
projections were kept alive, and when, in Mercator devised his projection the world
the fifteenth century, Ptolemy was "redis- of man has changed tremendously. Dis-
covered," the western world again made tances have been "reduced" a thousand
great strides in cartography and discovery. fold; man has investigated and mapped
This period was as much a Renaissance in an untold number of subjects; and all
bran~hes of science, including cartography,
cartography as it was in anything else, and
have progressed immensely. The develop-
probably the greatest and most influential
ment of map projections kept pace with
map projection ever devised, the Mercator
the developments in other fields, and as
projection, was developed during this pe- the needs arose for ways of presenting par-
riod. ticular geographic relations, a means of
The Mercator projection is an excellent projecting the grid to accomplish the pur-
example of the relation between the re- pose was usually available.
quirements of a map and the manner in Not all projections, by any means, were
which the earth grid may be projected in developed in answer to specific needs as
order to meet the needs. The sixteenth was the Mercator. The transformation of
century was a time of exploration and sea the spherical surface to the plane in such
travel. Columbus had discovered the a manner as to maintain on the plane cer-
Americas; Magellan's ships had succeeded tain of the numerous spherical relation-
in circumnavigating the globe; the earth!s ships is a most intriguing mathematical
land areas were beginning to take shape problem. Consequently, a number of pro-
on the world map; and ships were setting jections have been devised simply as solu- .
 The Classification of Projections 27
tions to interesting problems rather than other phenomena, however, the classifica-
with a specific utility in mind. Also it tion of projections is lIeasier said than
should be remembered that some of our done." The various methods of projection
common projections were originally con- overlap and shade into one another so
templated and worked out by the ancients that any single classification leaves much
and were only resurrected a thousand years to be desired.
or more later when their utility was appre- The usual classification of projections is
ciated. Such was the case with the gno- based on the method of construction, and
monic, orthographic, and stereographic pro- that approach is used in the following
jections, all of which were imagined or de- chapter concerning the construction of pro-
vised before the time of Christ, but were jections. Theoretically, and sometimes
not employed thereafter until more than actually, projections are constructed on
fifteen hundred years later. "developable surfaces." These surfaces
The correlation between the purpose of are those geometric forms capable of being
the map and the projection used is strik- flattened such as a cone or a cylinder (both
ingly revealed by the tremendous advances of which may be cut and laid out flat) or
made during the last century or so. As a plane (which is already fiat). The grid
transportation abilities have increased and of the earth is II projected" geometrically
social consciousness has developed the or mathematically on to the surfaces which
need for maps for air navigation and other are then developed, i.e., flattened. Con-
nonoceanic travel, and for the display of ventionally the axis of the earth is aligned
population, land use, and other geographic with the axes of the cylinder and cone (see
factors, has likewise increased. Many new Fig. 10) so that in a projection based upon
projections have been devised and ways a cone meridians converge in one direction
of adapting many old ones worked out, and and diverge in the other, and on the flat-
today there is literally an unlimited num- tened cylinder meridians are straight par-
ber of projections from which to choose. allel lines. Projections on a plane are not
It may r-easonably be asserted that at so conventionally aligned, and no generali-
present cartographers need to devote little zations can be made about their appear-
time to devisin·g new projections but rather ance. Such a gro.uping of pr:ojections, geo-
would do better to become more proficient
metrically, results in categories called cy-
in selecting from the ones available. On
lindrical, conic, azimuthal (plane), and mis-
the other hand, if a. new and pa.rticular
cellaneous (those based o.n no geometric
use of maps requires a special type of pro-
jection, undeveloped as yet, such a projec- form). Occasionally the cylindrical group
tion might well be worth the time and is called rectangular. Whatever the ter-
effort spent in devising it. minology employed the grouping is, strictly
speaking, not a classification but a listing.
32 The Classification of P rojections This constructional approach cannot en-
It was pointed out above that there are tirely satisfy the cartographer, since before
an unlimited number of possibilities for he can set about to construct a projection
representing the earth grid systematically he must first choose it from the possibili-
on a plane. Consequently, it would be dQ- ties. Consequently, for the purpose of the
sirable to be able to classify them in some following brief discuss~on ot the principles
manner so that their recognition and i:hoice of choosing and employing projections an-
would thereby be made easier. Like many other approach, that of utility, is adopted.
28 The Employment of Map Projections

FIG. 10. Surfaces on which the earth's grid may be projected. The origin of the projecting
lines may assume various positions. For example, it may be at the center of the earth, or
at the antipode 01 the point of tangency of the plane.

There is a tendency, common among much we concern ourselves with "deforma-

those who do not quite appreciate the na- tion," "alteration," "distortion," and all the
ture of projections to think of them as but other concepts used in analyzing projec-
poor representations of an actual globe tions, a projection is a triumph of ingenu-
surface and thus to select on the basis of ity and is a positive, useful device.
"the least of the evils." Such an attitude The notion that one projection is by na-
leads to the conviction that one projection ture better than another is as unfounded
is better intrinsically than another. Noth- as saying pliers are better than screw-
ing could be farther from the truth. Pro- drivers. Each (tool or projection) is a
jections are commonly advantageous for device to use for a particular purpose, and
reasons other than the fact that it is some will be good for one purpose and bad
cheaper to make a fiat map than a globe for another. There are some projections
map. The majority of projections enable for which no useful purpose is known, but
us to map distributions and derive and there is no such thing. as a bad projection-
convey concepts that would be quite im- there are only poor choices.
possible or at least undesirable on a globe. The following sections consider the vari-
Imagine trying to navigate and draw ous kinds of deformation (angular, area,
straight precise courses or loxodromes on distance, and direction) that may occur
a globe surface, or trying to compare dis- when the transformation from the spheri-
tributions of population on a globe when cal to the plane surface is made. The dis-
you could see less than half at a time, and cussion in the balance of the chapter sepa-
that disturbed by perspective. The truth rates projections into classes (equivalent,
of the matter is that regardless of how conformal, azimuthal, and others) based
 Angular Alteration 29
primarily upon their major property (qual- the student with an understanding of the
ity). Each property, e.g., equivalence, is basic problems resulting from these alter-
of sufficient significance so that it is usu- ations a brief resume of their characteris-
ally the first distinguishing characteristic tics follows.
with which the cartographer begins to
make his choice. The classes, unfortu- 34 Angular Alteration
nately, are not entirely mutually exclusive, The compass rose, except at the poles,
for there are some azimuthal projections is everywhere the same on the globe sur-
that are also conformal or equivalent. The face; that is to say, the cardinal directions
inherent qualities of the projections in each are always 90° apart and each of the inter-
class are relatively distinctive, and when vening directions is always at the same
one projection is chosen from a class on angle. This is ~he case because all par-
a utilitarian basis the fact that it has prop- allels and meridians cross one another at
erties of another class is usually of minor 90° and our angular concepts are based
significance. on this arrangement.
It is possible to retain this property of
33 The Deformation in Map angular relations to some extent in a map
Projections projection. When it is retained the pro-
No matter how the earth grid may be j ection is termed con! ormal or orthomor-
arranged on a plane surface, the result can phic, and the meanings of both words im-
never duplicate the relationships existing ply "correct form" or "shape." This is a
on a globe. The alteration of the grid and, bit misleading for no projection can pro-
of course, the land and sea areas plotted on vide correct shape to areas of any extent.
the map according to it may take several The property of conformality (or ortho-
forms . morphism) is obtained by retaining in the
map projection two conditions of the globe
1. Similar angles at different places on
grid. One is that the parallels and merid-
the earth may not be shown as similar on
ians cross at 90°, and no projection can be
the map.
conformal whose coordinates do not do so.
2. The area of one section may be en-
The second concerns the fact that on a
larged or reduced in proportion to that of
globe the distance scale will obviously
another region.
always be the same everywhere. That is
3. Distance relationship among points
to say, all pairs of points 10 miles apart
on the earth cannot be shown without dis-
anywhere on the earth will be the same
tortion on the map.
distance apart on the globe or spherical
4. Directions among divergent points
surface. If this condition is not retained
cannot be shown without distortion on the
in the projection then it is apparent,. with
map.
a little reflection, that the angles between
There are many other specific spatial points cannot be the same. Naturally the
conditions which mayor may not be du- second condition could not be duplicated
plicated in map projections such as parallel on a Bat projection, but it is possible to
latitude lines, the poles being represented construct a grid so that around each point
as points, and so on which may assume on the projection the scale is the same in
great significance for certain maps. But all directions although it necessarily must
the major alterations which may occur are vary from point to point. Consequently,
those listed above. In order to provide on all conformal projections the scale will
30 The Employment of Map Projections
vary from one point to another. Figure 11 tween the sides is varied so that the prod-
illustrates in part the necessity for this re- uct of the two is always the same the
lationship . . area enclosed will also be the same j 1 X
It is important to realize that just be- 1 = 1, or 2 X 0.5 = 1, or 3 X 0.33 = 1, or
cause a projection has parallels and merid- 4 X 0.25 = 1, and so on.
ians that cross at 90° does not mean that To state the proposition in general terms,
it is conformal. Both the above require- if, in a map projection, the scale is manipu-
ments must be satisfied. lated in such a way that whenever it is
enlarged above unity in one direction at a
36 Area Alteration point it is correspondingly reduced in the
Just as any distance on the earth is direction' perpendicular to the other, the
"correct" so also are all areas in "proper" areas represented will be the same in size,
proportion; i.e., they are the given ma- although, of course, the shapes will be
terial. That statement is so obvious that changed from those on the sphere. A
it seems ridiculous even to suggest that it more detailed analysis of the facts in-
has any importance. Yet these two con- volved is given in Appendix D.
ditions, existing on the spherical earth , are A map projection that retains the area
of considerable significance when we exam- relationships in this way is called an equiv-
ine their relationship on a flat projection alent or equal-area projection. Such a
surface. It has already been pointed out
projection can have the scale the same in
that it is impossible to duplicate all dis-
all directions only at one or (at the most)
tance relationships on a flat surface j i.e.,
two points or along one or two lines, these
we cannot keep the map distances between
all points correct. Consequently, it might being construction lines or points around
be concluded that, since area is a function which the rest of the projection is devel-
of dimension, it is likewise impossible to oped. At all other places the scale will be
duplicate the areas in proper proportion to greater than unity in one direction and
one another. But it is possible. correspondingly less in the perpendicular
An area of 1 square inch may have sides direction.
of 1 inch in length. By reducing one side Since this is the opposite of one of the
to Y2 inch and enlarging the other side to requirements for conformality (scale the
2 inches we have certainly changed the same in all directions at each point), it is
shape, but the area enclosed remains un- apparent that no conformal projection can
changed. So long as the relationship be- be equivalent.

FIo. 11. Angular and areal relations. The two squares ,on the left show that relative direc-
tions may be maintained even if size is different. On the other hand, the three right-hand
shapes show that if relative dimensions are changed angles must be changed also.
 Direction Alteration 31
Thus all conformal projections will dis- those points. Such proj ections are called
tort most earth areas and all equivalent equidistant.
projections will distort most earth angles.
Any other scale relationship must be a
36 D istance Alt erat ion compromise in order to gain better distance
relationships in some or all directions in
The alterations of areas and angles
one part of the map at the expense of some
which occur "'.hen the spherical surface is
other part.
represented on a plane are the most im-
portant for the majority of cartographic 37 Direction Alteration
representations. Two others, however,
Just as it is impossible to represent all
need to be considered in order that the stu-
earth distances with a consistent scale on
dent may have a sound understanding of
the flat projection, so also is it impossible
what may, or rather must, happen when
to represent all earth directions correctly
the one surface is projected to another.
with straight lines on the map. It is true
One of these concerns the problem of the
that the Mercator projection provides
alteration of distances.
"straightened" loxodromes so that if you
It must be thoroughly understood that
were to follow a straight line on the map
it is quite impossible to represent at a con-
with a constant compass bearing you would
sistent scale all distances of the sphere on
actually pass through the points on the
a plane. It is possible, on the other hand,
line. But straight lines on a Mercator
to maintain some elements of distance, and
chart are not "true" directions in the sense
on ,certain types of maps, this may assume
that we think of lines of direction on the
an importance above even con formality or
earth. All loxodromes, except for the me-
equivalence. If, for example, one is map-
ridians and the equator, are curved and
ping certain aspects of temperatures on the spiraling lines of constant compass direc-
earth it may be that these are so intimately tion. As a matter of fact if one were to
related to latitude that it might be neces- point to western Siberia. from central
sary to retain on the map the appearance United States he would point north, for
of the latitudes at their correct spacing. that is the direction of the great circle join-
This is possible, but only at the expense ing the two areas. Yet if he were to fol-
of considerable angular alteration, or other low a north direction on the Mercator he
distortion. would be attempting to reach infinity, not
Distance representation is a matter of Siberia. On the Mercator chart western
retaining scale; that is, for · distances to Siberia is shown east or west from central
be represented "correctly" the scale must United States, a departure of nearly 90°.
be uniform along the line joining the points When directions are defined properly as
being scaled. The following are possible: great circle bearings, and if we think of a
correct direction as being along a great
1. Scale may be maintained in one diFec- circle on the map which has the proper
tion, e.g., north-south or east-west, but azimuth reading with the local meridian,
only in one direction. When this is done then certain representations are possible.
the parallels or meridians that are the cor-
rect scale are called standard (see Article _ 1. Straight great circles between all
48). points may be shown for a limited area
2. Scale may be maintained in all direc- although they will not have proper angular
tions from one or two points, but only from relations with the meridians (azimuths) .
32 The Employment of Map Projections
To do this causes such a strain, so to speak, straight lines (if looked at perpendicular to
on the transformation process that it is not the earth's surface as is true on a map).*
possible 'for even an entire hemisphere. 4. Meridians converge toward the poles
2. Straight great circles with correct azi- or diverge toward the equator.
muths may be shown for all directions from 5. Meridians are equally spaced on the
one or, at the most, two points. Such parallels, but their distance apart decreases
projections are called azimuthal. from the equator to the pole.
6. Meridians at the equator are spaced
Any other direction relationship must be
the same as parallels.
a compromise, just as in the case of dis-
7. Meridians at 60° are half as far apart
tances.
as parallels.
38 Analysis of the D eformation 8. Parallels and meridians cross one an-
other at right angles. (Therefore, with 10
The cartographer must be able to recog-
nize the deformation that is inherent in the below, the compass rose is the same any-
projection of any map with which he is where.)
working. He must also know the deforma- 9. The area of the surface bounded by
tion characteristics of the common projec- any two parallels and two meridians (a
tions so that he may be able intelligently given distance apart) is the same any-
to choose, from among the multitude of where between the same two parallels.
possibilities, the be'st one for whatever kind 10. The scale at each point is the same
of map he may be contemplating. The in any direction.
former may be accomplished in a general
To illustrate the mental processes the
way by becoming familiar with the char-
cartographer should employ when analyz-
acteristics of the earth's coordinate system
ing a projection Figs. 12 and 13 together
and then analyzing the projection grid.
The latter involves the analysis, for each with their analyses are given. The num-
projection, of the amount of alteration that bers of the visual characteristics in the list,
takes place in so far as it is commensurable referred to in the legends, are placed in
and the comparison of the values of dif- parentheses.
ferent projections.
39 Tissot's Indicatrix
The visual characteristics of the earth
grid, some of which have been discussed In a classic treatise published less than
previously, are given in the following list.* seventy-five years ago (M emoire sur la
representation des surfaces, Paris, 1881)
1. Parallels are parallel. M. A. Tissot developed the procedure
2. Parallels are spaced equally on me- whereby it is possible to determine the
ridians. amount of angular and areal alteration
3. Meridians and great circles are
which occurs at any point on any map pro-
• In the following list several slight variations jeotion. His method of analysis is based
have been approximated in order that the prin-
ciples may be more clearly grasped. In number • If one looks directly at a globe the great
2, parallels actually vary in their spacing by about circles passing through the point nearest his eye
0.7 mile; in number 6, the discrepancy is negligi- will appear as straight lines. Most projections are
ble ; and in number 7, there is a difference of attempts at presenting the spherical surface in
about 0.1 mile. None of these approximations plan undistorted by perspective, i.e., so that the
would be of significance in a general-use map eye is assumed to be directly above each point of
with a Bcale smalJer than 1: 2,000,000. the map.
 Tissot's Indicatrix 33

\:.QUATOR

FlO. 12. One hemisphere of the azimuthal equidistant projection. Since a series of straight-
line meridians (3), which are, of course, arcs of great circles, converge to a point and are
properly arranged around the point as shown by their equal spacing on each parallel (5), the
projection must be azimuthal from the point of convergence. The foregoing plus the fact
that the parallels are equally spaced on the meridians (2) makes it evident that there is no
scale change along the meridians; hence the projection must be equidistant from the point ·
of convergence. Because, however, on the projection the meridians at the equator are not
spaced the same as parallels (6) the scale 'cannot be equal in every direction from each point.
Hence it cannot be conformal. Also, since the scale along the meridians has been shown to
be correct by the spacing of the parallels (2) and because of the fact that azimuths from the
pole are correct it is likely that the central (polar) area is close to truth. If that is true,
then the equatorial areas are disproportionately large because of the excessive distances be-
tween the meridians (6). Therefore, the projection cannot be equivalent. Courtesy Annals
of the Association 0/ American Geographers.
34 The Employment 01 Map Projections

EQUATOR
FIG. 13. One quadrant of the Mollweide projection. Since the scale is not the same in every
direction (10), as shown by the disproportionate length of the meridian sections at the equator
(6), and the compass rose is not the same because parallels and meridians do not cross one
another at right angles (8), the projection obviously is not conformal. Because numbers nine
(9), and fivE: (5) appear to be satisfied it is likely that the projection approaches equal-area.
Because the parallels are not equally spaced (2) and because they do not always cross merid-
ians at right angles (8), it is evident that angular relations are greatly distorted. Courtesy
Annals of the A880ciation of American Geographers.
on the scale departures from unity that 40 Other Methods of Recognizing
must necessarily, as we have seen, take Deformation
place when the allside curved surface is Tissot's indicatrix is limited in its ana-
represented on a plane. He found that a lytical function to values at a point, and by
theoretical circle anywhere on the sphere plotting these values over the projection,
would be represented by some form of we may see the change of deformation from
ellipse on a systematic projection. By an- point to point. It does not, however, pro-
alyzing the ellipse (which he called th~ vide much help in the other aspect of de-
indicatrix), he was able to determine the formation inherent in projections, that of
degree with which angles around a point the distance and angular relation between
depart from what they should be or the widely spaced points or areas such as con-
degree to which areas are exaggerated or tinents. To date this kind of deformation
reduced. An explanation of the indicatrix has not been found to be commensurable,
is included in Appendix D. and consequently graphic means have been
The values derived from the analysis of employed to help show the change of spa-
the indicatrix may be plotted on the pro- tial relations.
jection and thereby show the distribution Varioue devices have been employed to
of angular alteration or areal exaggeration. this end, such as a man's head plotted on
Many of the projections illustrated in this different projections to illustrate elonga-
chapter will have such distributions shown tion, compression, and shearing of areas.
on them. For a number of projectiQns the Another device has been the covering of the
necessary data have not been determined. - globe with equilateral t riangles and t hen
 The Equivalent Projections 3S
reproducing the same triangles on the dif- relative extent of various regions are gained
ferent projections. This appears to be par- subconsciously through frequent experi-
ticularly helpful, and the reader is referred ence. For this reason most people think
for this subject to the book by Fisher and Greenland is a great deal larger than
Miller entitled W orld Maps and Globes, Mexico (nearly the same size) and that
Essential Books, New York, 1944, for ex- Africa is smaller than North America
cellent illustrations of this use of triangles. (Africa is more than 2,000,000 square miles
larger) . It is, of course, obvious that if
41 The Equivalent Projections any area measurement is contemplated the
The property of equivalence, or equal- projection must have a uniform area scale.
area, is of fundamental importance in the The choice of an equivalent projection
depends upon two important considera-
tions:
1. The size of the area involved.
2. The distribution of the angular defor-
mation.
There are a great many possibilities
from which to choose, and if the cartog-
rapher will but keep these two elements
in mind he will rarely make a bad choice.
In general, the smaller the area to be
Flo .. 14. These two areas (France, left; and Mada-
represented the less significant is the choice
gascar, right) are nearly the same size on the
earth. Areas were considerably altered, however, of projection for a genera) map. Any
on the projection from which these two outlines equal-area projection will have points (per-
were traced, so that France appears Jarger than it haps only one) or lines of no angular de-
should by compari on to Madagascar. The same formation . Consequently, if the area is
number of dots has been pJaced within each out-
not large a projection may be chosen with
line but the apparent density is not the same, al-
though it should be. fortuitous deformation relationships for
the area involved, and the representation
presentation of distributions of geographic will be practically unassailable. For large
and economic data. The mapping of many areas or the whole earth the distribution of
types of statistical and other kinds of in- the deformation becomes of paramount sig-
formation requires that the reader receive nificance. The areas of topical importance
the correct impression of the relative sizes on the map should be represented in the
of the areas involved. If he does not he is best fashion possible by the choice of a pro-
likely to gain an erroneous impression of jection with an advantageous distrihutibn
relative densities. This, of course, is fatal of deformation.
to the purpose of the map which is to pre- A few lepresentative types of equivalent
sent correct visual densities. An example projections are .shown and brief notes on
of how this can come about is illustrated their employment given. Most of the illus-
in Fig. 14. Furthermore, even for more trations show lines of equal angular defor-
general uses an equivalent projection is m~tion so that the pattern of deformation
usually desirable (if the purpose does not will be apparent. The values of the lines
specifically require another property) , for vary so that it is necessary for the reader
many of our general impressions of the to note the values carefully if he wishes to
 36 The Employment of Map Projections

FIG. 15. The Albers conic projection. Values of lines of equal maximum angular deforma-
tion are 1· .

compare the various projections. The The Bonne projection (Fig. 16) has a
lighter portion of the projection shows the standard central meridian along which
area of lesser deformation. For definitions the~e is no deformation. The repre enta-
of the terms used see Appendix D. tion decreases in quality outward from the
The Albers projection (Fig. 15) has two central meridian so that this projection is
standard parallels along which there is no a better choice for an area of greater north-
angular deformation. Deformation zones south extent and lesser east-west extent.
are arranged parallel to the standard The sinusoidal proj ection (Fig. 17) has
parallels as shown. Any two parallels in the merit of a straight central meridian
one hemisphere may be chosen as standard and equator along both of which there is
but the closer together they are, of course, no angular deformation. A further merit
the better will be the representation be- of this projection is that the parallels are
tween them. Because of the neat appear- the same vertical distance apart, giving the
ance of the straight meridians and the con- illusion of proper spacing so that it is use-
centric arc parallels which meet the merid- ful for representations where latitudinal
ians at right angles this is a good projection relations are significant.
for middle-latitude areas of greater east- The oval Mollweide projection (Fig. 18)
west extent and a lesser north-south ex- does not have the pointed polar areas of
tent. Parallel curvature ordinarily be- the sinusoidal and thus appears a bit more
comes excessive if the projection is ex- realistic. In order for it to be equal-area
tended for much over 100 0 longitude. within the oval shape it is necessary to de-
 The Equivalent Projections 37

FlO. 16. The Bonne projection. Values of lines of equa l maximum angular deformation are
1" and 5°.

crease the north-south scale in the high are stretched in the north-south direction.
latitudes and increase it in the low lati- Deformation distribution is similar to that
tudes. The opposite is true in the east- of the Mollweide.
west direction. Shapes are modified ac- The Lambert equal-area projection (Fig.
cordingly. The two areas of least defor- 20) is both azimuthal and equivalent.
mation in the middle latitudes make the Since deformation is symmetrical around
projection useful for world distributions the central point, which can be located
with interest concentrated in those areas. anywhere, the projection is useful for areas
The Eckert IV (Fig. 19) is the best whose east-west and north-south dimen-
known of several similar equivalent projec- ions are nearly equal. Consequently,
tions. The pole is represented by a line areas of continental proportions are well
instead of a point so that the polar areas represented on this projection. It is lim-
are not quite so compressed in the east- ited to hemispheres. Its azimuthal proper-
west direction as on the preceding two pro- ties are described in Article 43.
jections. This takes place however at the The cylindrical equal-area projection
expense of their north-south representation. (Fig. 21) is one example of this method of
As in the Mollweide the equatorial areas projection which is capable of variation
38 The Employment 01 Map Projections
 The Conformal Projections 39

FlO. 18. The Mollweide projection . Values of lines of equal maximum angular deformation
are 10· and 40·.

like the Albers conic. That i , the projec- conformal map. On the contrary, they are
tion is constructed on the basis of two likely not to be correct. Perhaps the most
standard parallels. The two parallels may important use of conformal projections is
"coincide," so to speak, and be the equator, for navigational maps such as nautical and
or they may be any others so long as they aeronautical charts and for weather and
are homolatitudes (the same parallels in survey maps where the angular qualities
opposite hemispheres). Deformation is ar- are frequently used.
ranged, of course, parallel to the parallels. Because there is no angular deformation
There are many other method of equal- at any point on a conformal map the notion
area projection most of which are in the is widespread that shapes of countries and
world-projection class. Naturally there continents are well presented on projections
can be only one conic or cylindrical equiva- having this quality. Although it is true
lent method with two standard parallels, that very small areas on conformal projec-
but there is an infinite number of possibili- tions are practically perfect, it is also true
ties for world projection. that in order to retain angular representa-
tion it is necessary to alter the area rela-
42 The Conformal Projections tionships. Thus, on conformal projections
The property of conformality has many the area scale varies from point to point,
important uses in cartography. The fact and consequently large areas are imp~r­
that the compass rose is correct anywhere fectly represented with respect to shape.
on the projection makes a conformal pro- It is difficult to express area deformation on
jection desirable whenever the directional a conformal projection, for, in a sense,
relations at a series of points are important there is nothing deformed since all angular
as, for example, in a map of wind direc- relationships at each point are retained.
tions. It must not be assumed, however, All that changes is the linear scale, and
that the directions between points some one point is as lIaccurate" as another; only
distance apart are likely to be correct on a the scales are different. Thus one may
40 The Employment of Map Projections

o
~
o
o
.....

o.....
I
o
,-...
.....

._
o
..,rn
I'l
oto
'0
gj
;::s
<il
>
 The Conformal Projections 41

FIG. 20. The Lambert azimuthal equal-area projection. Values of lines of equal maximum
angular deformation are 10' and 25°.

~ p:; . . . . ,.-r-_ ~v
'~

_s: ~
..:::::
IJ ,-
T ?' 1,5~.P ~ ~~

f\ ,I V LJ-.JJ ~
"",- C cD I( \ ~r---;q R
_../

I"bl
'\
I(
\--:--.
~ 1\ "\ "
'1~ /1
p.
<:I
D /
..... 'j . ~ ~ ~ r I~
""

1\ ( I /J r'lJ\
r \ / v (
/ '} - ~
(
--- Lr--~
T1 '1"

FIG. 21. The cylindri cal equal-area projection, with standard parallels at 30·. Values of lines
of equal maximum angu lar deformation are 10· and 40·.

refer to the standard lines or points of The Mercator projection (Fig. 22) is one
origin as having a particular scale and then of the mo t famous projections ever de-
refer to the other areas as being exagger- vised. It was invented in 1569 by the
ated in comparison, for on conformal pro- famous Dutch cartographer as a device for
jections the linear and areal scales always navigation, and it has served this purpose
increase away from the origin of the pro- well. In addition to being conformal it has
jection. the added advantage that all loxodromes
Some of the conformal projections to- are represented as straight lines, an obvi-
gether with some notes on their qualities ous advantage to one trying to proceed
are presented. while watching a compass. Except for ·the
42 The Employment 01 Map Projections

~ ~"'~~~ v ~~
',~

f .

~~-~ --'(~, /~ ~ ~!/

~ r~ ,~~~ ~~
I'..J
r~' .c:. ,
~ 71 .; ,;.' • '. '<'.

1 "
.- ~ I""
' " ~.14\.~ ~ 'i ,. ,f \! ~ "
'I '
~P I

, /
.,' ~
' '
,
i 1\,.
, ,Yr , ' I' ' ", ' ~ ',,';;" I I

~ Il ~/ f-
i\ /'"\[1,\ "-.0
D '--- "'_'r- J 'I:~ [/)
~~
'") ~ f'l~ ~
\. V,1 IrV1JJC
. .,':' ~

p
'
ro", I"" ' , 1"\
':", ,., ,I".

"
"'k. \ I , p:' "-11,1. ':
"C

" _, ' ' ' "em r1 i l,.......:r '\ '/ !

I"
,"" l.~
If ' I , ~

t·
.,.. 'J
FIG. 22. The Mercator projection. Values of lines of equal areal exaggeration are 25% and
250%.

STANDARD PARAllEL

FIG. 23. The Lambert conformal conic. Values of lines of equal areal exaggeration are 2%.
 The Conformal Projections 43

FlO. 24. The etereographic projection. Values of lines of equal areal exaggeration are 300/0
and 2000/0 (approx.).

meridians and the equator, directions other parallels on the Lambert increases
(great-circle courses) are not straight lines, away from the standard parallels. Area
so this projection does not show "true di- exaggeration between and near the stand-
rection"; but such courses can be easily ard parallels is relatively small, and thus
transferred from a projection (gnomonic) the projection provides exceptionally good
that does so. A series of straight "chords" directional and shape relationships for an
or rhumb lines can thus approximate a east-west latitudinal zone. Consequently,
great circle. It is apparent that the pro- the projection is much used for air naviga-
jection enlarges (not distorts) areas greatly tion in intermediate latitudes (4° to 72°)
in the higher latitudes, so it is of little use and for meteorological charts.
for purposes other than navigation. Al 0 The stereographic projection (Fig. 24)
the poles cannot be represented for they belongs also in the azimuthal group. Like
are "at" infinity on the conventional Mer- the other azimuthal projections the defor-
cator. This is a distinct handicap in these mation (in this case area exaggeration) in-
days when the polar areas are of more than creases outward from the central point
usual significance. The Mercator projec-
symmetrically. As in the case of the
tion is particularly useful for navigation in
equivalent azimuthal this is desirable when
the equatorial and middle latitudes. Al-
most all nautical charts are made on this the area to be represented is more or .less
projection. square or of continental proportions. In
The Lambert conic projection (Fig. '23) addition to being conformal and azimuthal
is very similar in appearance to the Albers the stereographic has an additional attri-
equivalent projection, for it, too, has con- bute which no other projection has. All
centric parallels and equally spaced, circles on the earth remain as circles on the
straight meridians that meet the parallels projection. It is possible therefore to plot
at right angles. Like the Albers it has two the ranges of radiating objects, from radio
standard parallels, but the spacing of the waves to airplanes, merely with a compass.
44 The Employment 01 Map Projections
This projection, centered on a pole, is much is, the scale variation (and it must vary
used for navigation in the very high lati- either linearly, angularly, or areally) radi-
tudes . . ates outward from the center in every di-
rection. There is no deformation of any
43 The Azimuthal P r oject ions kind at the center. Furthermore, since all
The azimuthal projections have long these projections are "projected" on a plane
been known but only recently have they tangent to the sphere, all great circles pass-
been resurrected to a po ition of prom- ing through the point of tangency (center
inence, or perhap notoriety, among map of projection) will be straight lines on the
projections. The popular notion that we map and will show the correct azimuths
have entered an "air age" provided many from the cent I' to any point. It should be
map makers with the need for displaying emphasized that only azimuths (direc-
the earth on projections that were better tions) from the center are correct on an
fitted for the requirement of this modern azimuthal projection.
era. They chose the azimuthal projections. At the center point all azimuthal pro-
It may turn out that the choice of just any jections are identical, and the variation
azimuthal in many cases was not a wise among them is merely a matter of the scale
selection. Like the other categories the differences along the straight great circles
azimuthal group has a number of types, that similarly radiate from the center.
each with quite different properties. Figure 45 illustrates this relationship. Any
All azimuthal projections do have, how- azimuthal projection may be changed to
ever, certain qualities which are peculiar any other one by changing the scale rela-
to this class. The projections are theoreti- tions along the azimuths. There i no de-
cally (or actually) "projected" upon a formation at the center, and the fact that
plane tangent to the sphere at any desired the deformation radiates symmetrically
point. Consequently, the proj ections are makes this class of projections useful for
symmetrical around the chosen center; that areas having more or less equal dimensions

FIG. 25. The gnomonic projection. Values of lines of equal angular deformation are 10· and
25·. Areal exaggeration, extreme toward the peripheries, is also present.
 The A zimuthal Projections 45
in each direction, or for lpaps in which cator. The defonnation, both angular and
interest is not localized in one dimension. areal, increases rapidly away from the
Because any azimuthal proj ection can be center so that the projection is not much
centered anywhere and still present a rea- good for any purpose .other than showing
sonable appearing grid the class is rather great circles as straight lines. Because pro-
more versatile than others. We frequently jection is from the center of the earth on
see an azimuthal proj ection with the north the tangent plane, less than a hemisphere
pole as the center, for it is easy to draw can be constructed.
and provides an illusion of reality because The azimuthal equidistant projection
of 'the regularity of the grid. Except for (Fig. 26) has become popular in recent
the basic properties the other qualities of years. It has the unique quality that the
azimuthal projections so centered are some- linear scale does not vary along the radi-
what wasted. ating azimuths from the center. Therefore
The gnomonic proj ection (Fig. 25), like the position of every place is shown in con-
the Mercator, is one of the most used pro- sistent relative position and distance from
jections of any class. It has the unique the cente?·. Directions and distances be-
property that all great-circle arcs are rep- .tween points whose connection does not
re en ted anywhere on the map as straight pass through the center are not shown cor-
lines. Therefore the navigator need but rectly. It is apparent, then, that unless
join the point of departure and destina- movement from the center outward is of
tion with a straight line and his course is major significance, the azimuthal and equi-
determined. Because compass directions distant qualities may be wasted and some
constantly change along a great circle, the other projection might be a better choice.
navigator transfers the course from the Any kind of travel that emanates from 8.
gnomonic grid to the Mercator grid and center is well shown on this projection.
then approximates it with a series of loxo- The projection has an advantage over
dromes which are straight lines on the Mer- many of the other azimuthal projections

FlO. 26. The azimuthal equidistant projection. Values of lines of equal maximum angular
deformation are 10° and 25°. Areal exaggeration is also pre ent.
46 The Employment 01 Map Projections

FlO. 27. The orthographic projection. Values of Jines of equal maximum angular deforma-
tion are 10° and 25°. Areal exaggeration is also present.

in that it is possible to show the entire a grid that either has some general desir-
earth on the projection. Most azimuthals able quality such as ease of construction
are limited to presenting a hemisphere or or is a sort of compromise among the spe-
Ie s. cific properties.
The orthographic projection (Fig. 27) One of the most interesting of these kinds
looks like a photograph of the eart.h grid of projections is the minimum-error pro-
taken from a considerable distance al- jection in which the grid of a specific area
though it is not quite the same. F or is presented in such a way that the angular
this reason it might almost be called a and areal deformation is balanced over the
visual projection in that the deformation entire area as much as possible. Such a
of areas and angles, although great, is not projection will have no precise properties
particularly apparent to the viewer since but :will give a very "life-like" picture. In
it appears the same as if he were looking other words the angular error will not be
at a portion of the globe. On this account as great as it would be if the projection
it is popular for presenting directional con- were equivalent; neither will the areal de-
cepts (e.g., Europe as seen from the south), formation be as great as it would be if the
illustrative maps, and for those maps projection were conformal. No purpose
wherein the sphericity of the earth is of would be served by illustrating a mini-
major significance. mum-error projection because the projec-
tion of each specific area for which it is
44 Other Projections developed would be different. It would,
There are a number of map projections ordinarily, appear as if it had a conic
that have none of the special properties ongm. This type of projection is, in a
considered above but that are nevertheless sense, the ideal kind for general maps or
useful for certain purposes. A great many for reference atlas maps, but its construc-
maps do not require any of the special tion is too complicated for its use to be
properties but rather are best presented on widespread.
 Other Projections 47

FlO. 28. The polyconic projection. Values of lines of equal maximum angular deformation
are 1° and 5°. Areal exaggeration is also present.

The polyconic projection (Fig. 28) is each small section on its own polyconic
much used in this country for topographic projection is therefore desirable. The pro-
map sheets and is employed, in modified jection is also easy to construct.
form, for one of the large-scale (1: 1,000,- The polyconic used for the so-called Mil-
000) maps of the world. It has a straight lionth or International Map of the world
central meridian along which the linear was modified by making the meridians
scale is correct. The parallels are arcs of straight instead of curved, and by making
circles but each is a standard parallel in two of them, instead of one, standard on
the sense that it is truly subdivided by the each sheet. This makes it possible to fit
meridians and is drawn with its own center. sheets together east-west as well as north-
Thus the parallels are not concentric. The south. It is not possible to fit sheets to-
scale along each parallel is correct, but the gether eaat-west when the ordinary poly-
scale along the curved meridians increases conic is used.
with increasing distance from the central The equirectangular projection (Fig. 29)
meridian. The projection is, of course, is one of the oldest and simplest of map
neither conformal nor equivalent, but projections. It is useful for city plans or
when used for a small area, bisected by a base maps of small areas. It is easily COD-
central meridian, these qualities are so structed, and for a limited area has small
closely approached that the departure is deformation. The meridians and central
insignificant. For the mapping of a large parallel are standard. It may be centered
area on a large scale the development of anywhere.
48 The Employment of Map Proiections
l ,~ ; \I,~
I ··L~~'
6[ -:.;i:i /b> I?
.IV ~ .~
Ii ,t!
'" \ ~ I.-J_

I" J ' ~
If
" (
,.....~ II
I---i-+-+--+-+-+-I-+-+--ID ........,~I-+-+--+-r---+f"'\-\ "\
.., r-r-. ,

.... _ .
'''1J-+-+--+--l--+J

\
1\
J
J .I
r' ,
r-~~~~~~~~~HI f
~-+~~~-+-+--+-+i.lrf+-~-+~+-~~ II I
'f.>. \,..
. . ~ i'
" , ,
.'
..
....
,I ',.:, ,~ ..
.: \ ,. .. ' ... .'

FlO. 29. The plane chart or equirectangular projection . On the left the standard parallel is
the equator; on the right, 45·. Values of lines of equal maximum angular deformation are
10· and 40·. Areal exaggeration is al 0 present.

The conic with two standard parallels equal-area. This has become q)Jite popular
(Fig. 30) is similar in appearance to the in recent years.
Albers and Lambert conic projections but The polyconic and some less important
it has no special properties. It does not projections are among the more distinctive
distort areas or angles to a very great de- contributions of the United States to car-
gree providing the standard parallel are tography. In this group should al 0 be
placed close together and provided the pro- placed the homolosine projection devel-
jection is not extended far north and south oped by the late Professor J. Paul Goode
of the standard parallels. It is frequently of the University of Chicago. This pro-
chosen for areas in middle latitudes of too jection is a combination of the equatorial
large an extent for an equirectangular pro- section of the sinusoidal and the poleward
jection, and for maps not requiring the sections of the Mollweide; thus, it is equal-
properties of equivalence or conformality. area. The two projections, when con-
There are numerous other map projec- structed to the same area scale, have one
tions which have no special properties. parallel of identicallength.* It is an inter-
Only th'e major forms have been illus- rupted projection (see next article), and
trated, but there are many modifications has been widely used in this country. It
which have been made for special purposes. has been copyrighted, and thus permission
For example, '0. M . Miller of the American is necessary for its use, but whether a map
Geographical Society devised a spacing of projection is copyrightable has not been
parallels for a rectangular projection entirely determined.
which would allow the poles to be shown
but which would have neither the exces-
* J. Paul Goode, "The Homolosine Projection:
A New Device for Portraying the Earth's Surface
sive areal exaggeration of the Mercator nor Entire," Annals of the Association of American
the excessive angular deformation of an Geographer8, 1925. Vol. 15, pp . 119-125.
 Other Criteria for Selecting Projections 49

FlO . 30. The conic with two standard parallels. Values of lines of equal maximum angular
deformation are 1· and 2· (approx.). Areal exaggeration is a) 0 present.

45 Other Criteria for Selecting tions is made more expressive if the paral-
Projections lels are parallel and even more so if they
A great many maps demand more from are straight lines allowing for easy longi-
the map pro,iection than one or a combina- tudinal comparison. A map in which in-
tion of the properties con idered in the dexing of places i contemplated is more
foregoing article. Such projection attri- easily done with rectangular coordinates
bute as parallel parallels, area deforma- than with any other kind.
tion, and rectangular coordinates often- The overall shape of an area on a pro-
times become of great significance to the j ection is likewise of great importance.
success of a map. For example, a map of Many times the dimensions of the page· or
some sort of distribution that does not re- sheet (format) on which the map is to be
quire equivalence may have a concentra- made i pre cribed. One map projection
tion of the information in the middle lati- may fit this and another may not, but each
tudes. In a case of this kind a projection may have the desirable properties. By
that expanded the areas of the middle lati- utilizing the projection that will fit a for-
tudes would be a great help by allowing - mat most efficiently a considerable increase
details of the significant areas to be pre- in scale can be effected, which may be a
sented. Any map of temperature distribu- real asset to a crowded map.
50 The Employment of Map Projections
Other C'f'iteria for Selecting Projections 51

..
~

]
Co
E
.£
.6

~
A
E-<
S2 The Employment of Map Projections

-c
CIl
0.
;:l
t::
~
.9
~.
'0
~
.9
'"
CIl
A
E-<
 Relation 01 the Earth Grid to the Projection 53
Another expedient occasionally adopted There are many attributes of projections
for world maps is to "interrupt" the map, that when utilized to the full make the dif-
that is, to establish a central meridian for ference between a wise choice and a medi-
each land mass and to repeat the projec- ocre one. All maps are different, and no
tion, as the gores of a globe. By repeating rules or principles can be stated, as in the
the less deformed portions of the grid the case of the specific properties of projec-
angular deformation may be greatly re- tions, which will apply to each projection
duced, in most cases by at least a third (see problem. For example, equivalence is a
Figs. 31, 32, and 33). necessity for an areal distribution map, but
Another useful attribute of a projection the ultimate problem is to choose that
concerns whether any portion of it may be equivalent projection which will best serve
cut from the whole and still be a relatively the specific display purpose of that map.
good projection for the smaller area. Any
projection in which the meridians are 46 Relation of the Earth Grid to the
straight lines and meet the parallels at Projection
right angles satisfies this requirement. There is no need for the earth grid to be
With such a projection it is possible, for presented in the conventional manner by a
example, to make a map of the United ystem of projection. Actually a map pro-
States as a whole and then take from it a jection is a device for representing the
map of each state centered on its own cen- spherical surface on a plane. Although a
tral meridian. projection is usually constructed in such

Flo. 34. A polar orthographic projection with an equatorial grid. Since the earth is spherical
the coordinate grid will "fit" it in any position.
54 The Employment of Map Projections
a fashion that the origin is the equator or a meridian and runs through the Arctic and
some other parallel or parallels, this is not Antarctic regions, while the poles of the
a requirement insofar as making the pro- loose grid are antipodal points, both where
jection is concerned. An example is the the equator used to be, as in Fig. 34. If
azimuthal class of projections which may we then constructed a Mercator projection
be centered anywhere. Although the earth along the equator, we would have a pro-
grid will appear differently, the angular jection which is, of course, conformal, but
and areal relations of the projected surface which, instead of representing the areas in
will not vary because the surface of a the tropics in the best. fashion, would pre-
sphere does not vary and neither does the sent the areas along a meridian and across
surface of the plane on which it is pro- the poles in the best fashion (Fig. 35). It
jected.
should be pointed out that most loxodromes
One way of visualizing an origin other
would not be straight lines on this form
than usual for projections is to think of
the earth grid as loose on the sphere while of the Mercator.
the land and water bodies remain station- Projections of the earth that are not con-
ary. Then it would be possible to slide or ventionally oriented with respect to the
shift the grid in any way we desired. We earth grid are usually called oblique (Fig.
might even go so far as to turn it 90° so 36) if the grid has been shifted less than
that the equator of the grid coincides with 90° from its normal position and transverse

FIa. 35. The transverse Mercator. This form of the Mercator gives a con'formal representa-
tion with the least deformation along the meridian chosen as the "equator." It is useful for
an air chart of a route in a north-south direction. The conventional grid is shown on the sides.
 Relation of the Earth Grid to the Projection 55
if the full 90 0 shift has been made. Some- the appearance of the grid, many earth
times the transverse is also termed polar. relations can be bettered by "shifting the
Any projection may be treated this way, land masses" to bring about a better distri-
and since the structural relations of the bution of the deformation characteristics
projection are not changed, regardless of with respect to the areas of interest.

'.;
\.
'\
.....:> .........
\.........
.... ......,(
.. ':_, .... ..
~

'-.
"\
i,:
....:::::... "

•..•. .1.. ...'f~' .. ;...,\..:

j

FIG. 36. A portion of an oblique Mollweide. North Atlantic relations are well presented on
this representation, which gives somewhat the appearance of a portion of a globe but is, of
course, equal-area.
 4
The Construction
of Projections

47 The Classification of Projections vide desirable properties. The ignificant

for Construction thing to remember is that whatever the
In the last chapter, when considering deformation which results, it will, in most
projections on the basis of their employ- cases, be arranged parallel to the lines of
ment, it was helpful to categorize them origin in the case of the cylinder or cone
according to their properties. It was ap- and concentric to the point of origin in
par.ent, however, that projections having the case of the plane. The student should
similar properties were markedly different bear in mind that this same arrangement
as to their origin. For purposes of con- will ordinarily obtain no matter how the
struction it is more convenient to consider earth may be oriented inside the cylinder,
projections on the basis of their appear- under the cone, or with respect to the plane.
ance and their theoretical origin. The equator is conventionally chosen as
Projections may be thought of as being the line of origin for the cylindrical pro-
a kind of geometric transfer of the grid jections, and a parallel for the conic projec-
from the spherical form to some kind of tions, but this is not necessary-it is merely
surface that may then be developed into a convenient.
plane. Thus, we may wrap a cylinder Although the theoretical method of con-
around a globe, in some fashion "project" struction is a valuable way by which to
the grid to the inside of the cylinder, and, visualize mentally the three-dimensional
finally , cut the cylinder lengthwi e which problem of projection, in actuality not
allows it then to be flattened . Similarly, many' grids are projected this way, except
the grid may be projected to a cone perched for tho e on a tangent plane. Instead,
on the globe, and the cone may be slit the spacings of the grid or, in other words,
from base to apex; or the grid may be pro- the scales along the parallels and meridians
jected to a plane tangent to the surface (if conventionally oriented) are calculated
and, of course, need no cutting. The line in order to produce the properties or distri-
of tangency between the globe and the cyl- butions of deformation desired.
inder or cone and the point of tangency of A large number of useful projections are
the plane are the lines or points of origin. not based on any method of projection
The projection depends upon the system of from one surface to another. They are, in-
"projecting" the grid. Many projections stead, trictly mathematical arrangements
are possible, but only a few of them pro- of the grid oriented around axes of con-
56
 Construction 01 Projections to Scale 57
struction along which a de ired scale rela- tions may be graphically derived to fit a
tionship obtains, such as in the plane chart, format, and provided (after construction)
or are projections of the grid within a pre- wi~h a graphic bar scale. A numerical
scribed shape, such as in the case of the scale, or RF, for such a projection would
oval projections. be a very uneven number in most cases,
Because of similarities of construction such as 1: 11,453,421, which would be in-
methods, and in order to enable the student convenient and hardly worth noting.
to make comparisons more easily, projec- Whenever possible it is better practice to
tions for construction purposes will be construct the grid to a precise scale. This
grouped according to whether they are cy- has the merit of promoting accuracy of
lindrical, conic, oval, or azimuthal. The construction (distances, etc., may be more
grouping is merely an expedient. easily checked for accuracy with known
values) , and of providing the map user and
48 The Central Merid ian and the reader with an even, readily understood,
Standard Parallel and usable fractional scale.
When projections' are constructed it is Scale in map projections is, as we have
customary and convenient to begin the seen, an elusive thing, for only in equiva-
construction by first drawing one or two of lent projections is there such a thing as
the grid lines and then using them as line consistent scale all over the projection. In
of reference. Most com'entional projec- all projections the linear scale varies in
tions are drawn around a central meridian, some way from place to place. On all cy-
which i a straight line, and with the pro- lindrical projections, for example, 'ince the
jection symmetrical on each side of it. It parallels are all the same length it is obvi-
is necessary therefore to draw only one ous that not more than two of the paralJels
side of the projection; the other side will can be their true length. To construct a
simply be the reverse and may be copied projection at a given linear scale requires,
from the first. in principle, a quite different operation
Any line along which the linear scale is than the construction of one at a given
the same as that of a generating globe of areal scale.
the same scale is called a tandard line. A projection at a linear scale is con-
In some cases the central meridian may
tructed so that the standard lines are the
also be a standard meridian as, for exam-
same length as those on a generating globe
ple, on the Bonne and polyeonic, but more
of a chosen size. The length of the line
often central and standard do not go to-
gether. The term standard i more com- on the projection in relation to the length
monly applied to parallels along which the of the arne line on the earth is the scale.
linear scale is constant and the same as on To determine this is, of course, very easy,
the generating globe. Thus, for instance, for: (1) the length of a meridian on ·the
in the polyconic or sinusoidal all paralJels sphere is 7rR, and (2) the length of a paral-
are standard, whereas in the Alber and lel is the cosine of the latitude (cI» X the
Lambert conics only two are standard. circumf erence of the sphere (cos cI> X 7rD) .
These may be determined either by calcu-
49 Construction of Projections to lating first their true length for the earth
Scale and then reducing the values by the desired
P roj ections may be constructed in two ratio or by first reducing the earth (radius
ways. A number of the common projec- or diameter) by the chosen ratio to a globe
58 The Construction 01 Projections
and then calculating the map lengths de- Tables are available for the construction
sired. of many map projections having specific
To C(jnstruct an equivalent projection properties. These tables frequently are
at a given scale requires that the map out- given in some unit of distance (meters,
line enclose an area that is exactly the miles, minutes of longitude at 0° latitude,
(scale) fractional part of the same area etc.) calculated at a scale of 1: 1, that is,
on the globe. For example, an equivalent actual earth size. To construct to scale it
projection of the world at a scale of is necessary to reduce each unit by the
1: 40,000,0002 would contain an area of scale ratio. It should be remembered that
about 3.4 square feet. In practice it is the scale relationship is an arithmetic lin-
usually determined by finding the radius ear relationship. It is necessary in the
(R) of a globe whose surface area (A) case of equivalent projections to establish
bears the desired scale relation to the sur- the linear relationship by the proportion of
face area of the earth. The area of a squares.
sphere is 471-R2. Therefore, if the surface
area of the earth has been reduced' by the 51 The Construction of Cylindrical
area of earth) Projections
square of 40,000,000 ( A = 2 '
All conventional cylindrical projections
40,000,000
then to find the radius of the globe which lllay be constructed with a straightedge,
has that area merely requires use of the dividers or scale, and a triangle. In cylin-
drical projections all meridians are the
formula R = ~2~;
fA. Most equivalent world same length and all parallels are the same
length; merely their spacing varies, In
projections are regular shapes the axes of practice the length of the equator or stand-
which bear a certain relation to R. The ard parallel and the length of a meridian
specific relationship for each projection are determined. These are drawn at right
will be stated in the description of its con- angles to one another. The standard
struction. parallel is then subdivided for the longi-
tudinal interval desired . The meridians
50 Techniijues of Construction
are .drawn through these points as parallel
Projections may be mechanically con- lines, The spacing of 'the parallels is then
structed in a number of ways depending
plotted along a meridian , and the parallels
upon the origin of the projection and the
are drawn.
complexity of the grid to be produced.
They can be constructed by working from 52 The Mercator Projection
an elevation of the globe drawn to the
Numerous tables of the spacing of the
proper scale, and then by geometry and
transfer the grid may be derived; they can parallels on the Mercator proj ection are
be constructed by calculating the radius available. The values in Table 3 are taken
of curves and the spacings of parallels and from Special Publication 68 of the U.S.
meridians ; or they can be constructed by Coast and Geodetic Survey, which shows
consulting tables showing the x and y plane values of the distance of each minute of
coordinates of the intersections of parallels latitude from the equator. A 5° grid in-
and meridians, and then joining the points terval is here presented. For any smaller
thus established by smooth lines to form interval it is necessary to consult the origi-
the grid. nal table.
 The Cylindrical Equal-Area Projection 59
The values of Table 3 are given in min- 53 The Plane Chart
utes of longitude on the equator, which is This projection is more precisely called
simply a convenient unit of distance. The the equirectangular projection, the name
scale of the table is, of course, 1: 1, making plane chart being reserved for the phase
it necessary to reduce the values to the wherein the equator is standard. In any
scale desired. A conversion procedure for case its construction is relatively simple.
a projection at 1 : 50,000,000 is here pre- A standard parallel is chosen, and its
sented step by step so that the student may length is calculated or determined from
follow the reasoning. tables. The length of any parallel (c/»
may be calculated by multiplying the cir-
1. The equatorial diameter of the earth cumference of the earth by the cosine of
is 7,928 miles. Reduced by 1 part in 50,- the latitude. It may also be obtained by
000,000 the diameter of a globe at 1: 50,- referring to the table of lengths of the
000,000 becomes about 10.05 inches. degrees of the parallel (Table 17, Appendix
2. The circumference of a globe at a C) and multiplying the value given for the
scale of 1: 50,000,000 would be 7TD, or latitude by the number of degrees the map
3.1416 X 10.05 = 31.56 inches. is to extend. It must then, of course, be
3. There are 21,600 (360 ° X 60') min- reduced to scale. The results, however de-
utes of longitude in the equatorial circle. termined, are then marked on a straight
4. Each minute of longitude on a globe horizontal line. This is the standard paral-
1 :50,000,000 would be 0.00146 inch in lel. Vertical lines are drawn through the
length (31.56 -+ 21 ,600) . points to establish the meridians. The
5: Therefore, each value in the table other parallels are determined by pointing
would be multiplied by 0.00146 to find the off the actual distance between the paral-
distance in inches on a proj ection at lels (reduced to scale) as determined from
1 : 50,000,000 of the minutes of longitude. the table of meridional parts (Table 18,
The same value can be detem1ined by Appendix C).
dividing the length of the earth unit in If the equator is made the standard
inches by the denominator of the scale parallel the projection will be made up of
(72 ,960 -+ 50,000,000 = 0.00146 ). squares; any other standard parallels will
make rectangles whose north -south dimen-
TABLE 3. DISTANCES OF THE PARALLELS FROM sion is the long one ; if the poles were made
THE EQUATOR ON THE MERCATOR PROJECTION IN the "standard parallels" the "projection"
MINUTES OF LONGITUDE AT THE EQUATOR . (From
would be but a straight vertical line I
Deetz and Adams, Elements of Map Projection. )
0° 000.000 50° 3456 .581 54 T h e Cylindrical Equal-Ar ea
5° 298 .348 55° '3948.830 Proj ection
10° 599.019 60° 4507 . 133
15° 904.422 65° 5157 .629 The cylindrical equal-area projection is,
20° 1217.159 70° 5943 .955 . like all cylindrical projections, relatively
25° 1540.134 75° 6947.761 easy to construct, requiring only a straight-
30° 1876.706 BO° 8352 .176 edge, dividers or scale, and a triangle. The
35° 2230.898 (The pole is in-
equator alone or any pair of parallels
40° 2607.683 fini tel y dis-
45° 3013.427 tant) spaced equally from the equator may be
chosen as standard. Since the angular de-
N ore. Values for each minute of latitude are · formation is zero along the parallel or par-
given in the reference from which the above ab-
breviated table is taken. allels chosen as standard these may be
60 The Construction of Projections
B c C

a Ib

d
A D
FIG. 37. Construction of the cylindrical equal-area projection.

selected so that they pass through the areas leIs from the equator are then laid off on a
of significance. If the projection is desired meridian, and the parallels are drawn par-
for only a portion of the earth rather than allel to the equator as in quadrant C, Fig.
the whole, the projection is designed merely 37. The parallels are, of course, equally
as a part of a larger, incomplete world pro- subdivided by the meridians as in quadrant
jection. D.
This projection requires some calcula-
tion, but the formulas are elementary and 55 The Constru ction of Conic
are accomplished merely through the use Projections
of arithmetic. The general formulas for Conic projections may be constructed
any form of the projection are: either from tables by the x and y coordi-
1. Length of all parallels is 2R.". X cos (). nate system, or by the use of a straight-
2. Length of all meridian is 2R -:-- cos 6. edge and a compass capable of drawing
3. Distance of each parallel from equa- large arcs. In the latter procedure it is
tor is R sin cp -7- cos (). necessary to determine the radii of the
parallel arcs and the spacing of the merid-
R is the radius of the generating globe ians on the parallels. In all true conic pro-
of chosen area scale; () is the standard jections the meridians are equally spaced
parallel i cp is latitude. along each parallel, and the parallels are
The procedure for construction is similar
arcs of circles which mayor may not be
to that for other cylindrical projections.
concentric. The meridians mayor may not
Perpendicular lines are drawn to represent
the equator and a meridian (Fig. 37). The be straight lines.
length of the parallel chosen as standard All conic proj ections are symmetrical
(ab) is marked off on the equator. The around the central meridian. Thus, it is
length of a meridian (cd) is determined. necessary only to draw one side of t he pro-
These dimensions define a rectangle form- jection; the other side may be copied by
ing the poles and the bounding meridian of . either folding t he paper or copying it onto
the projection. The distances of the paral- another paper with the aid of a light-table.
 The Conic with Two Standard Parallels 61
If the paper is opaque a sheet of transpar- scale has been determined , distance cd may
ent paper may be laid over the projection, be determined by
the intersections pricked, and the paper
then "flopped over" and the points pricked cd = 27rR IPI - IP2
through again. 360

56 The Conic w ith Two Standard This distance may also be determined by
Parallels reducing to scale the actual spacing on the
earth. Points c and d should be placed in
It is possible to make a projection that
a convenient location on the paper so that
in theory results from a cone that inter- the developed projection will be centered
sects the earth at two parallels. This is properly. Points c and d being the inter-
sometimes called a secant conic projection. sections of the standard parallels with the
As can be seen from Fig. 38, the scale would central meridian , it is next necessary to
not be correct along the meridians, for the determine the position on ab of the center,
parallels would be too close together be- x, from which the two concentric arcs may
tween the standard parallels and too far be drawn. This may be done by
apart outside them. It is better to con-
struct the projection so that the scale is xc cos 4>1
correct along all the meridians. cd cos IP2 - cos 4>1
To construct the conic projection with or
two standard parallels first draw a vertical cos 4>1 X cd
line, ab in Fig. 39, in the center of the xc=------
cos IP2 - cos 4>1
paper. Select the two parallels, 4>1 and 4>~ ,
to be made standard, and determine their Draw arcs with x as the center through c
actual distance apart on the generating and d. Extend these arcs (ecg and fdh)
globe of the desired linear scale. If c and a distance equal to the length of the stand-
d are then positions on ab, and if the ard parallels which is to be included be-
radius, R, of the globe to be projected at tween the extreme meridians of the map.

Standard Para ll el

FlO. 38. T he theory of the secant conic projection with two standard parallels.
 62 The Construction 01 Projections

b
FIG. a9. Construction of the conic with two standa.rd para.IJels. Note that this is not a secant
conic.

Space the arcs of the other parallels equally To determine the chord distance cg on
on abo CP1 :
The meridians are equalJy spaced on the
parallels and are correctly spaced on the 1. Determine longitude on CP1 to be rep-
two standard parallels. The most nearly resented by cg, for example, 25°.
accurate means of doing this is by mst de~ 2. The length of CP1 on the sphere of
termining the chord distances of the bound~ chosen scale = 2."R cos CPl'
ing meridian, chord cg on CPl and chord dh 3. Let xc be radius r. The circumfer-
on CP2. The procedure for doing this is ence of a circle with radius r = 27rT.
shown in detail below, for it is a useful 4. Therefore, angle A (angle cxg on Fig.
means of subdividing arcs. 39) may be determined by
 The Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 63
ings of the parallels and meridians. In the
Lambert conic they are so spaced as to
satisfy the condition of conformality.
X
5. Chord distance cg = 2r sin -. The calculation of this projection re-
2 quires mathematical computations and fa-
Layoff the chord distance cg. Determine cility beyond the average cartographer.
in similar fashion chord distance dh. Sub- On account of its relatively wide use for
divide the parallels in question (with di- air-navigation maps, many tables for its
viders) into the desired num ber of equal construction with various standard paral-
parts for the meridians. Join homologous lels have been published. For example, a
points with straight lines. table for the construction of a map of the
Linear distances along the meridians and United States with standard parallels at
along the standard parallels are correct, 29° and 45° is given in the U.S. Coast and
but the projection has no special proper- Geodetic Survey Special Publication 52.
ties. For a limited area, however, it has As in the case of the Albers projection it
little distortion, and its ease of construc- is advisable, if equal distribution of scale
tion and neat appearance make it a useful error is desired, to space the standard par-
proj ection. allels so that they include between them
two-thirds of the meridional section to be
57 The Lambert Conformal Conic mapped.
Projection A Lambert conic with standard parallels
This projection is similar in appearance at 36° and 54° is useful for middle-latitude
to the Albers and the simple conic. It too areas. Table 4 gives the radii of the paral-
has straight-line meridians that meet at a lels in meters for a scale of 1: 1. It is, of
common center; the parallels are arcs of course, necessary to reduce each value to
circles, two of which are standard; and the the scale desired.
parallels and meridians meet at right To construct the projection draw a line,
angles. The only difference is in the spac- cd in Fig. 40, which will be the central

FlO. 40. Construction of the Lambert conformal conic projection.

64 The Construction of Projections
meridian. The line must be sufficiently The value thu determined, ab in Fig. 40,
long so that it will include the center of the is reduced by the desired scale ratio and
arcs of latitude. With a beam compass de- measured out from the intersection of the
scribe arcs with radii, reduced to scale, parallel and the central meridian to the
taken from Table 4. . bounding meridian. If point b, thus lo-
cated, is connected by means of a straight-
TABLE 4. TABLE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A edge with the same center used in describ-
LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTION. STAND-
ing the parallels, this will determine the
ARD PARALLELS 36° AND 54°. (From Deetz and
Adams, Elements of Map Projection.) outer meridian. If a long straightedge is
not available the same procedure may be
Radii, Radii ,
Lat. meters Lat. meters followed (determining the chord) for an-
75° 2787926 40° 6833183 other parallel in the upper part of the
70° 3430294 35° 7386250 map, and the two points, thus determined ,
65° 4035253 30° 7946911 joined by a straight line. This will pro-
60° 4615579 25° 8519065 duce the same result. Since the parallels
55° 5179774 20° 9106796 are equally subdivided by the meridians,
50° 5734157 15° 9714516
45° 6283826 the other meridians may be easily located.

To determine the meridians it is neces- 68 T he Albers E qual-A rea P rojection

sary to calculate the chord distance on a The construction procedure for this pro-
lower parallel from its intersection with jection is essentially the same as for the
the central meridian (0°) to its intersection preceding projection, the Lambert conic.
with an outer meridian. This is done by Like the Lambert, the Albers conic is su ited
means of the following formula: to representation of an area predominately
east-west in extent in the middle and high
nX latitudes.
chord = 2r sin -
2 Table 5 gives the radii of the parallels
and the lengths of chords on two parallels
where n = 0.7101 i A. = longitude out from
for a map of the United States with stand-
central meridian i r :;; radius of parallel in
ard parallels 29° 30' and 45° 30'. The
question.
scale of the table is 1: 1, and the "alues are
The above formula (without n) is the gen-
in meters. As in the preceding projection,
eral formula for the determination of chord
reduction to the desired scale is necessary.
distance. It is necessary to introduce the
constant n (in this case 0.7101 ) for the 69 The Polyconic Proj ection
projection in question.
In general the polyconic is not suitable
Example. On parallel 30° the chord of for small-scale maps. On account of its
45° (see Fig. 40) out from the central me- balance of error and ease of construction it
ridian = is primarily a survey projection, and this
book is concerned more especially with
1. 0.7101 X 45° = 31° 57' 14" = nA.i smaller-scale cartography. Consequently,
therefore procedures for constructing the polyconic
2. nA/2 = 15 ° 58' 37". are not included. The student who may
3. Sin 15° 58' 37" = .27534. have need to construct one is referred to
4. 2r = 15,893,822 meter . the directions in the U.S. Coast and Geo-
5. 15,893,822 X .27534 = 4,376,200 me- detic Survey Special Publication 68, p. 60,
ters. and the tables in Special Publication 5.
 The Bonne Projection 65
TABLE 5. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF ALBERS one does not wish to go to the trouble of
EQUAL-AREA PROJECTION WITH STANDARD PARAL- preparing an Albers. The Bonne is, like
LELS 29° 3D' AND 45° 3~'. (From Deetz and all useful conics, a modified projection in
Adams, Elements oj Map Projection.)
that it cannot actually be projected on the
Radius of enveloping cone.
Lat. parallel, meters Theoretically, the cone is tangent to a
20° 10 253177 parallel (<p) which is selected near the cen-
21° 10145579
22° 10 037 540 c
23° 9929080
24° 9820218
25° 9710969
26° 9601361
27° 9491409
28° 9381 139
29° 9270576
29° 3~' 9215188
30° 9159738
31° 9048648
32° 8937337
33° 8825827
34° 8 714 150
35° 8602328
36° 8490392
37° 8378377
38° 8266312
39° 8154228
40° 8042163
41° 7930152
42° 7818231
43° 7706444
44° 7594828 b
45° 7483426
45° 3~' 7427822 Fro. 41. Construction of the Bonne projection.
46° 7372288
47° 7261459 ter of the area to be mapped. The radius
7150987 (r) of this parallel on the map will be
48°
49° 7040925 r = R cot <p
50° 6931333
51° 6822264 in which R is the radius of the generating
52° 6713780 globe of the desired area scale. To con-
Chord Distances in Meters struct the projection draw a vertical line,
Long. from on Lat. on Lat. cb in Fig. 41, that is long enough to in~lude
central meridian 25° 45° the latitudinal extent desired and the center
1° 102185 78745 (c) of the "standard" parallel. Describe
5° 510 867 393682 an arc for the "standard parallel" with r
25° 2547270 1962966
2352568 as the radius. Plot points on cb north and
30°
south of this parallel spaced equally at
60 The Bonne P r ojection scale for the other parallels. Through
The Bonne projection is a useful pro- these points draw arcs with c as their cen-
jection when an equal-area conic projec- ter. Subdivide the arcs truly and draw
tion is desired for a limited area, but when smooth lines through homologous points
66 The Construction of Projections
for the meridians. Meridians cannot be the parallels and meridians are the same
located by computing the chord distance (to scale) as they are on the earth. The
for a given longitude out from the central length of the central meridian is 3.1416
meridian and then subdividing that dis- times the radius (R) of a generating globe
tance with dividers along the parallel. of equal area. The equator is twice the
This would result in straight-line merid- length of the central meridian.
ians and the projection would not be equal- To construct the projection a horizontal
area. line representing the equator, ab in Fig. 42,
is drawn twice the length of the central
61 The Construction of Oval meridian. The equator is bisected, and at
Projections point 0 a perpendicular central meridian
Most useful oval projections are equiva- (cd) is constructed. The positions of the
lent, and they are constructed to an area parallels on cd are determined by spacing
scale. The linear dimensions, for construc- them as they are on the globe. For a
tion purposes, of an oval projection depend small-scale projection this means equally;
upon the shape of the bounding meridian for a large-scale projection the exact spac-
which encloses the projection. It is obvi- ings may be taken from Table 18, Appen-
ous that the axes of two dissimilar shapes dix C. Through the points thus established
would be different if both shapes enclose the parallels are drawn parallel to the
the same area, that is, if they were the equator as in quadrant B. The lengths of
same area scale. Most oval projections ·the various parallels are their true lengths
have a vertical axis half the length of the (to scale) as on the earth and may be de-
horizontal axis; and, in the conventional termined by multiplying the length of the
equatorial phase, this is the relation to be equator (ab) by the cosine of the latitude.
expected between a meridian and the equa- One-half this value is plotted on each side
tor. The relationship between the generat- of the central meridian. The meridians
ing globe and the particular projection be- are drawn by subdividing, as in quadrant
ing constructed is merely one that states
C, each parallel equally, with dividers, and
the length of the central meridian on the
drawing smooth curves (with a French
projection compared to the radius (R) of
curve) through homologous points as in
the generating globe of the same area scale.
The equator being twice the length of the quadrant D.
central meridian, no further calculation is The linear scale along the parallels and
necessary. The determination of the ra- the central meridian is correct (same as the
dius (R) of the globe of equal area was generating globe), and is the square root
explained in Article 49. of the area scale; i.e., if the area scale is
On the majority of the oval projections 1: 50,000,0002 the linear scale along the
the meridians are equally spaced along the parallels and the central meridian will be
parallels. The spacing of the parallels 1: 50,000,000. This is the only equivalent
along tbe central meridian varies from pro- oval projection in which this relationship
jection to projection. These values are exists, although some others come close to it.
available in tabular form.
63 The Mollweide Projection
62 The Sinusoidal Projection The Mollweide projection does not have
The sinusoidal proj ection is particularly the simple relationship to the sphere that
imple to construct, since the spacings of characterizes the sinusoidal. The merid-
 The Mollweide Projection 67

d
Flo. 42. Construction of the sinusoidal projection.

FlO. 43. Construction of the Mollweide projection.

ians of the sinusoidal are sine curves which of equal area. The equator is twice ' the
produce a pointed appearance near . the length of the central meridian.
poles, whereas in the Mollweide the merid- To construct the projection a horizontal
ians are ellipses, which provide a projection line representing the equator, ab in Fig. 43,
shape that is somewhat less of a radical is drawn twice the length of the central
departure from the globe impression. The meridian. The equator is bi ected, and at
length of the central meridian is 2.8284 point 0 a perpendicular central meridian
times the radius (R) of a generating glo.be (cd) is constructed. A circle whose radius
68 The Construction of Projections
is oc is constructed around point o. This 64 The Eckert IV Projection
contains a hemisphere. The spacing of the The Eckert IV projection is representa-
parallels on the central meridian is given in tive of a large group of projections in which
Table 6, in which oc equals 1. The e posi- the pole is represented by a line half the
TABLE 6. DISTANCES OF THE PARALLELS FROM length of the equator, rather than by a
THE EQUATOR IN THE MOLLWEIDE PROJECTION point, as in the case of the Mollweide and
(oc = 1). (From Deetz and Adams, Elements oj the sinusoidal. The rather excessive shear-
Map Projection.) ing of the higher latitudes is somewhat less-
0° 0.000 50° 0.651 ened by this device, at the expense, how-
5° 0.069 55° 0.708 ever, of increased angular deformation in
10° 0.137 60° 0.762 the lower latitudes. As in the other oval
15° 0.205 65° 0.814
20° 0.272 70° 0.862 projections the length of the central merid-
25° 0.339 75° 0.906 ian is half the length of the equator. In
30° 0.404 BO° 0.945 the Eckert IV projection the length of the
35° 0.468 85° 0.978 central meridian is 2.6530 times the radiu
40° 0.531 90° l.000 (R) of a generating globe of equal area.
45° 0.592
To construct the projection a horizontal
tions are plotted on the central meridian, line representing the equator, ab in Fig. 44,
and the parallels are drawn through the i drawn twice the length of the central
points parallel to the equator. Each paral- meridian. The equator is bisected, and at
lel is extended outside the hemisphere circle point a a perpendicular central meridian
a distance equal to its length inside the (cd) is constructed. On each side of the
circle. Thus, in quadrant B of Fig. 43, central meridian a tangent circle is drawn.
e! = !g, hi = ij, kl = lm, etc. Each paral- In quadrant B the center of one circle (e)
lel is subdivided equally with dividers, as is on ab and midway between a and o.
in quadrant C, to establish the position of The pole is a line (fg) perpendicular to cd
the meridians. The meridians are drawn and equal in length to ao and cd. The
through homologous points, as in quadrant spacing of the parallels on the central me-
D, with the aid of a French curve. ridian is given in Table 7, in which DC = 1.

FlO . 44 . Construction of the Eckert IV projection.

 The Construction 01 Azimuthal Projections 69
TABLE 7. DISTANCES OF THE PARALLELS FROM gnomonic, is used primarily as a planning
THE EQUATOR IN THE ECKERT IV PROJECTION
map in connection with navigation, and a
(oc = 1).
cartographer is rarely called upon to con-
0° 0.000 0.718 struct it. The remaining common azi-
5° 0.078 0.775
10° 0.155 0.827 muthal projections, the Lambert equal-
15° 0.232 0.874 area, the orthographic, the stereographic,
20° 0.308 0.915 and the azimuthal equidistant, are much
25° 0.382 0.950 S'TEREOGRAPHIC
30° 0.454 0.976
35° 0.525 0.994
40° 0.592 1.000
45° 0.657
These positions are plotted on the central
meridian, and the parallels are drawn
through the points parallel to the equator
as in quadrant B, Fig. 44. Each parallel
is subdivided equally with dividers, as in
quadrant C, to establish the position of
the meridians. The meridians are drawn
through homologous points, as in quadrant
D , with the aid of a French curve.

65 The Construction of Azimuthal

Projections
Although azimuthal projections have
more in common with each other than any
other class of projections, the uses and
common methods of construction are quite
FIG. 45 . Comparison of azimuthal projections cen-
varied. Some can be easily constructed tered at the pole. Note that the only variation
geometrically ; some cannot in any way be is in the spacing of the parallels; in other words,
constructed geometrically. Some are most the only difference among them is the radial scale.
expeditiously put together by using x and The relationship obtains wherever the projections
y coordinates to locate grid intersections; may be centered.
others by transforming one projection into
another. It is this last method that is in demand in these days of "one-world"
the key to understanding these projections. consciousness, and methods for their con-
Any azimuthal projection can be trans- struction will be suggested here. In the
formed into any other by merely relocat- interests of brevity not all the possibilities
ing the grid intersections along their azi- will be detailed, and the reader is referred
muths from the center of the projection, for to any of the standard works on map pro-
the projections vary only as to the radial jections for a fuller account of possible
scale from the center of the projection (see procedures.
Fig. 45). Since the azimuthal projections can,
There are a great many azimuthal pro- theoretically at least, be projected on a
jections (theoretically an infinite number tangent plane, and since the point of tan-
are possible) , but only a few have desir- gency may be anywhere on the sphere, it is
able properties. Of these few, one, the evident that each projection may have
70 The Construction of Projections
many different appearances. The names TABLE 8. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STEREO-
equatorial, meridional, oblique, and polar GRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 40°.

are variously employed to refer to them. D = 1

It is perhaps better and clearer practice Parallels Upper Lower
when labeling to name the projection, as North pole 0.46631
Lambert equal-area, and follow it with a 80° 0.57735 0.36397
statement as to where it is centered, since 70° 0.70021 0.26795
60° 0.83910 0.17633
changing the point of tangency does not 50° 1.00000 0 .08749
change in any way the quality of the pro- 40° 1.19175 0.00000
jection. 30° 1.42815 -0 .08749
20° 1.73205 -0.17633
66 The Stereographic P roj ection 10° 2.14451 -0 .26795
0° 2.74748 -0.36397
The stereographic projection is the con- 10° 3.73205 -0.46631
formal graticule in the azimuthal group of 20° 5.67128 -0.57735
projections. In addition to being con- 30° 11.43005 -0.70021
formal , it has a quality shared by no other 40° -0 .83910 -0 .83910 -0.83910
projection, namely, that all circles on the 50° -1.00000 -11.43005
60° -1.19175 -5.67128
earth are reprelSented by circles on the pro- 70° -1.42815 -3 .73205
jection. This being the case, the parallels 80° -1.73205 -2 .74748
and meridians in the stereographic are arcs South pole -2 . 14451
of circles, which makes the projection rela- Homolatitude = -0 .83910
tively easy to draw. As is true in all azi- Meridians Bow Center
muthal projections, great circles passing 10° 0 . 11421 7.40335
through the center of the proj ection are 20° 0 .23018 3.58658
represented by straight lines. They may 30° 0.34986 2 .26104
be considered as arcs of circles whose radii 40° 0.47513 1.55573
50° 0 .60872 1.09537
are of infinite length. Because it is a pro- 60° 0 . 75368 0.75368
jection composed of straight lines or arcs 70° 0.91406 0 .47513
of smaller circles, 'all that is necessary to 80° 1.09537 0 .23018
draw this projection, centered anywhere, 90° 1.30541 0.00000
is a straightedge and a compass, preferably means that the values (and those in Ap-
a beam compass. pendix F) need only to be multiplied by
It is relatively easy to calculate the val- the number of inches, or other units, con-
ues necessary to center the projection any-
tained in the diameter of the generating
where. The method is given in Appendix
globe of chosen scale.
F, together with tables for constructing the
To construct the projection first draw a
projection at 10° latitude intervals. The
table for centering the projection at 40° is vertical line, ab in Fig. 46. Locate on ab
included here to illustrate the construction the center of the proj ection (0), in this
procedure. It is much easier and quicker case 40°, and with 0 as the center describe
to construct the projection from calculated a circle the diameter of which is twice the
tables, and such procedure also eliminates diameter of the generating globe. The par-
errors that usually creep in when one works allels are drawn by locating on ab the
with a maze of construction lines, protrac- upper (U) and lower (L) points of each
tors, and the like. parallel. The center of the circle repre-
Table 8 has been calculated for a globe senting the parallel is midway between the
the diameter (D) of which is unity. This points U and L for each parallel. For ex-
 The Stereographic Projection 71
a

b
FIQ. 46. Construction of the stereographic projection.

FIO. 47. Construction of the orthographic projection centered on the pole.

72 The Construction 01 Projections
ample, from Table 8 the upper intersection The scale is the same from the center to
with ab for the parallel of 20° is 1.73205 the periphery in any direction.
above o.and is at U in Fig. 46. The lower
intersection is 0.17633 below 0 (shown by 67 The Orthographic Projection
the minus sign) and is located at L. Mid- The orthographic projection is a view of
way between these points is the center of the globe as it would appear (if it could
the circle representing the parallel of 20°.*
The other parallels are similarly located
and drawn with a compass.
The centers of the arcs representing the
meridians are all located along a traight
line, cd in Fig. 46, perpendicular to ab
which is the homolatitude of the center of
the projection. The homolatitude of any
point is the same latitude in the opposite
hemisphere. In Fig. 46, the homolatitude
is located 0.83910 below o. The bow dis-
tance is the distance from the central me-
ridian (ab) along the homo latitude (cd)
to the intersection of the meridian with
the homolatitude. The center distance is
the distance along the homolatitude, on the
opposite side of ab, to the center of the arc
that repre ents the meridian. In Fig. 46,
the bow distance for the meridian of 30°
is 0.34986 and the intersection is at w on
cd. The center distance is 2.26104 on the
other side of ab and is located at R. The
arc drawn through w must pass through
the pole. The other meridians are drawn
in similar fashion, first for one side and
then repeated for the other side. They
may, of course, be numbered in any desired
sequence depending upon what part of the
earth is being mapped.
It will be noted that the spacing of the
parallels on the central meridian increases
away from the center. Since the parallel FIG . 48. Construction of the orthographic projec-
are evenly spaced on the earth this estab- lion centered on the equalor.
lishes the radial scale for the projection.
be scen) from infinity; that is to say, it
* It should be noted that any circle on the earth is projected upon a plane with parallel
is found on the projection by plotting fir;t the lines. In this sense it is like an architect's
ends of its diameter on a great circle through the elevation. The principle of its construction
center. Midway between these points is the con-
struction center of the circle, but not the act.ual can be seen in Fig. 47, where the latitudi-
center. nal spacing on the globe is projected by
 The Orthographic Projection 73
parallel lines to the central meridian of the ian is the same as in the polar case, but the
projection. Being an azimuthal projection parallels are horizontal lines. The posi-
all great circles through the center are tions of the meridians on the parallels is
stra.ight lines and azimuths from the center carried over from the polar case as illus-
are correct. When the pole i the center trated. Since all four quadrants are images
all great circles that pass through it are of one another only one need be drawn.
meridians; hence, all meridians on the pro- The others may be traced.
jection are straight lines and are correctly The orthographic projection centered on
arranged around the pole. the pole or the equator is seldom used. It
The construction of the projection cen- is more often centered on some point of
tered on the equator is no more involved. interest between the pole and the equator.
The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 48. This may be accomplished by employing
The parallel spacing on the central merid- a polar and equatorial ca e as in Fig. 49.

--+-
---l>--

FlO . 49. Construction of the oblique orthographjc projection.

74 The Construction 0/ Projections
It may also be drawn by using the equato- parallels on the projection. The meridians,
rial case as a nomograph as described in as in other azimuthal projections, are
Article 70. A third method is to trace a straight lines through the poles.
photograph of the globe centered at the The equatorial case of the projection is
desired spot. A photograph of the globe somewhat more difficult to construct graphi-
is not a true orthographic, for some per- cally and is more easily accomplished by
spective convergence is bound to occur in plotting the x and y coordinate positions
the photographing, even when the camera of the grid intersections from tables. Ta-
is at a considerable distance. Neverthe- bles 20 and 21 in Appendix E give values
for every 10°.
As with most of the azimuthal projec-
tions the oblique case centered on some
area of interest is the most useful. The
oblique case may be derived from the equa-
torial by using the latter as a nomograph
in the manner outlined in Article 70. Co-
ordinates are given in Appendix E for a
grid centered at latitude 40°, which is an
appropriate place for map of the United
States or North America, among others, to
be centered.
Since this projection is equal-area it
should be constructed to an area cale.
FIG . 50. Construction of the Lambert equal-area
The tables referred to above have been pre-
projection centered on the pole. pared on the basis of R = 1, so that each
value in the tables needs only to be multi-
less, the result is a true azimuthal projec- plied by the length of the radius of the
tion and is very nearly the same as the generating globe of chosen area scale.
orthographic. Since the only useful pre-
cise property is its azimuthality, nothing is 69 The Azimuthal Equidistant
lost by using a photograph. Projection
The azimuthal equidistant projection is
68 The Lambert Equal-Area
a most useful projection when directions or
Projection
distances from a particular point are of
Like the orthographic, the Lambert azi-
interest, and it is not difficult to construct
muthal equal-area projection is most use-
the projection centered on any spot. The
ful when centered in the area of interest,
polar case is constructed by first drawing
although the projection is frequently seen
in the polar case to accompany other pro- an appropriate set of meridians and then
jections that distort areas considerably. constructing equally spaced circles con-
The polar case is easily constructed as il- centric around the pole. This may be ex-
lustrated in Fig. 50. A segment of the tended to include the whole earth, in which
globe is drawn with R as the radius of the case the bounding circle is the opposite pole
generating globe of chosen area scale. The as in Fig. 51. As may be seen the area and
chord distances from the pole to the paral- linear distortions become large as the
lels are carried up to a tangent with a periphery is approached . A world map cen-
compass and e tablish the positions of the tered on 'R pole is not a very appropriate use
 The A zimuthal Equidistant Pro jection 75
of the azimuthal equidistant projection for other azimuthal projection) by merely re-
reasons outlined in Article 43. locating the positions of the intersections of
the new grid along their azimuths from the
center. This is accomplished by marking
off on one edge of a strip of paper the radial
scale of the stereographic and on the other
edge the radial scale of the equidistant.
The strip is then placed on the stereo-
graphic and the distance of a grid intersec-
tion from the center noted. This distance
is transferred to the radial scale of the
equidistant and the position plotted along
the same azimuth. Figure 52 illustrates
this procedure. Of course, the scale of the
new projection may be changed, if desired,
at the same time.
Positions outside the inner hemisphere
of the stereographic may be located in the
following manner. When the equidistant
FlO. 51. The azimuthal equidistant projection hemisphere has been completed the stereo-
centered on the pole. graphic is no longer needed. The position
of every point on the earth is obviously
For an oblique case the simplest proce- 180 0 from its antipode; each point and its
dure is to prepare first a stereographic pro- antipode lie on a great circle through the
jection centered at the desired latitude. center of the projection; the diameter of
This may then be transformed (to any the hemisphere is 180 0 ; and the scale is

FlO. 52. The transformation of one azimuthal to another. A is the distance from the center
of a point according to the radial scale of the atereographic. B is the distance of the same
point according to the radial scale of the equidistant. C is the location of the point along the
same azimuth on the equidistant.
76 The Construction of Projections
uniform from the center. Thus, all that is sections. It is frequently the ca e, how-
necessary is to mark on a straightedge the ever, that one is desirous of producing an
diameter of the hemisphere and keeping "oblique" azimuth al without the necessity
the edge on the center of the projection of going through the process of transforma-
locate all the outer intersections from their tion from the stereographic. If one has
antipodes in the inner hemisphere. a\'ailable the eq uatorial case of the pro-
jection desired, it is possible to do this by
70 Shifting the Center of the employing an ingenious nomographic proc-
Projection ess best described by R. E. Harrison. The
In the previous chapter it was shown following explanation is slightly modified
that each projection has a specific pattern from his paper which appeared in The Geo-
of inherent deformation. Most distribu- graphical Review, 1943.
tion maps of hemispherical or world-wide "To illustrate the procedure the con-
extent have a sort of "center of gravity" struction of an orthographic projection
of distortion, and it is frequently desirable centered at 35°N is here described. The
to "balance" the projection around this dis- ame procedure is followed in making any
tribution, rather than merely constructing azimuthal projection, with only minor and
it in its conventional equatorial or polar rather obyiou differences.
orientation. This was suggested in the "First, the circular nomograph (the
section on azimuthal projections, but it is equatorial case) is placed on a drawing
by no means limited to that class of pro- board and covered with a rectangular piece
jections. of tracing paper that overlaps the nomo-
There are several ways of changing the graph on the sides but not at the top and
"viewpoint" of a projection, that is to say, bottom. The tracing paper is fixed to the
of centering it anywhere on the sphere. board. A needle or round-shanked thumb-
The general procedure involves locating tack is thrust firmly through tracing paper
the positions of the grid intersections on the and nomograph at the center of the latter.
sphere when the earth grid has been As the needle or tack remains in po ition
"shifted" in the manner suggested in Ar- until the new grid is completed, it is well
ticle 46. This is relatively easy when first to reinforce the nomograph at the
working with the azimuthal projections, center with cellulose tape or imilar mate-
and the procedure for viewing the sphere rial. The nomograph is positioned so that
in any fashion has been treated in those its equator is vertical (stage I, Fig. 53).

I II III
Flo. 53. Three stages in the construction from a nomograph of an orthographic grid centered
at 35°. Light lines show the nomograph , heavy lines con truction on the t racing paper. Cour-
tesy of The GeorJraphical Review published by the American Geographical So iety of New
York.
 Shifting the Center of the Projection 77
The intersections of the equator and the the proper intersections will be so close to
central meridian with the bounding circle a parallel that they can be drawn directly
are then lightly marked on the tracing with little loss of accuracy. Furthermore,
paper. Thirty-five degrees are counted off one often finds a simple means of checking
below the center along the equator of the the accuracy of the interpolations. For
nomograph; the meridian passing through example, on the orthographic projection
this point becomes the equator of the new advantage can be taken of the fact that all
grid. This is traced, and the intersections lines connecting the intersections of paral-
of the paraJlels of the nomograph with the lels along any two meridians are parallel.
new equator are marked at the desired in- With a parallel ruling device the intersec-
terval of the grid. This should be done so tions along any meridian can be ticked off
that the angles of the intersections are cor- from the corresponding intersections along
rectly preserved, because of a remarkable the central meridian, since these are' al-
feature of the nomographic method: in- ready established.
stead of providing horizontal and vertical "The nomograph is then rotated to ob-
coordinates to establish the points of cross- tain the next meridian, and so on until all
ing as in mathematical and other graphic are drawn in. At this stage the grid con-
procedures, it gives not only the point but sists of an equator and a complete set of
the correct angle of any intersection on the meridians marked with the crossings of
projection . Before changing the orienta- .the parallels (stage III, Fig. 53) , and it is
tion of the nomograph, the North Pole is a simple matter to complete the parallels,
marked by counting 90 0 from the new since these crossings form an almost con-
equator along the upright center line. tinuous curve. The grid can be drawn in
(When making an azimuthal equidistant first in pencil and later in ink, or it can be
or equal-area projection, the South Pole is inked directly. It is a most satisfying ex-
also marked.) perience to draw a brand-new grid in ink
"At this stage the North Pole and the without the necessity for any previous pen-
equator (with the meridional inter ections) cil drawing, to say nothing of not having to
are located (stage I, Fig. 53). All the erase horizontal and vertical construction
meridians may now be added to the map lines.
grid. This is accomplished in the same "The accuracy of the method is limited
manner as finding a great circle nomo- only by the accuracy of the nomograph
graphically, namely, by rotating the nomo- and the ability of the draftsman."
graph until the North Pole and the meridi- The nomographic method can be used
onal intersection of the equator are on the with other classes of projections such as
same nomograph meridian or occupy the the cylindrical, but it is not quite as simple
same relative position between two merid- a procedure as it is with the azimuthals.
ians. The meridian is drawn in its en- Another method of transforming the. cen-
tirety, and while in this position the appro- tering of a projection is by calculation of
priate crossings of the parallels (with ·their coordinates. For example, if one wished to
proper angles of intersection) are noted on "shift" the earth grid of a Mollweide pro-
the meridian (stage II, Fig. 53). Since the jection so that the equator of the conven-
intersections rarely coincide exactly with tional projection coincided with another
the parallels on the nomograph , it is gen- great circle, it would be the same as shift-
erally necessary to interpolate. However, ing the earth so that the pole of the grid was
in working with a one-degree nomograph at some other point on the earth's surface
78 The Construction of Projections
(see Fig. 54). If the "loose grid" were thus difficult, and their appearance should
shifted on the earth, all the intersections of frighten no one. Nothing but arithmetic is
necessary for tables of sine and cosines are
available. The procedure is as follows, as-
suming the central meridian i 0° longi-
tude in both old and new grid:

If> = the number of degrees the grid has

been shifted (90° minus the posi-
tion of the new pole).
() = latitude in new system.
X= longitude in new system.
()' = latitude in old system.
X' = longitude in old system.

The problem is to find the latitude ((}') and

longitude (X') on the conventional projection
of the same latitude ((}) and longitude (},) of
the new system. The formulas are:
sin ()' = sin () cos <p - sin <p cos () cos >..
sin X cos ()
sin ").' = - - - -
cos ()'
Tables of the position of (}' and >..' have
been computed for every 5° of shift of the
grid and are available in E. Hammer, Ober
die geographisch' wichtigsten Kartenpro-
jektionen . . . , Stuttgart, 1889.

71 Interrupting or Recentering a
Projection
In the second decade of this century an
American cartographer, the late Professor
J. Paul Goode of the University of Chi-
cago, proposed the technique of interrup-
tion as a means of reducing the deforma-
FIo. 54. A portion of a "tilted" Mollweide pro- tion in world maps. Interruption involves
iection. The lines of equal angular deformation using several central meridians in place of
show that the structural characteristics of the pro- one, and it results in a lobate kind of pro-
jection do not change no matter where the pro-
jection may be centered. Compare with Fig. 18. jection with the continental masses (or
oceans) being shown separately on either
the new grid positions could be located and side of a single equator. Some of these
expressed in terms of latitude and longitude maps are illustrated in Article 45. So long
on the old grid. The calculation are not as the parallels are equally divided by the
 Interrupting or Recentering a Projection 79
meridians and the equator is a straight line, each as far as neces ary. This provides
any projection may be interrupted. Even several "points or axes of strength" in place
those projections with a line for the pole of the one or two on the uninterrupted pro-
instead of a point may be interrupted. jection. In practice the necessary section
The process of interruption involves only of the conventional projection is con-
constructing the chosen central meridians structed, and then the appropriate sections
and then duplicating the projection around or lobes are traced in their proper positions.
 5
Drafting, Materials,
and Map Reproduction

72 Map Drafting requiring the same kinds of muscular co-

Many large map-making establishments ordins.tion.
separate the compilation of maps from the Only those who are truly physicalJy
drafting, leaving the latter operation to handi(~apped cannot learn to draft.

skillful specialists. The average student

73 Drawing Equipment
and maker of small-scale maps cannot do
t'n'rs, and 'nence 'ne must become hm'l\'IaT Ma~ are 1.L'mall~ drawn on drawin'l,
with the basic procedures of map drafting. boardS manufactured especially for the
In addition, if he is ever to direct the work drafting process. They are carefully made
of a draftsman it is necessary for him to of soft wood in such fashion as to preserve
be acquainted with the tools, the media, a flat surface. They are obtainable in a
wide range of sizes, but the smallest prac-
and their capabilities.
ticable for general map work is 18 x 24
The tools and media with which the
inches. Larger drawing boards are used to
draftsman works are relatively simple.
form the top of a table which is adjustable
(See Fig. 55 .) They are designed primarily for both height and tilt. If one is not able
for the purpose of making it easy to obtain to employ a drawing table of this sort an
precision. Very little instruction and skill acceptable substitute may be improvised
are necessary to employ them adequately. by pl3 cing a book under the far edge of a
As is so often the case in matters involving smaller drawing board.
design and execution, the ultimate appear- Cartographers work with tracing paper
ance of a map depends more upon its de- or plastics a considerable proportion of the
sign than upon its drafting excellence. time, and less eyestrain will result if the
Like any other operation requiring the drawing board is covered with white paper
coordination of the hand, eye, and brain, so that the contrast is heightened between
the skills of drafting require some practice the board beneath and that which is on
and patience. The student who approaches the tracing paper. The drawing material
drafting with the negative attitude that may be affixed to the board with either tape
he "couldn't possibly do that sort of thing" or thumbtacks, but tape is, in general, more
is admonished .that he can, presumably, satisf3ctory. Special drafting tape that
write, walk, eat, throw, button buttons, or does not adhere so tightly as Cellophane
perform any number of other operations tape is preferred, for it does not injure the
80
 Drawing Equipment 81

FlO. 55. Tools and equipment frequently used by the cartographer and draftsman. Courtesy
of Rand McNally and Company.
82 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
paper when it is removed. Thumbtacks A T -square and a variety of t riangles
leave holes in the board which are occa- and curves are used on the drawing surface.
sionally bothersome, and the tack heads
prevent the free movement of fiat drawing
tools. Many of the drafting operations
may be better and more easily performed
if the drawing is not fixed to the table but
kept loose so that it may be moved about,
making it easier to reach the various parts.
Thi is particularly true for the lettering
p.rocess.
A special kind of table called a tracing
or light-table (see Fig. 56) is used when
tracing is required on a relatively opaque
surface such as drawing paper. The same
kind of table is used in the printing busi-
ness and is there called an opaquing table.
A light-table has one surface of ground
FIG. 56. A tracing table with fluorescent illumina-
glass beneath which a light may shine.
tion. Cool fluorescent illumination is better than
They are available from drafting supply incandescent. Courtesy Hamilton Manufacturing
houses, or one can be improvised. Company.

SPLINE WEIGHTS

•
FlO. 57. Flexible curves and a spline with weights . . For large curves the spline is most satis.-
factory because it can be held rigidly in place by the weights, whereas flexible curves have a
tendency to creep and must be held in place with one hand. Courtesy Keuflel and Esser
Company.
 Drawing Instruments 83
A plain T -square with a fixed head is ade- care, but a set is by no means necessary.
quate for all the requirements of most car- One may easily start with the basic instru-
tographers, although aT-square with an ments and build up his own set. The in-
adjustable head would occasionally be struments required by the cartographer fall
helpful. T -squares are made of metal or into three classes: ruling pens, compasses,
solid wood with or without a plastic trans- and dividers.
parent edge. A transparent edge is desir-
able for it enables the cartographer to see
a bit of the drawing beneath the T-square SWIVEL PENS
and helps him to start and stop his lines at
the correct places. The T -square is moved
up or down one side of the drawing board.
If perpendiculars to a horizontal line drawn
along the T -square are required they are
drawn with the triangle resting against the
T -square rather than by hooking the T-
square over the- top edge of the drawing
board, for the two sides are not u ually
square. The curve is used for constructing
bending lines that are not arcs of circles.
Many varieties of mechanical curves are
available based upon curves of differing
characteristics such as sines or ellipses.
For larger curves, the defining points of
which are far apart, a flexible curve or a
spline with weights is more satisfactory
(see Fig. 57) .
A useful addition to the drawing edges
of the cartographer is a heavy steel
straightedge with one beveled edge. As is
the case with the spline for curves, the FlO.58. Kinds of ruling pens. The plain ruling
steel straightedge holds its place more pen is most frequently used . Courtesy Keuffel
readily, and the cartographer has more a.nd Esser Compa.ny.
freedom in drawing long straight lines with
it than he has when using the T-square. The ruling pen (see Fig. 58) is perhaps
A magnifying glass to assist in detailed the most 'Used of the drawing instruments,
work and a reducing glass to help plan for and the cartographer would be well ' ad-
reduction are regularly used. vised to have a good one and especially to
keep it clean and in good order. The pen
74 Drawing Instruments is filled by placing ink between the ad-
Drawing instruments may be obtained justable blades. In use it is held with the
either separately or in sets. A drawing set blades parallel to and against a drawing
is desirable because it provides a conven- edge. If it is not held parallel the ink will
ient place to keep the instruments in proper either not flow uniformly or it will "run
storage and is thus an aid toward good under" the drawing edge. The ruling pen
84 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
should be frequently cleaned with a cloth. even larger circle possible. The drop com-
If ink is. kept in the pen too long it will pa i useful for making small circles.
dry a bit, and the same amount will not The pen is 100 e on the pointed haft, and
flow out between the blades j uniformity when the center has been located the pen is
of line , then, cannot be obtained. Ink i
cheap compared to the time required to
produce good drawings.
A ruling pen with the blades on a swivel
(see Fig. 58) is useful for drawing smooth
curves such as contours. A double-headed
swivel called a railroad or road pen is use-
ful for drawing uniform parallel lines. The
single- and double-headed swivel pens are
handled in the same fashion as the plain
ruling pen except that they are ordinarily
used freehand, that is, without a drawing
edge to guide them.
Dividers, as the name indicates, are used
for dividing lines in equal parts and for
transferring dimensions from a rule to the
drawing paper (see Fig. 59). They are
adjustable with a needle point on each leg.
When used to divide a distance in equal
parts they are "walked" along the line,
then adjusted, and the process is repeated
until the division is accomplished. Pro-
portional dividers have two sets of needle
points, one at each end. The position of
the swivel between them can be adj usted
o that whatever the opening between one
pair, the other opening will remain in a
constant ratio with the first pair. They
are particularly useful for enlarging or re-
ducing irregular figures with precision.
Compasses are, of course, for drawing FIG. 59. Kinds of dividers. Courtesy Keuffel and
arcs and circles (see Fig. 60) . There are Esser Company.
several kind for different sizes of circles,
but usually only the small and large stand- dropped and twirled, all with one hand.
ard compass is included in a et of drawing The beam compass is used for drawing
instruments. Some makes have an inter- large arcs.
cbangeable pencil or ruling pen j others are There are several makers and distribu-
made only for pencil or for pen. In either tors of drafting equipment, and almost any
case their use is the same. The large com- drafting supply house has a large selection
pass in a set usually has an extension arm from which to choose. First-quality in-
which may be fitted into a socket to make struments are relatively expen ive so the
 Scales and Computing Aids 85

BEAM COMPASS

DROP
COMPASS

FIG. 60. Kinds of compasses. The beam of the beam compass may be several feet long.
Courtesy Keuffel and Esser Company.

beginner is advised to start with inexpen- 75 Scales and Computing Aids

sive tools and make replacements as he be- The cartographer needs several scales
comes acquainted with the desirable quali- with which to measure distances. The
ties. most commonly used scales are triangular
Drawing instruments are precision made and are made of wood. They should be
of high-quality metal, and it will repay the either in the metric system or in the Eng-
owner many times over to keep them clean lish system, decimally divided. Scales .are
and dry. If they are loose it is easy for not meant to be used as straightedges, and
the needle points and sharp edges to be- pens or pencils should never be run along
come damaged. Ruling pens may be kept the edge of a scale. This may dirty the
sharpened with the aid of a thin triangular scales, and any marks on them will make
whetstone. Clean instruments in good op- the chance of an error in reading values
erating order will not make the user a good more likely.
draftsman, but no draftsman can do a good If the cartographer does any maps for
job with dirty or rusty instruments that books he will find it u eful also to have a
are out of adjustment. scale that shows picas. The pica (about
86 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
~ inch) is a unit of typographic measure, good pen for distinctive freehand lettt:rmg.
and most book type and format dimen- The Leroy pen (see Fig. 61) was origi-
• sions are given in picas. nally designed for use with a lettering
Every cartographer should have avail- device (see Chapter 8) but .has been found
able a slide rule and a table of logarithms. to be a most useful pen for other purposes.
The use of the slide rule and logarithms It has a cylinder for a "point," and ink is
may be self-taught in a short time, and fed through a small hole in the cylinder.
many calculations are enormously simpli- When used freehand in its special holder
fied by their use. Calculations of map it is useful for those lines that should main-
scales, square roots, percentages, propor- tain a constant width no matter which di-
tions, and many other standard carto- rection they may follow. Varying pressure
graphic procedures are a matter of minutes makes little difference in the width of the
with these aids. line.
The Barch-Payzant pen (see Fig. 62)
76 Pens was also designed for lettering, but geog-
There is a large variety of pens avail- raphers find it an excellent pen for making
able for drafting different kinds of lines. uniform dots in distribution maps. It op-
Some are versatile and can be used for erates on a different principle from the
many operations, and some are useful for Leroy, but the result, so far as lines are
only a limited range of drawing. What- concerned, is about the same. The flow of
ever the pen, however, it is important that ink is adjustable with a Barch-Payzant,
it be kept clean. Time spent on regular which makes it desirable for the dotting
cleaning of pens, is, in the long run , time process.
gained . Another versatile pen for cartographic
Quill-type pens made of metal are use is the Speedball (see Fig. 63) . Several
among the most used instruments. A large varieties are obtainable, and the shape of
variety is obtainable, and it is helpful to the nib provides different kinds of lines.
have a good selection on hand. Some are The Speedball has an ink reservoir, and is
hard and stiff and make uniform lines; filled better with an ink dropper than by
others are very flexible and are used for dipping.
lines, such as rivers, that change width An extremely versatile type of pen is the
frequently. A favorite is the one called Pelican Graphos drawing-ink fountain pen
the "crow quill," which requires a special with interchangeable nibs. A variety of
holder. Quill pens may be dipped in the different kinds of lines, as illustrated in
ink bottle, but a better practice is to use Fig. 64, may be made by inserting different
the ink dropper to apply a drop to the un- nibs in the special fountain pen.
derside of the pen. This procedure allows
frequent cleaning without excessive waste 77 Drafting Surfaces
of ink. A most impressive variety of drafting
The stub pen is like a quill except that surfaces ranging from cloth to plastic may
the tip ends in a flat section instead of be used for maps, and the neophyte is
tapering to a point. With such a nib a line hard pressed to choose the right one for the
may be made of varying width depending purpose at hand. . Each use to which a
upon whether the pen is moved vertically paper or surface is to be put makes dis-
or horizontally on the paper. It is thus a tinct demands on the sui-face. The follow-
 Pens 87

14 Widths 01 Lines.

No. 00
11111IIII1III
o 2 3 4 6 6 7N aN 9 10 12 14

FIO.61. Leroy pens and penholder, and widths of lines made by various sizes of pens. Courtesy
Keuffel and Esser Company.

11 Widths of Lln.s

111111111
No. 000 00 o 2 3 4 5 6 7N 8N

Flo. 62. Barch-Payzant pens and widths of lines made by various sizes of pens. Courtesy
Keuffel and Esser Company.
88 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction

STYLE 'A SQUAR£ STYl£ '8' ROUND

for 5quare Gothic Jnd Block for Gothics 01' Uniform lines
(a) (b)

STYLE'C' OBLONG
for Roman, Text Jnd Italics
(c) (d)
FlO. 63 . Speedball pens and widths of lines made by various sizes of pens. Courtesy Hunt
Pen Company
 Pens 89
N I B: KI NO : W I D THS SUP P LIED (in mm) ,

RULING NIBS
FOR
FINE LINES 0,1 0,12 0,16 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6

RULlN6NIBS
for broad Unesand·for
mriting posters
1111111
0,8 1,0 1,25 1,6 2,5 4,0 6/. 10,0

TUBULAR NIBS
FOR LETTERING
GUI DES o,~
1111111111
O,S 0,6 0,1 o,~ 1,0 1,25 1,S 1,15 2,0 2,5 3,0

~ ~s .,~_. J!HI~"
~Rig~~tntllllill
Q square end Iinfs .. '" '.- ,> '.' '.- '.-

£fohanJslant
nibs~
II I I I
square eriJ lines'0,8 1,25 2,0 3,2 5,0

lJrawt(jg NiBs
FOP-J . HB = medium hard

free haw 'Orawirfg

FIG, 64. Illustration of the types of nibs and widths of lines that may be made by Pelican
Graphos nibs. Courtesy John Henschel and Company, New York.
90 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
ing brief listing includes the more impor- For such drawings a strong paper is re-
tant qualities of surfaces for cartographic quired.
use. 7. Reaction to wetting. Many maps call
for painting with various kinds of paints
1. Dimensional stability. This refers to
and inks. A paper which curls excessively
the ability of the paper or other surface to
when wetted is inappropriate for such a
withstand changes in temperature and es-
purpose.
pecially humidity without shrinking or
expanding. This is particularly important The above list of qualities is not all-
in two instances: (I) when the map must inclusive, but these are the major ones.
maintain an absolute scale, such as in de- The cartographer would do well to ap-
tailed charting or mapping, and (2) when proach every drafting job with the ques-
the drawing must "fit" or register with an- tion "How will the medium react to what
other drawing. I plan to do to it 1" The classic carto-
2. Ink adherence. This refers to the graphic media are tracing paper, tracing
ability of the surface to "hold on to" the cloth, and drawing paper. During the last
ink. Some surfaces are rather porous so decade plastics have become common in
that the ink sinks in a bit and is held by some kinds of cartographic construction.
the fibers when it dries. Other surfaces are Tracing paper is available in two forms,
so compact that the ink simply dries on the the natural tracing paper and the prepared
surface, and consequently, it may be easily tracing paper. Natural tracing paper is
chipped or rubbed off. translucent because the paper is made thin.
3. Translucence. This refers to the ease It is relatively weak and is not recom-
with which it is possible to see through the mended for most map work. Prepared
material. This is of special concern when- tracing paper is made of tougher materials
ever tracing of any kjnd is done. Because and is made translucent by chemical means.
so much tracing, ranging from lettering and It is much more satisfactory for map work.
layouts to actual data, is i-nvolved in car- Tracing cloth or linen is a sized, good-
tography, the quality of translucence fre- quality cloth. It is tougher than paper and
quently transcends the others in impor- is desirable if unusual handling of the
tance. drawing is required. The sizing frequently
4. Surface quality. This refers to the clogs a pen. None of the tracing papers or
smoothness or roughness of the surface. cloths can be wetted much without curling.
The smoother the paper the "cleaner" the Drawing paper is a fine-grade rag paper
line that may be drawn on it. Roughness available in a variety of qualities, thick-
can, however, be a definite asset, as, for nesses, and surfaces. It is opaque, but if
example, when "continuous-tone" shading translucence is not required it provides a
for line reproduction is desired. fine drawing surface. Illustration board is
5. Erasing quality. Some kinds of map a heavy cardboard surfaced with drawing
work require frequent erasing of pencil paper. It may be wetted, as may some
lines, as, for example, in terrain drawing, drawing papers, and is especially useful as
and final inking must be done on the same a base upon which to mount drawings done
sheet. Toughness is obviously required. on translucent paper.
6. Strength. Some drawings must with- Translucent Vinylite plastic is available
stand repeated rolling and unrolling or )llay in a variety of surfaces, and it has the defi-
be made with the idea of frequent revision. nite advantage of being practically dimen-
 Inks 91

FRANCE IN THE

FIG. 65. A map drawn on Coquille board. The reprodllction is by ordinary line cut. Reo·
printed by permission of the publisher from Donald C. McKay, The United States and
France, Harvard Univer ity Press, Cambridge, Mass.; copyright, 1951, by the President and
Fellows of Harvard College.

ionally stable, so that it is well adapted special or unusual map frequently requires
to multicolor maps where each color is some experimentation.
drafted on a separate sheet and must regis- One type of material that is very useful
ter with the other. It ha the disadvan- is Coquille or Ross board. This material
tage, however, that the surface i quite hard is prepared in a variety of rough surfaces
and drawing tools wear quickly when used so that when a carbon pencil or crayon is
on it. It also requires a different technique rubbed over it the color comes off only on
of drafting with India ink or t he use of a the tops of the small bumps (see Fig. 65).
different kind of ink , because standard For this reason varying shades of gray can
India ink does not penetrate the surface. be prepared wit h this material and can be
Special inks for drafting on plastics are reproduced without the necessity of being
available, but they tend to dry quickly and halftoned (see Article 89), which reduces
some corrode the instruments. Mistakes in the reproduction expense to about half.
drafting on plastic are easily corrected, for
the ink can merely be scraped off. 78 Inks
There are a variety of other special The standard ink for drafting purposes
papers and surfaces that are occasionally is called India ink, and is available in a
useful to the cartographer. For example, number of brands. It takes its name from
large wall maps can be made on sign cloth; the older product sold in stick form which
transparent overlays can be made on clear originally came from India. Modern India
plastic; and metal-mounted paper can be ink is a permanent suspension of fine car-
used for fine, scale-perfect drawings. The bon in a liquid medium. It dries a dense
92 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
black, which i very important in repro- opaque paint to cover the ink lines not
duction. Most brands are waterproof; wanted. Showcard or tempera-type paints,
that i " they will not run if wetted after although usable, have a tendency to flake
they have once dried. Drawing ink is also off if the drawing is much handled.
available in color which can be mixed.
Special inks for use on pIa tics and dif- 79 Tints and Patterns
ferent kinds of colored pencils, water colors, An indispensable part of many maps is
and other paints are available in large the pattern or shading that must be done
variety. Their uses do not admit of gen- to differentiate one area from another.
eralization, and the cartographer would do This may be accomplished either by draft-
well to experiment before settling upon any ing them laboriously, as in the case of
one product for a particular piece of work. parallel lines or dotted "stippling," or by
Tracing cloths and drawing papers com- applying a commercially prepared pattern.
monly pick up oil from the hands, or are Shades of gray as might be prepared by
oily or slick because of the method of prep- shading with a pencil cannot be used, for
aration; it is necessary to remove any film then reproduction requires half toning It
before inking begins. This is mo t easily can be done with Coquille or Ross board,
done by means of a powder, commercially but other line work is relatiyely difficult on
prepared for the specific purpose. India these surfaces.
ink will either not adhere or will spread if Preprinted materials, such as area sym-
the surface is oily, and this will result in bols printed on transparent film , are easy
poor appearance and poor reproduction. to use and save much of the time which
The draftsman should first clean the draw- was formerly necessary. The best-known
ing surface and then keep it clean by hav- and most-used product for map work in
ing a piece of paper under his drawing hand thi class is known by the trade name Zip-
at all times. Fingers should not touch the a-tone (Paratone Company, Chicago).
paper. A blunt stick is a handy substitute More than 150 patterns are a\'ailable in
for fingers when the paper needs to be kept black, white, and colors. The colors (ex-
tight against the board. cept red) are not frequently u ed in car-
For drawings that are to be photo- tography. The patterns are available on
graphed the best way to "sharpen" lines thin ' transparent film with a wax backing
and make corrections is to use a white, (see Fig. 66). The material is placed oyer

FIG. 66. Samples of Zip-a-tone.

1IIIII
 Map Reproduction 93
the area desired and is cut out to fit. The blance between this printed map and the
excess is stripped away, and the remainder fair drawing is purely coincidental," for
is burnished to the drawing. Patterns what happens to a neophyte's map when
printed in red are useful when the pattern reproduced is sometimes startling. It need
is dense, and it would be impossible to see not be, however, if the cartographer will
through it (to know where to cut) if it but bear in mind that any map to be re-
were black. Solid red is also useful be- produced must be designed for some par-
cause red photographs as black, and large ticular process of reproduction.
areas of solid black may be easily con- The designing of a map for reproduction
structed this way especially on a paper that involves a number of important decisions
cannot be wetted. White patterns are u e- and techniques. One of the more impor-
ful to break up black areas or other pat- tant considerations is of the relation be-
terns. tween the size of the copy (fair drawing
Knowledge of the relation of patterns to prepared for reproduction) and the printed
reduction and the preparation of a graded or reproduced size in terms of the degree
series of values darkness) require consid- of detail, line widths, and lettering sizes.
erable experimentation by the cartographer. Many maps that appear correct in these
aspects in copy form appear crowded and
80 Other Techniques and Media heavy, or the opposite, light and weak,
The foregoing brief resume of the more when reduced and printed. This may be
important materials and media for average a result of poor design , treated elsewhere
black and white cartography is far from in this book, or the result of a lighter print-
exhaustive. There are other techniques, ing ink on an absorbent paper or some other
such as airbrush, intermediate photog- similar circumstance. In addition, if the
raphy, and other media, such as painting map is to be reproduced in color it must be
with various types of colors, that would re- kept in register as the separate plates are
quire a treatment too exhaustive for a book drawn. Also, the line work of a drawing
of this kind. There are several manuals must be more carefully drafted on copy
on the graphic-arts techniques which will that is to be reproduced by the camera,
answer the majority of the sp cial ques- for sensitized paper or film is much more
tions the student might have. sensitive to differences in blackness than
is the human eye. The copy must be ap-
81 Map Reproduction propriat"e to the process; that is, it must
If one surveys the story of the develop- not ask too much of the particular dupli-
ment of cartography he will undoubtedly cating technique. Very fine lines can be
be impressed by the significance of the reproduced in only a few copies by some
development and expansion of the printing processes, and in many copies by others.
process. The invention of printing in the The list of caveats is long. .
western world during the fifteenth century Even before the cartographer begins his
certainly ranks as one of the major events map he must learn what choice there is as
in cartographic history. Likewise, the con- to method of reproduction, and he must
templation of his first reproduced map is choose the most appropriate one in terms
likely to be one of the great events in a of cost, number of copies required, future
cartographer's professional life. Some- use of the map, and a number of other ele-
times the event generates sorrow. Of cer- ments. Even after the process has been
tain results it might be said, "Any resem- chosen, there is still .considerable choice as
94 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
to the method of preparing copy for some esses are considered. It should, however,
kinds of maps, especially colored maps. be pointed out that' there are a number of
A thorough knowledge of reproduction other processes which produce excellent re-
processes is desirable for still another rea~ sults in specific "requirement situations,"
son. In the printing process, and in some ranging from stencil reproduction and silk
other methods of reproduction, photog- screen to gravure · and collotype. These
raphy is an important step. Much of the and others of the same category (not
photography results in film on which there widely used in cartography) are not con-
are only two kinds of areas, i.e., opaque sidered here, but the interested student can
and transparent. This fact can be utilized find abundant information about them in
in the construction of a map in a number the graphic-arts literature.
of ways which will effect great savings of The widely used nonprinting processes
time for the cartographer. Masking of un- are: (1) photostat, (2) photograph (not
wanted areas, application of tints and including color), (3) blueprint, and (4) dry
screen patterns, and so on, can often be ammonia ·or Ozalid.
most expeditiously done during this part of The widely used printing processes are:
the printing process. The cartographer (1) letterpress and (2) ' lithography.
who is versed in "reproduction cartog- The nonprinting processes are distin-
raphy" can save himself considerable effort guished by providing low-cost, one-color
at the same time that he is producing a copies at a unit cost that does not vary
finer product. with the "run," or number of copies. They
are therefore ideal for short runs but are
82 Classification of R eproduction not appropriate for large runs. The print-
Methods ing processes, on the other hand, provide
It is difficult to classify reproduction low-cost, monochrome or multicolor copies
methods in a satisfactory manner, becau e at a unit cost that decr~ases with the num-
many processes require more than one ber of copies run. The initial cost is high
technique, and the intermediate techniques compared to the non printing methods. The
in one may be an end in themselves in an- printing processes are therefore not appro-
other, or they may be intermediate in sev- priate for very small runs.
eral different processes. For example, pho-
tography i a step in the printing proce s 83 Photostat Process
but it can also be considered a separate This process provides direct prints in
reproduction proce s. Perhaps the most reverse or negative form on sensitized
practical manner of classification is to paper, without the necessity of any inter-
group the reproduction methods on the mediate step. It involves the exposure of
basis of w·hether or not they involve a de- the copy through a lens to sensitized paper,
creasing unit cost with increasing numbers which is then wet developed. The devel-
of copies. It so happens that segregation oping process and the subsequent drying
on this basis ' also separates the common frequently cause unequal shrinkage, so that
processes according to whether or not they some distortion of dimensions and direc-
require printing plates and printing ink, tions is often present in a photostat.
i.e., whether they are printing processes or The prints are reversed each time
nonprinting processes. through the process. If a drawing of black
In the following descriptions only the lines on a white background is photostat-
widely used and generally available proc- ted, the result will be a photostat negative,
 · Blueprint Process 95
i.e., a reproduction with white lines on a not in simple proportion are easier to make
black background. To gain positive copies photographically than photostatically, and
(same as original copy), it is necessary to photographic' enlargements on one sheet
repeat the process using the negative as the are available at a larger size through the
copy. use of an enlarger.
Maps may be enlarged or reduced in the To make corrections on the negative is
photostat process, and the only limitation costly and difficult in the photographic
is the size of the paper and the quality of process, so that for ordinary work where
the lens. Photostatic paper is limited to only a few prints are required the copy
18 x 24 inch sheets, but the . edges usually must be tlready to go."
are rather badly distorted so that the effec-
tive size is somewhat smaller. 85 Blueprint Process
Many time-saving and interesting re- The blueprint process is here used as a
sults can be obtained by using the photo- general term to cover several processes that
stat process in cartography. For example, produce results by similar techniques, but
if one wishes to have white lettering on a which are not necessarily the standard
solid background (reverse lettering) on a blueprint process. In this process the copy
printed map, it is a simple matter to do is laid next to the sensitized paper and is
the lettering in black ink on white paper' then exposed to special lights. The ex-
and then to obtain a negative photostat. posed print is wet developed and is subject
This may then be pasted on .the drawing. to some distortion. The print appears as
It is much easier than attempting to letter the reverse of the copy, i.e., light lines
with white paint on a black background. on a dark background. If a positive copy
Other cases where reversing a drawing is desired a special tlnegative" can be made
photostatically, intermediate in the draft- from the original, which is then used as
ing process, is advantageous will occur copy, and the prints are then produced as
to the reader. dark lines on a white background. Another
The primary use of photostats, however, variety (B-W) using special papers pro-
is for obtaining a few relatively inexpensive duces positive copies directly.
copies of a black and white lDap that has It is not possible in the blueprint process
been drawn on opaque or translucent to enlarge or reduce so that copy must be
paper. Mistakes can be corrected either ' designed for tlsame-size" reproduction.
on the copy (by painting over, etc.) or on The process depends upon the translucence
the photostat negative if positives are to of the drawing; and therefore painting out
be used. imperfections is impossible, for the paint
is as opaque as the ink and would appear
84 Photograph Process as a dark spot in the print. Creases on
This is the standard process of photog- the tracing paper or cloth and hea'vy era-
raphy involving camera, film negative, and sures which affect the translucence are also
·paper prints. Although the cost of pho- frequently visible on the print.
tography per square foot is about the same The major use of the process in cartog-
as photostat, there are certain cases where raphy is to obtain a few relatively inex-
photography is desirable. Grays and pensive copies on thinner paper than pho-
tones may be somewhat better controlled tostatic or photographic paper. It is also
and are available in greater variety photo- useful for obtaining "same-size" copies of
graphically. Enlargements or reductions base maps so that a variety of other maps
96 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
requiring the same base data may be made, tive. If the photographer prints his ordi-
without t}~e necessity of redrawing the base nary film negative on another piece of film,
data for each map. Blueprint papers have instead of paper as is normal, the result is
a relatively good drafting surface, but the a film positive (diapositive), which is the
combination of India ink lines and the blue, same as the original copy, except that it
"black," red, or brown lines of the print is on transparent film instead of paper.
are not particularly satisfactory for sub- If the ·photographer can arrange the print-
sequent printing reproduction, although the ing of the diapositive so that the emulsion
results are not unusable. ide is on the bottom when the diapositive
"reads" correctly, then it may be fed into
86 Dry Ammonia Process the Ozalid machine and will produce good
This process, best known under the trade results. Of course, Zip-a-tone, etc. , may
name Ozalid, is similar in some respects to be employed on the drawing used to pro-
the blueprint in that it requires translucent duce the diapositive since its only function
copy and no reduction or enlargement is is to be photographed. It is not abso-
possible. It differs markeq.ly, however,.be- lutely necessary to have the emulsion ar-
cause it is a dry process, requiring no liquid ranged as suggested aboye, but the results
developer, and because copies are positive. will be more satisfactory if it is.
Prints are obtained by feeding the origi-
nal drawing into a machine against a roll 87 Printing Processes
of the special sensitized paper. The ex- The earliest printing or duplicating proc-
posure and dry developing take place rap- ess was undoubtedly that involving a
idly within the machine, the drawing is re- raised surface which could be pressed into
turned , and may be immediately rein- a soft medium, such as clay, in order to
serted for another exposure and copy. leave a mark therein. Evidence that this
Ozalid paper, like blueprint paper, has was done several thousand years ago is
an acceptable drafting surface, so this proc- avail.able. Subsequently, the Chinese
ess is also u eful for obtaining copies of carved block characters, inked the rai ed
base maps. The same cautions regarding portion, and transferred the impression to
corrections and creasing that were pointed paper. This is the kind of printing from
out in the previous article are applicable movable type that later was "invented" in
to drawings for Ozalid reproduction. the western world in the latter part of the
Zip-a-tone and similar products on draw- fifteenth century, and is associated with the
ings do not produce very good results in name Gutenberg. Today printing from a
the dry ammonia process because of "shad- raised surface is known as letterpress and
owing" which takes place when exposure is a standard form of printing.
is made through the translucent drafting Another method of reproduction , en-
medium. An additional hazard with these graving, involving ink and an uneven sur-
materials is present in the Ozalid process, face wa developed at about the same time
because the drawing must be fed around a that movable type was first used in Europe.
roller, and such materials tend to curl off Someone conceived the idea of cutting or
the paper if it is rolled. One way of cir- engraving grooves in metal, filling them
cumventing this problem is to have a dia- with ink, and then pressing them against
positive made by a photographer. paper. In a sense this process of engrav-
A diapositive, which is a very useful item ing is just the opposite of letterpress print-
in reproduction cartography, is a film posi- ing, for the inking area is "down" instead
 Steps in the Printing Process 97
of " up. " Un t'l I cons)'d era bly less than a 1. Photographing the original (the copy).
hundred years ago most printed maps were 2. Processing the negative.
reproduced by the engraving process. 3. Making the plate.
About a century and a half ago it was 4. Presswork.
discovered that a drawing could be made
The cartographer is concerned with one
on a smooth limestone surface with greasy
or all of the first three. Beyond under-
ink or crayon. The unmarked portion of
standing the problems of the pressman he
the surface could then be wetted, and if a
is little concerned with the fourth stage.
greasy printing ink, which was repelled by
Perhaps the major difference between
the water, were rolled across the surface
.
the mk would adhere to the original greasy
' letterpress and lithography, in so far as
the cartographer is concerned, results from
areas but not to the dampened areas.
the fact that commonly the lithographer
Paper pressed against the stone would pick
handles all four operations in his establish-
up the ink. On account of its original form
ment and is therefore a somewhat more
the process was named lithography. Today
satisfactory person with which to deal. In
stone is no longer used, except in rare in-
letterpress, on the other hand, it is not
stances, and thin metal plates have been
unusual for the first two or three steps as
listed above, to be accomplished by a ph~to­
substituted, but it is still known as lithog-
raphy. It is also frequently called offset,
engraver who does no presswork. This
because the image is offset by the press
means, so to speak, that one more cook is
to a rubber roller, which in turn prints it
concerned with the broth making, and the
on the paper.
danger of spoilage due to inadequate plan-
The three kinds of printing and printing
ning is thereby increased.
surfaces, relief, intaglio, and planographic,
Photographing the original drawing or
are still used, but most maps are printed
copy is an exacting process requiring the
by either letterpress or lithography.
use of what is called a copy camera, which
Larger maps are usually done by lithog-
is a large, rigidly mounted camera capable
raphy and the smaller, such as book "cuts,"
of making large or small exposures. The
by letterpress.
copy is first placed in a vacuum frame
Today all ordinary printing-plate prep-
with a glass cover, which holds it perfectl;
aration involves photographing the original
fiat, and is exposed for several seconds
copy or fair drawing, making a film or glass
under illumination by arc lights. Rela-
negative, retouching (correcting and chang-
tively slow film is used in order to give the
ing the negative), exposing the negative on
photographer greater control over the qual-
a sensitive plate, and printing from the
ity of the negative. For the printing proc-
resulting pl~te .
esses (lithography and letterpress) , the re-
88 Steps in the Printing Process sulting negative must be composed of
The basic steps in the printing ·process, either opaque areas or transparent areas
from the time the printer receives the copy and nothing intermediate. Grays are not
until he delivers the printed maps, are much permitted on the negative as they, of
the same whether the process is letterpress course, are in ordinary photography. The
or lithography. For a normal piece of copy printing plate, to be made subsequently
involving no complications the process con- from the negative, must be entirely divided
sists, in the main, of the following opera- into two kinds of surfaces, one which takes
t ions: ink and one which does not. For this rea-
98 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
son all copy should be drafted with marks made such as (a) adding or subtracting
of unifor~ blackness. Lack of dense, uni- material, (b) color separation, and (c)
form blackness on the copy makes it very screening.
difficult if not impossible for the photog- Depending upon the circumstances it is
rapher to produce a satisfactory negative. sometimes possible at this stage to add or
Any reduction that is to be made is done subtract names and lines. If an important
at this stage. The photographer can adjust piece of information has been omitted or a
the camera precisely either by calculating word misspelled, a new piece of emulsion or
the ratio of reduction or by actually meas-
uring the image in the camera before the
exposure.
It is important that the nature of the
emulsion normally used be fully under-
stood. This emulsion is sensitive to black
and to the red end of the spectrum but is
not particularly sensitive to the blue end.
Consequently, red photographs black, but
light blue (and some similar colors) do not
photograph at all. For tliis reason the
cartographer should, so far as possible,
draw any guide lines with a light-blue pen-
cil. Filters may be used in special cir-
cumstances.
After exposure the negative is developed,
washed, and dried and is then ready for
the next step. The emulsions are on film
or glass backing, and for some plate making FIG. 67. Opaquing a negative. Courtesy Rand
it is necessary for the photographer to McNally and Company.
make a diapositive which then is treated
as the "negative." emulsion-like material may be "stripped"
Processing the negative is one of the into place on the negative. If material has
more important steps in the cartographic been omitted it can sometimes be added by
process, for it is in this stage that some "engraving" it in the emulsion or, in the
results can be obtained better than in the case of a diapositive, added by painting.
drafting stage. No matter what processing Such operations are costly and time con-
or modification is to take place, however, suming, so it is better if the cartographer
the negative must be brought to perfection prepares his copy correctly in the first in-
by removing all "pinholes" and blemishes stance.
in the emulsion so that the image is left If a map is to be printed with two or
sharp and clear. This is done by placing more colored inks it is necessary that there
the negative on a light-table and opaquing be a negative and printing plate for each
with paint or scraping clean those spots color ink. Copy for separate plates may
and areas requiring repair or change (see either be drafted by the cartographer, or he
Fig. 67). In addition to the process of may draft all colors in black on one draw-
perfecting the negative, called by the gen- ing. If the latter is done the photographer
eral term "opaquing," other changes can be supplies as many identical negatives as
 Steps in the Printing Process 99
there are colors-to-be. The negatives are almost cast," for that map. It is possible,
then opaqued so that only those items however, to take advantage of one oppor-
which are to be printed in a single color are tunity at this stage-double exposing of
left transparent on each negative. They the plate. This may be done by using two
are then treated as different negatives. In negatives with printing areas that are mu-
many instances this insures better registry tually exclusive. They are "burned" on
as well as saving time for the cartographer. the plate one after the other so that the
It is obvious, however, that on some com- printing plate is a composite. The advan-
plicated map this would not be feasible.
Screening of the negative involves the
positioning of thin transparent sheets con-
taining patterns of lines or dots (called
screens) over particular areas of the nega-
t ive. This accomplishes the same end re-
sult on the printing plate a applying Zip-
a-tone or similar shading film to, or draft-
ing such shading on, the original drawing.
Better results are obtained with extra-fine
patterns of lines or dots by applying them
at this stage, after photography, than by
making them "stand up" through the pho-
tographic process. Furthermore, opaquing
can be done first and screening second,
which is desirable because the negative is
more difficult to opaque if the emulsion
already contains a fine pattern of lines or FIG. 68. Sensitizing the printing plate. The print-
dots in addition to the other data. ing plate is here shown in a "whirler," which re-
After the negative has been processed it tates it to spread smoothly the emulsion being
poured on it. Courtesy Rand McNally and
is masked as necessary with opaque paper, Company.
marked for po ition on the plate, and in
general made ready for plate making. tage of this will be described in Article 91.
Printing plates for both lithography and It is also possible at this stage to apply
letterpress are now made of various metals, screens directly to the printing plate.
but whatever their composition the print- These are called Ben Day patterns and
ing surface is made light sensitive (see Fig.
may also be added during the negative
68) . The negative is placed on the surface
stage as previously described.
of the plate, and the two are put in a
Presswork involves placing the com-
vacuum frame and exposed to arc light long
pleted plate in exact position on the press,
enough so that the light may effect a
change in the sensitive surface. Whether inking the press so that just the right
the plate is to be etched deeply for letter- amount is applied to each part of the plate,
press, lightly for deep-etch lithography, or and feeding the paper through the press
practically not at all for standard lithog- (see Fig. 69) . Except for the fact that
raphy makes no difference to the cartog- rough changes, such as removing a mark,
rapher. By the time this stage of the print- can be made on the plate after it has been
ing process has been reached the "die is made ready for the press, the cartographer
100 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
has no further part in the printing process. the reproduction process by a different
He must .depend at this stage on the skill (and more costly) procedure. The sig-
of the pressman for such things as an even nificance of this division results from the
impression, proper inking, and maintenance fact that the ordinary printing processes
of correct registry. depend upon printing from a surface that
Although the principles of the process is either inked or is not inked. There is
are straightforward , the details may vary no such thing in lithography and letter-
considerably because of the different press as "halfway inking."
It is possible, however, to make a printed
area appear gray, or hade from light to
dark (continuous tone), as if the surface
had more or less ink on it. The process,
halftoning, is accomplished by transform-
ing the tone area into a large number of
small dots of different sizes depending upon
whether it is to be dark or light. The dots
print ink, and the paces between do not.
The dots are so close together that the eye
is unable easily to distinguish them, so
that the combination of black spots and
white spaces blends and appears as a tone.
The tone area is broken up by inserting
a special screen in the rear of the copy
camera between the lens and the emulsion.
This screen i made of two circular sheets
FIG. 69. A modern printing press. This is a two- of glass on which fine , parallel, closely
color off et press. Courtesy Rand McNally and paced grooves have been cut. The grooves
Company. are filled with opaque paint, and the two
sheets are cemented together so that the
methods, letterpress and lithography, and grooves are at right angles to one another.
becau e of variations resulting from dif- The light that passes through the screen is
ferent metals, emulsions, and the like. rendered as dots on the emulsion. All
Consequently the student should take the other things being equal, the closer the
opportunity to visit several printing grooves the smaller and clo er together the
establishments in order to observe this dots will be. The closer together they are,
fascinating process which is so important the more difficult it is for the eye to see
in present-day cartography. them individually and the smoother and
more natural the result will appear. A
89 Line and Halftone screen of 120 lines to the in c11 is common.
All copy (or fair drawings) belongs to This provides more than 14,000 dots per
either of two classes, line copy and half- square inch! (See Fig. 70.)
tone copy. The distinguishing character- The size of the printing dots relative to
istic that places a piece of copy in one or the white spaces between is dependent upon
the other class is whether or not it con- the darkness or lightness of the tone on
tains any shading or gray. If it does , it is the copy. It should be remembered, how-
halftone copy and must be dealt with in ever, that unless special additional process-
 Color Reproduction 101

LIGHT MEDIUM DARK

FIG. 70. An example of "continuou tone" reproduction. The three drawings show the
different sizes of halftone dots as they might appear if the areas indicated in the drawing
were enlarged many times.

ing takes place, no part of a halftone will 3. Screening the negative for uniform
be without dots. All lines and lettering shading.
will therefore have fuzzy edges. Pure 4. Using Ross or Coquille board for con-
whites on copy will, in ordinary half ton- tinuous-tone effect.
ing, have very small black dots and there- 5. Using Ben Day screens on the nega-
fore a light tone, whereas black areas will tive or on the printing plate for unifonn
reproduce with small white spaces rather shading.
than solid black. These effects can be re- 6. Using specially prepared drawing
moved by opaquing or scraping on the half- papers, uch as Craftint Singletone or Dou-
tone negative, but this is difficult if the bletone.
areas involved are complex.
The variety of methods available, and
Ordinary half toning at least doubles the
the commercial materials that have been
cost of reproduction, so that it provides a
developed to simulate continuous tone by
considerable saving if the cartographer can
line methods, is ample evidence of the sig-
gain a similar effect with line copy. This
nificant savings that can be accomplished
can be done by if copy does not require half toning.
1. Shading either uniformly or for con-
tinuous-tone effect by hatching or stippling 90 Color Reproduction
with pen and ink. The reproduction of maps in color does
2. Using Zip-a-tone, etc., on the copy not differ from black reproduction except
for uniform shading. that different colored inks are used. Each
102 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
separate ink require~ , of course, a separate (Vinylite) are stable, and some drawing
printing 'plate, and thus a complete dupli- papers and tracing papers can be used in
cation of the steps in the whole process. the smaller sizes. If drawing papers or
Thus, generally speaking, the costs of color tracing papers are used, care must be taken
reproduction are many times that of the that the grain of the paper runs in the same
single-color (usually black) reproduction. direction on each overlay or plate, so that
There are, however, two basically different if expansion or contraction does take place
color reproduction processes, and it is un- it will be more nearly uniform on each.
wise to generalize further about relative
costs. The two processes are called "flat
color" and II color process." The major dif-
+
ference between them is that the color copy
for process color is prepared as a single
color drawing, whereas that for flat color is
prepared in black and white and usually
requires a different drawing for each ink.
Flat color is the process most often used + MAP +
for maps and involves a straightforward
procedure that varies little from the pro-
ceduTe described previously. For the flat-
color procedure the map is planned for a
certain number of colored printing inks,
and a separate drawing is prepared for each
ink. Of course, many combinations of line FIG. 71.
+
Register marks showing their usual
and halftone effects are possible. position.
The basic problem of multi color lUap
preparation is register, i.e. , making the The blue-line board, if carefully used, is
colors print exactly where they should. To an excellent method of maintaining register
facilitate register, small crosses, called reg- for relatively complex color maps. In this
ister marks, are placed on the four margins process the original copy for the black
of every plate (drawing) of the copy in plate is drafted and all boundaries of color
exactly the salUe place on each (see Fig. areas are included. The printer can supply
71) . The marks are retained on the nega- from this drawing any number of same-
tives and on the printing plate. As soon as size reproductions in light blue on a white
the plate has been properly adjusted on the drawing surface. The common blue lines
press they are removed. Register may be are on heavy paper or illustration board.
maintained in a number of ways, such as: The light blue is nonphotographic and
(1) using a dimensionally stable drawing serves as a guide for further drafting. All
surface, (2) using blue-line boards, and areas and lines (including register marks)
(3) negative separation. Whatever the to be printed in red are drafted in black,
method employed, great care must be ex- screened, etc., on one board ; all areas in
pended to maintain as perfect registry as blue, or whatever the color may be, are
possible. drafted on another, and so on. The lines
The larger the drawing and the r~pro­ used only for color guides on the original
duction the more important is the use of black plate drawing may be removed from
dimensionally stable materials. Plastics the drawing, or opaqued on the negative
 Negative Manipulation 103
later. The cartographer then delivers a together again the halftone dots and trans-
series of black and white "separation draw- parent inks merge and recreate the colors
ings," properly labeled, to the printer who of the original drawing. The process is
treats them as single pieces of copy through expensive because it is exacting. Much
the entire process. The pressman prints work by highly skilled persons is necessary
them on top of one another in the appro- on the halftone negatives, and the combi-
priate inks, and a multicolor map results. nation of halfton~ negatives, their modifi-
Another method of insuring register, cation, and careful processing throughout
which is appropriate under some circum- the printing process is time consuming.
stances, is for the cartographer to draft all The above explanation of the principal
lines of all colors on the same drawing. color processes used in reproducing maps
These are photographed, and as many du- is greatly simplified but is included in order
plicate negatives are made as there are that the student may have an idea of the
colors-to-be. These may then be opaqued basic procedures. If one is to have a color
in such a way as to leave on each negative map reproduced he is advised to investigate
only that which is to be printed in a par- these interesting processes more carefully
ticular color. Screens, etc., may be added through reading (see bibliography) and es-
as usual to the negatives, and the final sep- pecially by visits to printing plants where
aration negatives are the same as would this type of work is done.
have resulted from separation drawings.
There are many ways of accomplishing 91 Negative Manipulation
the same end result in the flat-color pro- It has perhaps occurred to the student
cedure, and each engraver or printer has that the procef$ses previously described lend
special ways of operating. It is always themselves to various combinations. For
wise to confer with the printer before initi- example, it is possible to expose two nega-
ating work if there is to be anything at all tives, one a halftone and the other a line
unusual in the procedure. negative, on the same printing plate, or the
Process color, or more properly four- negative for one plate may be used as a
color process, is the name applied to an eS- positive and be the basis of another plate.
sentially different procedure. This method An example will serve as an illustration
is based on the fact that almost all color of short cuts. Suppose a map of North
combinations can be obtained by varying America is to be made, and on the printed
mixtures of red, yellow, blue, white, and map it is desired that the oceans be a blue
black. The copy consists usually of two tint (screened), the lana be a brown tint
pieces, the color drawing and a black line (screened), and the line work (boundaries,
plate. The black plate usually contains etc.) on the land be black. This will in-
the border (if any), lettering, grid , out- volve three printing plates, one for each
lines, etc., and is the base for a blue-line color. Yet only two need be drafted and
board. On the blue line all color work is one of those is very simple. (See Fig. 72.)
done by painting, airbrush, etc. The color The two drawings are:
copy is photographed three times, each time
through an appropriate color filter and a A. All line work drafted in black in-
halftone screen, so that the three printing cluding
plates are halftones of the varying amounts a. Grid on oceans.
of the primary colors. The black plate is b. Boundaries and coastline.
treated as a line drawing. When printed c. All lettering in black.
104 Drafting, Materials, and Map Reproduction
DRAWINGS
A B

NEGATIVES
A B c D

PRINTING PLATES PRODUCE

Negs. A+ 0 produce Neg. 0, screened, produces

•" •
Negs. B +C, screened, produce

FlO. 72. An exampJe of possible negative manipulation and combination. The letters are
keyed to the explanation in Article 91. The coarseness of the screens is, of course, exaggerated.
 Negative Manipulation 105
B. A masking drawing consisting of ing plate with coastline, boundaries,
a. Black oceans (most easily done and lettering on the land.
with red Zip-a-tone) . 2. Diapositive D is screened and pro-
vides a brown printing plate with
The processing of these two drawings is
a tint on all the land.
as follows:
3. Diapositive B is combined with
A. One negative of the line drawing is screened negative C which provides
made (transparent lines on opaque a blue-tint ocean with white (re-
background) . versed) lettering and white grid
B. One diapositive of the line drawing ending at the land.
is made (opaque lines on transpar-
There is an unlimited number of possi-
ent background).
bilities of producing interesting effects by
C. One negative of the masking draw-
combining various types of negatives and
ing is made (opaque land on trans-
parent ocean). by various kinds of screenings. An inter-
D. One diapositive of the masking esting and instructive exercise for the stu-
drawing is made (opaque ocean on dent of cartography is to try to analyze the
transparent land). methods by which the color or black and
white maps that are available to him have
The printing plates are made as follows: been reproduced, and to suggest alternative
1. Negative A is combined with dia- ways of arriving at the same or better re-
positive D to provide a black print- sults.
 6
Compiling and Preparing
the Map Base

92 The Map Base These are essentially mechanical processes,

All special-purpose maps are made on for relatively little interpretation and gen-
the foundation of a base map. This base eralization takes place.
map is compiled first , and the accuracy The special-purpose map is quite a dif-
with which it is made determines in large ferent operation. The compiling of base
part the accuracy of the final map. This data requires using many maps from
is due to the practical requirement that which to gain the desired information ; they
the cartographer must compile much of the may be on different projections; they may
special data by using the base data as a differ markedly in level of accuracy ; the
skeleton on which to hang it. Base data dates of publication may vary; and their
consisting of coasts, rivers, lakes, and po- scales will probably be different. The
litical boundaries are available from larger- cartographer must pick and choose, dis-
card this, and modify that, and all the
scale, generally accurate, survey maps;
while he must place the selected data on a
but, on the other hand, the kinds of special-
new projection, locating each item pre-
ized data usually put on special-purpose
cisely by eye. For although it is possible
maps for the social sciences are commonly
to transform by tracing and photography
organized according to the civil divisions a 1':50,000 map into one at 1 :250,000, it is
of the area concerned. It is absolutely quite impossible to transfer mechanically
necessary, therefore, that the cartographer between scales of a much greater range.
take special pains to be accurate in his This is easily understood if one but remem-
compilation of the base data. bers that 1 square inch at a scale of 1: 62,-
Large-scale maps, 1: 150,000 and larger, 500 will occupy only 0.01 square inch at
are not usually compiled maps, but are a scale of 1: 625,000. The latter is still a
maps made from surveys ranging from fairly large scale for special-purpose maps.
photogrammetric to plane table survey. The process of compilation requires that
Their accuracy is controlled as carefully as the selected data be transferred by eye.
possible, and within the limits of human The projection grid in each case consti-
error and scale they are correct. Some tutes the guide Jines, and all positions must
medium-scale maps are made by tracing be estimated. Lest the reader be concerned
selected data from the larger-scale maps about the accuracy of such a process he
and reducing the result photographically. should remember that 90 per cent of all
106
 The Map Base 107

FIG. 73 . Changing shapes in the compilation procedure. Maps B and D are derived from
A and C. The compilation of B would have been made easier if the intermediate parallels
of B had been drawn on A.

small-scale maps have been compiled in parable. That is to say, the same grid
this manner. Since the projections com- interval on each will greatly facilitate the
monly differ as between those of the sources work (see Fig. 73).
and that of the base being compiled, it is Compilation is most easily undertaken
necessary for the cartographer to become by first outlining on the new projection the
adept at imagining the shearing and twist- areas cov red by the source maps, as in
ing of the grid from one projection to an- Fig. 74. Such an outlining is similar to
other and to modify his lines accordingly. the index map of a map series. The sheet
He must continuously be generalizing and outlines may be drawn, and the special
simplifying. The difficulties occasioned by grid spacing of each SOUFce (50, 2 0, etc.)
projection differences between the sources may be lightly drawn on the base.
and the compilation can be largely elimi- It is worth reiterating that the care
nated by making the projection grids com- with which the cartographer approaches
108 Compiling and Preparing the Map Base
this part of his task will, in large part, de- tate the degree of detail required, but it is
termine the accuracy of the final map. a rare map that can be made without the
above kinds of information t o aid the
reader to appreciate the relationships pre-
sented.

94 Determ ining the Scale

All maps must, of course, be drawn to a
scale. In actual practice most special-pur-
pose maps are drawn to fit a prescribed
format, the format being the size and shape
of the sheet on which the map will appear.
The format may be a whole page in a book
or an atlas, a part of a page, a separate
map requiring a fold, a wall map, or a
map of almost any conceivable shape and
size. Whatever the format may be the
map must fit within it.
The first operation in planning the map
k:i:::::::}}tJ Planimetric is to arrive at a layout. (See Article 115.)
The layout need not be in precise final
D Other sources form, but should be sufficiently exact so
that the cartographer may proceed with the
FIG. 74. Indexing of sources preliminary to com-
base map.
pilation. This makes it possible for the cartog-
rapher to see immediately what gaps in source As we have seen the shapes 9f areas vary
material there may be. It also aids him in pur- considerably depending on the projection
suing the task systematically. upon which they are plotted. Hence the
first concern of the cartographer regarding
93 The Importance of Base Data scale is the projection on which the map
The importance of including on the will be made. If the map is one for which
finished map an adequate amount of base almost any projection could be used, the
data cannot be overemphasized. Nothing cartographer need concern himself only
is so disconcerting to a map reader than with the dimensions of the format. This
to see a large amount of detail presented circumstance is not, however, likely to
on a map and then be confronted with the
occur, or at least it ought not to occur
realization that there is no "frame" of basic
frequently, for it is difficult to imagine a
geographic information to which he can
map that would be equally presentable on
relate the distributions.
The amount and detail of the base data any projection. When the projection
will, of course, vary considerably from choice has been narrowed to a smaller class
map to map. The average special-purpose or group of projections, then the variations
map must have on it the coastlihes, the in the shapes of the mapped area on the
major rivers and lakes, and at least the different projections must be matched
basic civil divisions. The projection grid, against the format in order to see which
in most cases, should be indicated in some will provide the best fit and maximum
fashion . The purpose of the map will dic- scale.
 Reduction 109
The easiest way to do this is to estab- or construct his own projection and com-
lish the vertical and horizontal relationship pile on it. Most projections may be used
of the format shape on a proportion basis more than once by simply copying the
and then compare the proportion against projection and renumbering the longitude.
representation on the various projections. One must be careful, however, not to use a
The proportion can be set on a slide rule projection that has been copyrighted or
or plotted on graph paper, so that for any patented unless permission is obtained (see
Article 106) . As a general rule it is far
better to construct the projection to fit
10
precisely the purpose of the map. Most
9
1 /s projections are not difficult to construct
7 I except in special phases, and it is poor prac-
8
tice to produce an inferior map "projection-
/ jll'
wise" in order to save a few hours' time.
6
I / , ~Vc Frequently mapped areas such as conti-

5
If / / nents or countries have, however, appeared
on most of the appropriate standard projec-
J/ ~ tions, and if available there is no reason
4

3 "I ./
v why a good projection already available

2
Ih v V should not be used. One should, however,
always test such a projection to be certain
1.V/ V that it has not been improperly constructed.
~~
o Reduction 95
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Most maps are made for reduction by
FlO. 75. Dimension proportion graph. The ratio photography. This is not always the case,
is constant along each line. A defines a rectangle for some processes of reproduction cannot
with sides in a 5 :3 ratio ; B, a 5 :4 ratio; and C, change the scale, but whenever reduction
a 7: 10 ratio. Whatever pair of values is obtained of the fair drawing is possible its advan-
by reading the ordinate and abscissa of a point
on one line the shape will remain the same. tages make it desirable. The amount of
reduction will depend upon the process of
one dimension the other may be readily reproduction and upon the complexity of
determined. (See Fig. 75.) With the pro- the map. It will also depend upon whether
portion established, any scale projection definite specifications have been deter-
can be used to test for shape fit . mined for the reproduction, as may be the
When the projection has been selected . case with maps of a series. In general,
that best fits the purpose and format of maps are made for from one-quarter to
the proposed map the scale may be deter- one-half reduction in the linear dimensions.
mined. This, of course, may be done. in a It is unwise to make a greater reduction,
number of ways, but the simplest is to cal- for the design problem then becomes dif-
culate the scale from the length in degrees ficult.
of the central meridian. Whatever the reduction, it is frequently
The cartographer must also decide at this necessary to change the scale of a base
stage whether he is going to compile on map or an already prepared projection.
an already drawn projection or base map, This is unnecessary, of course, if the pro-
110 Compiling and Preparing the Map Base
jection is being constructed, for it may be what more precisely, since the image may
initially computed and drawn at the larger be projected (if enlarged) or viewed in the
scale. camera (if reduced), and thus dimensions
can be scaled exactly. All the cartographer
96 Changing Scale need do is to specify a line on the piece to
The scale of a base map or projection be photographed and then request that it
may be changed in a number of ways, viz., be reduced to a specific length. ' The ratio
by photography, by pantography, or by can be worked out exactly, and the pho-
similar squares. tographer needs only a ruler to check his
Changing scale by photography is the setting. Any clearly defined line or border
easiest for the cartographer, but, as might
be expected, it is the most expensive. It
may be accomplished either by photo-
graphic enlargement or reduction through
the use of the conventional film process or
by the photostat process. Formerly photo-
stat was cheaper, but there seems to be less
difference at this writing between the costs.
Photography provides a little more preci- FIG. 76. A pantograph . Stylus (8) and pencil
sion than does photostat, and there is likely (P) are interchangeable for enlargement or reduc-
to be less distortion around the edges of a tion, Adjustment to the desired ratio is made by
photograph than a photostat. It is usually moving arm AB parallel to itself while the pencil
or stylus on AB is adjusted so that it, the pivot
necessary to specify the reduction or en- point, and 8 are kept in a straight line.
largement of photostating work by a per-
centage ratio, such as 50 per cent or 75 per will serve as the guide. If none is avail-
cent reduction. Change of scale is usually able he may draw one on the copy. The
accomplished by setting the machine on sizes available are limited only by the pho-
a' percentage scale. Care should be exer- tographer's equipment and paper stock.
cised in specifying the percentage change, The pantograph is an ancient device for
since 50 per cent reduction or enlargement enlarging and reducing, the common fonn
means one-half in the linear dimension and of which is illustrated in Fig. 76. Simple
is usually the most that can occur in one wooden pantographs cost but a few dollars;
"shot." A change of more than 50 per cent large, metal precision models cost much
requires repeating the process. To reduce more. They are easy to operate for reduc-
something by 75 per cent in t he linear di- tion, but enlargement is relatively difficult
mension would require two exposures of and accuracy is hard to obtain.
50 per cent each, not one at 50 per cent If a pantograph is unavailable, and if the
and another at 25 per cent. Photostat projection of a map one wishes to copy is
paper is ordinarily limited to 18 x 24 inches, either too difficult or not indicated, then one
and anything larger must be done in sec- may change scale by similar squares. This
tions. It is difficult to match the sections inv'olves drawing a grid of squares on the
since the paper commonly changes shape original and drawing the "same" squares,
unevenly in the developing and drying. only larger or smaller, on the compilation.
Photographic enlargement or reduction The lines and positions may then be trans-
using film negatives way be made some- ferred from the one grid system to the
 Compilation Procedure 111

I \",\·ti-·, . I 1.
-+-+-+-/+-+'7.
I I I / r-1·~lt .-~~. r .""

+ + - -
1 __L;r:::-'"('''_
T7---;' )Fl' I ~.

I I I .r· "I I '.~

~~-++-I- + - + -+. -
A
._.
.......... I
.......h..

FlO. 77. Changing scale by similar squarell. Map B has been compiled from map A.

other (see Fig. 77). With care it is quite parent or translucent material with which
an accurate process, for it is the same as to work. A tracing medium of some sort
compilation. (paper, plastic, etc.) enables the compiler
Occasionally a cartographer is called to accomplish a number of things in addi-
upon to produce a large wall-size chart or tion to the conven.ience of being able to
map that involves greatly enlarging a base. trace some data. He may layout lettering
In most cases extreme accuracy is not re- for titles, etc., and move the layout around
quired. If the outlines cannot be sketched under this compilation worksheet. (See
satisfactorily because of their intricacies, Article 115.) If he wishes to draw a series
it is possible to accomplish an adequate of lines, or letter at an angle, or place dots
solution by projection. A slide or film pos- regularly, he need only place some cross-
itive (in some cases, a negative will 'do) section paper under the tracing paper. The
may be projected by means of a lantern use of a lightweight material such as trac-
to the paper affixed to the wall and the ing paper occasions, however, the problem
image traced thereon. If an opaque pro- of maintaining size, for papers contract and
jector with a large projecting surface that expand with changes in humidity and
is sufficiently cool in operation is avail- temperature. Plastic materials such as
able, it may be used directly so that the acetate or Vinylite are more stable but are
necessity of making a sljde is eliminated. harder to work with. If, however, registry
This is similar to the process sometimes is a problem, a dimensionally stable mate-
used in large cartographic organizations rial should be used.
of compiling with the aid of large, over- Compilation may be done in any colors
head, precision projectors. and inks the cartographer desires. The
main problem is to put all the desired data
97 Compilation Procedure on the worksheet in such a way that each
Perhaps nothing helps the mechanical item is clear and will cause no confusion in
process of compiling so much as a trans- the drafting process i thus hydrography,
112 Compiling and Preparing the Map Base
coastlines, boundaries, and other elements he should endeavor to recreate the condi-
of the base data may each be compiled in tions at the period of the map. This prob-
a different color. lem is particularly evident on coastal areas
of rapid silting, which in many parts of the
98 Coastlines world seem to be important areas of occu-
The compiling of coasts for very small- pance.
scale maps is not much of a problem, for Another problem of considerable concern
they usually require so much generalization to the cartographer is the representation of
that detail is of little consequence. This is
not the case when compiling at medium
scales, where considerable accuracy of de-
tail is necessary.
Perhaps the major problem facing the
cartographer is the matter of source mate-
rial. It is well to bear in mind that some
coasts will be shown quite differently on
different maps, yet both may be accurate.
Hydrographic charts are made with a
datum, or plane of reference, of mean low
water, whereas topographic maps are usu-
ally made with a datum of mean sea level.
The two are not the same elevation, and
it is to be expected that there will be a dif-
ference in the resulting outline of the land.
In parts of the world with higher tides and - " _ - AnCient coast line
with special planes of reference the differ-
ences will be greater. Another difficult
FIG. 78. Major changes in coastlines occur over
aspect of dealing with source materials is long periods of time which are significant even
that the coloring of the charts and maps on small-scale maps. A portion of the Persian
may be quite different. Swamp land, defi- Gulf.
nitely not navigable, is usually colored as
land on a chart. The compiler would as- coasts on maps wherein the scale varies
sume it to be land by its appearance. All considerably over the map. For example,
low-lying swamp on a topographic map is at 60 0 latitude on the Mercator projection
colored blue as water, and only a small area everything is much larger (twice linearly,
may be shown as land. On many low-lying four times areally) than similar features
coasts the cartographer is faced with a de- at the equator. Bays, inlets, fjords, etc.,
cision as to what is land; the charts and in the higher latitudes take on a great ap-
maps do not tell him. parent significance on such maps and look
Through the years some coasts change more detailed and complex than they
outline sufficiently so that it makes a dif- should if the coast is not the focus of in-
ference even on medium-scale maps. Fig- terest. It may be necessa.ry to vary the
ure 78 shows the north coast of the Persian simplification and generalization according
Gulf in the past and at present, and Fig. to the scale variations of the map. Of
79, a portion of the Atlantic coast. If one course, this would never be done on a topo-
were making maps of an historical period graphic or chart series.
 Drafting Coastlines 113

FlO. 79. Frequent changes have occurred in some areas. The various lines show the position
of the shoreline of Rockaway Inlet, Long Island, at several periods in the past. Modified
from Deetz, Cartography, Special Publication 205, U.s. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

In a number of areas of the world, not- shown by A in Fig. 80. Likewise, embay-
ably in the polar regions, the coastlines, ments, estuaries, etc., may sometimes be
like many other elements of the map base, drawn with a line lighter than the main
are not well known. They vary consider- trend of the coast)jfe, as shown by B in
ably from one source to another. On some
maps a particular region may appear as an
island ; on others, as a series of islands;
alld on still others, as a peninsula. On
simple line maps a broken or dashed line
suffices for unknown positions of coastlines,
but it becomes a larger problem when the
water is to be shaded or colored for no
matter what type of line is used to deline-
ate the coast the value or color change
outlines it clearly.

99 Drafting Coastlines
FlO. 80. Various kinds of coastlines. Letters refer
Coastlines may be drawn with a crow to Article 99.
quill pen or any other fine nib if care is
taken to maintain a uniform thickness of Fig. 80. This is especially desirable for the
line. It is an aid to have the paper loose thick coasts of wall maps. .
on the drafting table so that it may be Coastlines may also be drawn with a pen
turned around freely and lines drawn that makes a uniform line no matter what
toward the cartographer. Occasionally, it direction it is moved on the paper, such as
is desirable to draw a lighter .line in a the LeRoy et aI., shown by C in Fig. 80.
complex area, and a slightly heavier line This is much faster than using a quill pen
in a simple area in order that the two coast- but is not so precise for detailed work, for
lines may appear more nearly uniform as no points can be made with these IIround-
 114 Compiling and Preparing the Map Base
pointed" pens. It is also difficult to vary of the other. The fact that surveys are of
the width of line, and a very thin line can- different types based on different systems
not be qrawn. must be constantly borne in mind by the
compiler.
100 Political Boundaries It is not uncommon for official civil divi-
Compiling political boundaries for base sion boundary maps to be without any
data is sometimes a complex problem, for other base data, even projection lines.
the boundaries must be chosen for the pur- Such a condition should impress on the car-
pose and date of the map data to be placed tographer who uses such deficient maps the
on them. The problem becomes more dif- need for him t o provide base data for the
ficult as the area covered by the map in- users of his maps.
creases. Almost all boundaries change
from time to time, and it is surprising how 101 Drafting Boundaries
difficult it is to search out the minor As in drawing other linear symbols,
changes. For example, a population map boundaries on base maps are most easily
of the distribution of languages in central
Europe prior to W orId War II, but also
showing present boundaries, raises these
problems: (a) international boundaries
today and (b) census division boundaries
E-------j
as of the dates of the enumerations in the
various countries.
The major difficulties are two-fold, the
first being that of finding maps showing FIG. 81. A Jine drawn with a round pen (A) has
enumeration districts that show grid or round corners i B shows one method of sharpen-
base data so that the boundaries may be ing such corners with white paint. They may aJso
be drawn with a stub-type pen, or the corners may
transferred to the worksheet in proper
be sharpened by touching them up with a crow
position. The second is that of placing quill.
present international boundaries in correct
relation to the enumeration boundaries. made with a pen that will draw a uniform
The complexity of this type of boundary line no matter which direction it is moved.
compilation problem is further increased As shown in Fig. 81, such a line cannot,
I by the fact that surveys are not all alike. however, have sharp corners, and this is
Some are based on three-dimensional geo- sometimes a disadvantage when boundaries
detic survey, and some are based on two- are shown with a dot-dash symbol. One
dimensional plane survey. The two cannot way to overcome this defect is illustrated
match. A good example is that of the in Fig. 81, where a solid line is first drawn
cadastral survey in much of the United and then broken into the symbol desired by
States vs. the topographic survey in the brushing across it with white paint. This
I same areas. Many county and township is a good way to clean up corners and other
maps are available showing straight lines junctions, but it can be done only when
I for the various survey lines. In reality the
lines may not be straight at all on the
the map is to be photographed on relatively
slow film.
earth; yet, if the compilation covers a large A large variety of symbols may be used
enough area, it is necessary to fit the one to show boundaries, some of which are
set of boundary lines to the natural features illustrated in Fig. 82. There is no gen-
 Hydrography 115
erally accepted standardization of bound- 102 Hydrography
aries, but many agencies and governments The compiling of rivers and lakes on the
have standardized boundary symbols for base map is an important process. These
elements of the physical landscape are the
only relatively permanent interior features
_ _ ____ __
_._ ._._._._ .- .- -_.-
.. .. - .. .. .. .. .. .. on many maps, and they provide helpful
" anchor points" both for the compilation
of other data and for the map reader's ap-
- +- +- +- + - +- +- + - + - +-
preciation of the significance of the distri-
bution mapped
---------- The selection of the rivers and lakes de-
~+++++++++++++++++++++++
pends, of course, upon their significance
to the problem at hand. On some maps
the inclusion of well-known state bound-
FIG. 82. Some examples of kinds of boundary aries makes it unnecessary to include any
symbols. but the larger rivers. Maps of less well-
known areas require more hydrography,
their own official maps. Generally speak- for the drainage, which indicates the major
ing, decreasing significance of boundaries structure of an area, is sometimes a better-
on a map is accompanied by a decrease known phenomenon than the internal
in width of line and an increase in com- boundaries. Care must be exercised to
plexity of line. choose the main "stream" of rivers and the
major tributaries. Often this depends not
A upon the width, depth, or volume of the
stream but upon some economic or other
element of significance. Oftentimes it is
necessary to eliminate relatively important
rivers or lakes because they will interfere
with the planned use of the maps. For
example, Lake Winnebago in Wisconsin
becomes a visual focus on many maps to
the detriment of the map data. Often it
need not be included.
Just as coastlines have characteristic
FIG. 83. Methods of showing boundaries along
shapes (see Article 104) so do rivers, and
rivers. A and C show only that the boundary
follows the river. It may be on either bank or these shapes help considerably, on the
in the middle of the stream. B shows that it is larger-scale maps, to identify the feature.
in the middle. If it is necessary to show that the The braided streams of dry lands, inter-
boundary follows one bank it may be drawn par- mittent streams, or the meandering streams
allel to the stream on the appropriate side.
on flood plains are examples. On small-
One difficulty the cartographer occasion- scale maps it frequently is not possible to
ally encounters is the problem of symbol- include enough detail to thus differentiate
izing the boundary along a water course between stream types, but the larger
also shown as base data. Some possible sweeps, angles, and curves of the stream's
solutions are shown: in Fig. 83. course should be faithfully delineat~d.
116 Compiling and Preparing the Map Base
Likewise, the manner in which a stream river truly, and, consequently, the width
enters the sea is important. Some enter of line chosen is an important considera-
at a particular angle, some enter into bays, tion. When the existence of a river is
and some break into a characteristic set known but not its precise location, its un-
of distributaries. Examples of streams are known portion may be represented by a
shown in Fig. 84. dashed line the same width as the known
Swamps, marshes, and mud fiats are course.
commonly important elements of location Patterns for lakes, swamps, intermittent
lakes, etc., may either be drafted or ob-
tained in preprinted form.

104 Generalization
The effective liniit of exact representa-
tion of earth phenomena having dimension
(roads, rivers, etc.) is at a fairly large
scale. The limiting scale varies somewhat,
of course, depending on the item to be
represented. Certainly, however, at any
scale smaller than the topographic it is
necessary to simplify outlines and shapes,
to enlarge the area covered by symbols,
and to select from the multitude those
things to be represented . This process in
Lakes
cartography is called generalization. Every
special-purpose map must be a product of
generalization.
Swamps or marshes Good generalization requires many qual-
ities on the part of the cartographer, chief
FIG. 84. Some examples of kinds of symbols used
for hydrography.
among which are a thorough knowledge of
his subject matter and essential intellectual
on the base map. They may be repre- honesty. The latter is particularly impor-
sented by various symbols, examples of tant. A distinguished cartographer and
which are shown in Fig. 84. geographer, John K. Wright, puts it thus: *
"Fundamental among these qualities is
103 Drafting Hydrography scientific integrity: devotion to the truth
It is desirable when representing streams and a will to record it as accurately as
to draw them so that they grow from thin possible. The . strength of this devotion
to thicker lines near their mouths. This varies with the individual. Not all car-
is most easily done with a flexible, fine, tographers are above attempting to make
pen nib which spreads with increased pres- their maps seem more accurate than they
sure. It requires a bit of practice to keep actually are by drawing rivers, coasts, form
the spreading uniform around curves and lines, and so on, with an intricacy of detail
angles in the stream. derived largely from the imagination. This
On all but the largest-scale maps it is • From "Map Makers Are Human ... ," The
impossible to represent the width of a Geographical Review, 1942, Vol. 32, p . 528.
 Generalization 117
may be done to cover up the use of inade- measure of latitude. This may be called
quate source materials or, what is worse, visual generalization to distinguish it from
to mask carelessness in the use of adequate the strictly intellectual, although it is diffi-
sources. Indifference to the truth may also cult in practice to separate the two. In
show itself in failure to counteract, where this kind of generalization we are con-
it would be feasible and desirable to do so, cerned with the visual effect of the charac-
the exaggerated impression of accuracy ter of the line on the viewer. It is par-
often due to the clean-cut appearance of
ticularly important in the designing of lines
a map."
to represent coasts and boundaries when
It is next to impossible to set down any
the reference value of the line itself is
rules for intellectual generalization. The
slight, as is the case with a great many
degree of simplification of a coastline, a
maps on which boundaries and coasts ap-
boundary, or any other data depends en-
pear.
tirely upon the purpose of the map. If
the map being made is a reference map As a general rule we may say that any
then the data must be placed as accurately visual form that appears more complicated
as possible within drafting and legibility than the surrounding forms will draw at-
limits. If, on the other hand, the map is tention to itself, simply because it is more
for a special purpose, some of the base data interesting to the eye. The fjorded coast
may be simplified to a considerable degree. of Norway is an example. If the reader
Experience, knowledge of the subject, and will refer to Fig. 85 he will at once see that
clearly defined purpose are the only pos- A, the more complicated representation of
sible guides to intellectual generalization. the coast, catches his eye. This is partly
There is another aspect of generalization due to the fact that the degree of complex-
that allows the cartographer a certain ity also makes the coastal region a dark

FlO . 85. Generalization of coasts. A and C are least generalized; B, the most. All, however,
are greatly simplified from reality.
 118 Compiling and Preparing the Map Base
value area. By simplification the map accuracy of various parts of the map. A
maker can help the reader refrain from third method is necessary when there are
giving ·attention to details that are extrane- various categories of information that do
ous to the purpose of the map. not lend themselves to areal evaluation as
It is not enough merely to smooth out in the preceding case. This is the reliabil-
coasts and ignore islands. The basic ity code or statement (Fig. 87), which may
shapes must be retained and emphasized in be modified to suit the purpose.
their simplicity, for the eye will not quibble COVERAGE DIAGRAM
with the representation if the general
shapes are as expected.
The cartographer must be careful not to
overdo the simplification, for, as has been
abundantly shown in many newspaper
maps, too much simplification makes a rep-
resentation of a known shape appear ridic-
ulous.
While the cartographer is learning, and
for some time afterward, it would be wise
for him to test his generalization by draft-
ing a small portion of the planned map be- 1. USC&GS Ch.nl , tRtti.b .. IUrvey )
2. LUIOft. 1:63.360 (Tri,onomtbJe
fore compilation has progressed far. In • .,"" • , ..I. bUlb' tllr )
3. "C&GS Chorn
this way he may decide upon the generali- (Complied m• ., . rtlilbmty t,I,)

zation needed for his compilation. It will 4. L\lz.Oft ''''1\4, 1:200.000

<It.conn. I,.. ftCt m'I) ' ,.U.bUlty t.ir)
5. s.cUOft.IAttonlutical Ch.rt , 1:&00,000
also help him in his design plan. (COmpiMd mlp . ,,1I.bllity t.i, )

FlO. 86. Coverage diagram from a map of the

105 Reliability Lingayen Gulf area, Philippine Islands, giving
One of the most difficult tasks of the car- an annotated list of sources together with an
tographer is to convey to the map reader index. Courtesy of the ArJD¥ Map Service.
some indication of the reliability of the
information on his map. When writing or It is also good practice to include in the
speaking, words such as "almost," "nearly," legend, if warranted, such terms as "posi-
and "approximately" can be included to tion approximate," "generalized roads," or
indicate the desired degree of precision of "selected railroads," in order that an idea
the subject matter. It is not easy to do of the completeness and accuracy may be
. this with map data. It is unfortunate that given the reader.
this is the case, for a well-made map has
106 Copyrights and Credits
about it an aura of truth and exactness
that might not be warranted if the facts It is beyond the purpose of this book to
concerning its accuracy were known. suggest sources of compilation materials,
There are several ways to combat this. but the cartographer, regardless of what
One, of course, is to include in the legend sources he uses, must always give proper
a statement concerning the accuracy of credit for materials gathered and presented
any item about which such is necessary. by others. It is necessary to do this for it
Another, and more common method on is the honest way of doing things. But this
larger-scale maps, is to include a reliability does not mean that he must identify the
diagram (Fig. 86) which shows the relative source of every single item on a reference
 Copyrights and Credits 119

RELIABILITY OF OAT A
DAT A Q U AN . Q U AL I.OC. Qu.nt l t.tl~e & Qu.' it.ti~, O.t.
CITIES NE R · R,' i.b',
'"DUSTtrt GR·I NE OR . G,ner.lly R" i.bl,
U . Unreli.bl,
Co~er'le of 0.11
C · Compl,t.
1· lncompl.t.
Loc.tion 01 O.ta
A· Accur.t.
NE . Not Entirely Acc:uret.
OA . Only Appro • . Accurat.
QUANTTTATIW DATA The 'Itt". lit. Gilt. and U .r. an •• t imat. of thl r. ll ablUty
of "'. map ', QUlntltaU". data , the dl" which ' r' m •• sur. b tl , ,,,cl ud ln, KonOmtC or
popu lltlon l'ltlthe l , h~D.om.t' k: dltl , thl w idth 0' rOldl , .,yel'
of r l .troad • . I tC .

Q U ~ L lTAnV! DATA. The ,.n.,. R. Gilt. and U .r. In .,t,ml" 0' thl ' I li ab ili ty o f
t h l "'IP" Qua ll t,tlv, dltl wh ic h thowi the tyP" 0 ' rOld ,ur'.c." ch lrect. r ot
belc h ••. bDl. of tlrrl ln , ItC.
COVEIlAG£ Tn. I• • ' .r, C and lin combinatIon Wit h R, GR . o r U Ir. a n .,tlma'. 0'
the d •• , . . 0' c ompl.tln... of Qua ntit. tivI and Q Yl lt tl tl vl dl t l .

LOCATIO NA L DATA Th. I,,,.,. A. HE, and OA Ir••• t im. t •• 0 ' t he pl ot ted
. ccu' .c_' of CI.t. w ith i n the limite of aca le and w i dth of lIn • .
R A . O SS

FlO. 87. A reliability statement devised during World War II by the Map Division, 088, for
use on special-purpose maps. From a qualitative map of German industrial locations.

map, even though it is obvious that he ner in which the material is arrayed and
could not ha e gathered any of the mate- generalized is protected. Most United
rial himself in the field by original survey. States government maps and publications
It does mean that he should identify the may be used, but in the case of specialized
source of any material that is not gen- materials containing judgments and opin-
erally common knowledge or does not obvi- ions, it is not only courteous but wise to
ously come from good public authority. request permission, for the material may
He may, however, wish to identify such have been copyrighted by the authors sep-
ources of well-known information in order arately or some of it may have come from
to justify the quality of his map. copyrighted sources.
Equally important for the map maker is Generally speaking, survey maps of the
the problem of copyright protection and topographic variety, census material, and
the use of materials that have been copy- the like, may be used freely . Reproduction
righted. This is a particularly difficult or copying of private materials must be
problem in cartography, for there has never accompanied by permission from the holder
been a clear definition of the way in which of the copyright. Even some projections
t he copyright laws apply t o maps. In gen- are copyrighted, but this is not much of a
eral, no copyrighted map may be used as problem t o the cartographer for there are
a source wit hout permission, for t he man- many from which to choose.
 7
Map Design

107 Map Design and Visual the possibilities of variation of shapes,

Significance sizes, forms, and other visual relationships
Of all the aspects of cartography, map of the map components are practically un-
design is perhaps the most complex. The limited. The aim of cartographic design is
manner of presentation of the many map to present the map data in such fashion
components so that together they appear that the map, as a whole, appears as an in-
as an integrated whole, devised system at i- tegrated unit and so that each item in-
cally to fit the purposes of the cartographer cluded is clear, legible, and neither more
(and thus those of the reader) , includes nor less prominent than it should be.
elements ranging from mathematics to art. The myriad things we see every day of
Regardless of the essential accuracy or ap- our lives vary from the visually important
propriateness of the map data, if the map to the vi ually unimportant. Sometimes
has not been properly designed it will be the striking things are interesting because
a cartographic failure. of some special significance they may have,
It is not necessary to be an artist to learn such as a new-model automobile or dark-
to design effectively. The basic elements ness at midday. Usually, however, the
of good design lend themselves to syste- striking things are visually significant.
matic analysis, and their principles can That is to say, they appear so different
be learned. A basic requirement, however, from their surroundings that they excite
is a willingness to think in visual terms, our eyes. Since this is a common experi-
uninhibited by prejudices resulting from ence it should be relatively easy to adapt
previous experience, or, to put it another the underlying principles to our carto-
way, a willingness to exercise imagination. graphic purpose.
The imagination must, of course, be disci- Suppose, for example, that we wished to
plined to some extent, for, like many fields, attract the reader's eye to the water or
cartography has developed traditions and hydrographic feat1:lres of a map, perhaps
conventions; to disregard them completely even to the extent that he would notice
would inconvenience the user of the maps, little else. It would be a simple matter to
which would in itself be proof of poor de- color the water and rivers a bright red to
sign. Cartography is not art in the sense the end that their brilliant and incongruous
that one may have complete freedom with appearance would dominate. This is, of
techniques and media. The exercise of course, extreme, even for an example, but
imagination will soon reveal, however, that the principle has not been violated, namely,
120
 The Visual Outline 121
that every item in a design has some place planning a lecture without first arriving at
on the scale of visual significance. The a reasonably clear decision concerning (a),
estimation of how visually significant a the audience to which it is to be presented
thing may be is not, however, an easy task, and (b), the scope of the subject matter.
for there are a number of factors which With these well in mind, the writer uses
must be analyzed, such as: them as a framework upon which to plan
and as a yardstick against which to meas-
1. The degree to which an item departs ure the significance of the items to be in-
from its expected appearance. The more it cluded.
departs, the more interesting it is. It is impossible to categorize the kinds
2. The relative complexity of its deline- of maps that can be made in such a way
ation. The more complex the item is, the that the rubrics will help provide more than
more visually interesting it is. a very general guide to design planning.
3. The relative size of an item. The It is true, however, that many maps gen-
larger an item is, the more visually im- erally fall into what we might call a class
portant it is. of "reference maps." These maps, common
4. The relative brightness of an item. in atlases, are to be used like a dictionary;
The brighter or lighter an item is con- they are for the reader to find many kinds
trasted with its surroundings, the more vis- of information. Few, if any) of the repre-
ually interesting it is. sented items are more important than the
5. The position of an item with respect others. Consequently, the elements of
to the other components of the map. The clarity and legibility are paramount; but
nearer to the visual center of a presentation at the same time no emphasis, no differing
an item is, the more significant it 1S visu- position on the scale of visual significance,
ally. is desirable, at least theoretically. A ref-
It may be seen from the list that each erence map is only one of many kinds of
of the statements is concerned with some maps. Others show categories of informa-
kind of varying relationship between an tion, such as roads, railroads, population,
item and its surroundings. Consequently, resources, movement of goods, and so on;
it is possible to assess the design "strength" they may show several such kinds of in-
of an element, and, in a sense, to locate it formation, and one kind of information
on a scale of visual significance. may be more significant than another.
Furthermore, many maps that are made
108 The Visual Outline for geographers, historians, planners, and
Just as when one plans to write some- the like, are intended to make clear special
thing, he first prepares an outline, so is it relationships between two or among a nwn-
also necessary to outline a visual presen- ber of items.
tation. Each item of the design should be As an illustration of how the presenta-
evaluated in combination with the other tion may be outlined, A, B, C and D in
elements in terms of its probable effect on Fig. 88 have been prepared. The assump-
the map reader. To do this requires a full tion is made that the planned map is to
'and complete understanding of the purpose show two related hypothetical distributions
or purposes of the map to be made. One in Europe. The basic elements of the vis-
can scarcely imagine writing an article or ual outline are:
122 Map Design

FIo. 88. Examples of variations in the primary visual outline. Letters refer to Article lOS.

1. The place, Europe. possible. It should not be inferred that

2. The data, the two distributions to be the positioning of concepts in the visual
shown. outline can be as exact and precise as in a
3. The position of the data with respect written outline. In the latter, the position
to Europe. is reasonably assured since the reader is
4. The relative position of the two dis- more or less forced to start at one point
tributions. and go systematically to the end , whereas
in the visual outline he sees the items a.ll
Anyone of the above four elements may at once, and it is up to the designer to
be placed at the top of the visual outline, attempt to lead him by manipulating the
and the order of the others following it various elements of visual significance.
may be varied in any way the author de- It is appropriate at this point to digress
sires. In A in Fig. 88, the outline places slightly in order to emphasize one of the
the items in the general order of 1-2-3-4; more difficult complicating factors a car-
in B, 2-3-4-1; in C, 3-1-4-2; and in D, tographer must face in visual design. Any
4-2-3-1. Other combinations are, of course, component of a map has, of course, an in-
 Clarity and Legibility 123
tellectual connotation as well as a visual accomplished if the map maker has made
meaning in the design sense. It is diffi- sure that the intellectual aspects of his map
cult to remove the former in order to evalu- are not open to doubt or misinterpretation.
ate the latter, but many times it is not only In writing or speaking, the aim is to state
necessary but definitely desirable. Artists the thought with the right words, properly
turn their works upside down; advertising spelfed or pronounced, and clearly written
layout men "rough in" outlines, and even or enunciated. In cartography, symbols
basic lettering, as design units without are ordinarily substituted for written or
"spelling anything out"; and because the spoken words ; their form and arrangement
intellectual connotation cannot always be substitute for the spelli~g or pronunciation;
predicted, cartographers will obtain better and their delineation takes the place of
design if they do likewise, except for obvi- writing or enunciation. It is apparent,
ous, well-known shapes, such as continents then, that no matter what the form of a
and countries. To illustrate this the dis- presentation may be, the principles behind
tributions in Fig. 88 and some other figures clarity and legibility are much alike; only
in this book h ve been made incomplete, the "vocabulary" varies.
purely hypothetical , or highly generalized. If it is assumed that the geographical
It is apparent that there are, in fact, two concepts underlying the purpose and data
scales of visual significance for each map. of a map are clear and correct, then legi-
Just as is the case with a written outline, bility and clarity in the presentation can
the major items, or the primary outline, be obtained by the proper choice of lines,
are first determined , then the position of shapes, and colors and by their precise and
the subject matter within each major rubric correct delineation. Lines must be clear,
is decided. In the case of a map, the visual sharp, and uniform; colors, patterns, and
presentation of the detail is primarily a shading must be easily distinguishable and
matter of clarity, legibility, and relative properly registered ; and the shapes of sym-
contrast of the detail items. bols, coastlines, and other items represented
The outlining of a map depends upon must not be confusing.
an understanding of the contrasts of lines, One important element of legibility is
shapes, colors, brightness (value), and the size, for, no matter how nicely a line or
principles of balance. These topics are ymbol may be drawn , if it is too small
treated in the succeeding articles. to be seen it is useless. There is a lower
size limit below which an unfamiliar shape
109 Clarity and Legibility or symbol cannot be identified. This has
To be effective any kind of communica- been established as being a size which sub-
tion must be clear and legible. The trans- tends an angle of about l' at the eye. That
mission of information by maps is no ex- is to say, no matter how far away .the ob-
ception. ject may be, it must be at least that size
Clarity and legibility are broad· terms, to be identifiable. It is well to point out
and many of the techniques and principles that this limit sets rather an ideal, for it
considered in other parts of this book are assumes perfect vision and perfect condi-
important factors in obtaining these qual- tions of viewing. Because of the unreason-
ities in a presentation. Furthermore, a ableness of these assumptions, it is wise
considerable portion of the task of achiev- for the cartographer to establish his mini-
ing clarity and legibility will have been mum size somewhat higher. Instead of the
124 Map Design
ideal of an angle of 1', it may be assumed 110 Contrast of Lines and Shapes
that 2' is more likely to be a realistic value No element of the cartographic tech-
for average (not "normal") vision and nique is so important as contrast. As-
average viewing conditions. Table 9 is use- suming that each component of the map
ful in setting bottom values of visibility. is large enough to be seen, then the man-
TABLE 9. APPROXIMATE MINIMUM SYMBOL SIZE
ner and the way in which it is contrasted
FOR VIEWING FROM VARIOUS DISTANCES. with its surroundings determines its visi-
bility. The degree to which a map appears
Viewing Size
distance (width) precise and "sharp" is dependent on the
18 inches 0.01 inch contrast structure of the map.
5 feet .03 inch Contrast is a subtle visual element in
10 feet .07 inch some ways, and in others it is blatant.
20 feet .14 inch
40 feet .28 inch The character of a line, and the way its
60 feet .42 inch curves or points are formed, may set it
80 feet .56 inch completely apart from another line of the
100 feet .70 inch same thickness. The thickness of one line
It should be remembered that some map in comparison to another may accomplish
symbols have length as well as width , and the same thing. The shapes of letters may
in such cases, as for example with lines, blend into the background complex of lines
the width may be reduced considerably and other shapes, or the opposite may
since the length will promote the visibility. obtain. If one element of the design is
In similar fashion, other elements, such as varied as to darkness, thirlroess, or shape,
contrasting colors or shapes, may enhance then the relationship of all other compo-
visibility and legibility, but even though nents will likewise be changed. It re-
the existence of a symbol on the map is quires careful juggling of the lines, shapes,
made visible by such devices, if it does not and brightness characteristics, on a kind
stand at or above the sizes given in Table 9 of "trial and error" basis, to arrive at the
it will not be legible. In other words, it "right" combination.
might be seen (visibility), but it might not Most maps require the use of several
be read or recognized (legibility) . kinds of lines, each symbolizing some geo-
A second element regarding legibility is graphic element or concept, such as coast-
also operative in cartography. As a gen- lines, rivers, railroads , roads, various po-
eral rule, it is easier to recognize something litical boundaries, and so on. In order to
we are familiar with than something that make each clearly distinct from the next,
is new to us. Thus, for example, we may it is necessary to vary in some way their
see a name in a particular place on a map, character, design, or size. Figure 89 shows
and, although it is much too small to read, some of the many possible variations in
we can tell from its position and the gen- line width. Figure 90 shows some of the
eral shape of -the whole word what it is. various possibilities in line design. Figure
The fact that symbols, lines, and the 91 shows some possible variations in char-
other elements of a map are large enough acter of line. Only on the largest-scale
to be seen does not in itself provide clarity maps does accuracy require an exact posi-
and legibility. An additional element, that tion for every part of a line. On smaller-
of contrast, is necessary. scale maps the lines, if large enough t o be
 Contrast of Lines and Shapes 125
seen, cover much more area than the ele-
ment they represent on the earth. There-
fore, they may be drawn precisely and
firmly. A 'wobbly, wavering line looks
weak and indecisive and should be avoided. --------------
Just as lines may have an almost infinite
variety, so also may larger shapes vary. .-.-.~.-.-.-.-.-.-
Oftentimes shape is given by nothing but
_._._._._._._.-
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

+++++++++++++++

"'T" "T" "T" "T" "'T" "'T" .,.. .,.. .,.. .,.. .,..

FIG. 90. A few possible design variations of lines.

Others are, of course, possible.

Fro. 89. Size contrast of lines. Uniformity pro-

duces monotoDY. Note that a clear visual differ-
ence between sizes of lines requires considerable
actual clifference.

the bounding line, and there are some com-

ponents of a map, such as the legend or
title box, insets, labels, and so on, that are
definite shapes without benefit of a geo-
graphic delimitation. Part of the ability
of the eye to perceive and take note of the
contents of such shapes is due to the way FIG. 91. Variation of shape or character of lines.
they contrast with their surroundings. Fig- Irregular "wiggliness" produces an impression of
weakness.
ure 92 shows some of the ways such shapes
may be varied.
It is impossible, of course, to catalog all have been considered. It is up to the stu-
the ways in which lines and shapes may dent, however, to let his imagination roam
be varied and contrasted. In other por- and to consider critically those maps on
tions of the book some specific elements, which the line and shape structure appears
such as the shapes and lines of letter forms, well designed in order to become familiar
the delineation of coastlines, and so on, with the range of possibilities.
126 Map Design

FlO. 92. Variation of larger shapes. Note that no attempt has been made to create additional
contrast by varying the brightness of the background.

111 Color in Cartography * the point where it is possible to reproduce

Color is without doubt the most complex practically any kind of cartographic copy.
single medium with which the cartographer Unfortunately, as the techniques and sci-
works. The complications arise from a entific knowledge have increased, so has
number of circumstances, the major one the cost. As a result, it is to be expected
being that even yet we do not know pre- that monochromatic techniques will be
cisely what color is. We theorize that it used for most maps, at least for most spe-
consists of differing wave lengths of light, cial-purpose maps. Although the majority
but exactly why color affects man's eyes of cartographers will have few opportuni-
the way it does is still a mystery. The ties to make colored maps Jor reproduc-
complexity is increased by the fact that, tion, they should be familiar with the bases
so far as the use of color is concerned, it for evaluating color use. Familiarity with
exists only in the eye of the observer. The principles of color use will also enable the
student may obtain an inkling of some of cartographer to make an intelligent choice
of the available alternatives, when eco-
the consequent difficulties by imagining the
nomic considerations preclude the use of
problem of explaining the appearance of
the ideal. For example, a range of shades
red to a "color-blind" person.
or tints may be produced from a single
Even the use of a small amount of color plate iIi the flat-color process, whereas the
seems to produce remarkable differences
best range might involve the more expen-
in legibility and emphasis on maps. Its
sive requirement of several plates, or the
importance was early realized, and, al-
four-color process. The choice of colors,
though facilities for printing color are rela-
then, depends on the characteristics of color
tively recent, old maps were laboriously
perception and the purpose of the map.
hand colored-an index of the esteem in
The choice and use of color must obvi-
which color was held. During the last cen-
ously be primarily based on the character-
tury reproduction facility has increased to
istics of color vision, for maps are to be
• Portions of this and following articles have read. When color is examined from the
been in part modified from Arthur H. Robinson, point of view of its effect on the observer
The Look of Maps, An Examination of Carto-
graphic Design, University of Wisconsin Press, it has several characteristics. First, to the
Madison, Wis., 1952. eye, color varies as to hue, e.g., blue or red.
 Color in Cartography 127
THE VISIBILE PORTION
OFTHE
SPECTRUM

Gamma Rays X Rays Ultraviolet W Infrared Radio Waves

/><~\~/~I~

~ ' ri '
I
Violet
I
I
Blue I
I
I

Green
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
Millimicrons

I I
Yellow
I I
Or~nge
Red
Flo. 93. A portion of the spectrum showing the visible section. The unit of wave length is
the millimicron, one-billionth of a meter.

Because of the structure of the human eye or in combination. The visible portion of
and the differing wave lengths of light, the spectrum is relatively small, as can be
human vision reacts in different ways to seen from Fig. 93. Between the extremes
different hues, and a knowledge of these of violet and red occur all the pure or spec-
differences is necessary to the proper em- tral hues. When reflected in combination
ployment of colors. Secondly, each indi- to the eye they produce white. Black is
vidual hue varies both in terms of its in- the absence of light, but as far as the eye
herent briglitness or value and in the degree is concerned it also is a color, as is white.
of its intensity or the saturation of the Almost all the colors we see or use are com-
color area. Just as the eye reacts differ- binations of hues and can be analyzed by
ently to the various hues, so does it have showing the percentage of reBectance of a
varying sensitivity to value and intensity particular wave length on the ordinate and
changes. Moreover, color always appears the wave lengths on the abscissa of a
in an environment, and the environment graph. Figures 94 and 95 illustrate this
has a marked influence on its appearance. method of visualizing colors, which aids
Also significant in color use are the con- considerably when evaluating them for use.
ventions, preferences, and the traditional It is fundamental to the consideration
significance of colors, cartographic and of color that it be clearly understood that,
otherwise. The cartographer must be fa- for practical purposes, color exists only in
miliar with all these considerations before the eye of the observer. The physics of
he can effectively evaluate the color tech- light is of importance in the inve tigation
nique. He should also have some back- of the characteristics of color behavior, and
ground in the basic elements of color vision its findings provide a solid foundation for
and color science, as is suggested by some the discussion and analysis of color percep-
of t he references in the bibliography. tion. But the study of color, whether in the
Color is the visual sensation produced by cartographic technique or in any other as-
certain wave lengths of light whether singly pect of its use, is based fundamentally , not
128 Map Design
color itself whether spectral or mixed, for
example, a red or a green. Value is the
intrinsic lightness or darkness of a color;
for example, red is usually darker than
~ yellow. The value scale ranges from black
JII" to white, as more completely described in
the next article. All colors, mixed or pure
II spectral hues, have a value rating and can
j be matched with one of the values on a
gray scale. The same hue can be varied in
II value by varying the amount of black or
white mixed with it. Thus we may have
~ a dark, medium, or light red, but all the
~
same hue. Intensity is the term applied to
the relative purity and amount of color in
400 500 ·600 700
a given area. A scale of intensities would
FIG. 94. Approximate color graph of a common
range from the pure hue at one end to a
red showing per cent reflectance of various wave neutral gray at the other. At no place
lengths. Although the eye sees it as a single color would it vary in value.
the other wave lengths are included.
112 Contrast of Value
100" ,_........_.,.--.,._.........._..,.._.--___
It was stated in a preceding article that
contrast is the most important visual ele-
ment of the cartographic technique. It
may be further asserted that the variation
of light and dark, whether colored or un-
colored, is the most important of all con-
trast elements. Value contrast may be
termed either brightness contrast, as the
physicist thinks of it, or tone contrast, as
the photographer thinks of it. Lightness
is termed high value, and white would be
the maximum attainable.
Value contrasts are the most important
element of seeing, and everyone is familiar
with the ease with which it is possible to
400 500 600 700
recognize objects represented in drawings
FIG. 95. Approximate color graph of a dark gray,
showing it to be a uniform reflectance of all wave
or photographs merely by their tonal or
lengths. White would be the same kind of curve value structure. Since anything that can
near the top of the reflectance scale. be seen must have a value rating, and be-
cause anything must vary in value if it is to
on the physics of light, but on the sensa- be easily distinguished from its surround-
tions produced by the eye's reaction to ings, it follows that the contrast of values
colors. is one of the fundamentals of visibility.
Colors as eye sensations vary according Any object or group of objects on a map
to hue, value, and intensity. Hue is the has a value rating. Widths of lines, shad-
 Contrast 01 Value 129
:.. ....~ '.~ \' ,
. . .... ~.

,;
1(,;
't ':~'~'_;':jj.
. '.
:~~:. ~'.

FIG. 96. A value scale in which the steps are equa.l in terms of black/white ratios. The
middle gray does not appear to be halfway between black and white. Note also the apparent
"waviness" or induction. From a Kodak Gray Scale, courtesy Eastman Kodak Company.

ing patterns, names, blocks of lettering, the visual steps have not been determined.
title, the legend, colors, and so on, are all The results of several tests have given close
value areas, and their arrangement within approximations, however, and it is possible
the map frame is a basic part of map de- to draw a curve based upon them which is
signing. It is well for the student to keep undoubtedly close to reality. Figure 97
in mind the generalization that visibility J!08/N.fcN
and visual importance vary directly with
value contrast. Figure 88 illustrates in a ~
0/10
limited way the significance of value con-
1/9
trast.
w 2/8
One of the more important ways in which ....
the cartographer uses values is in present- ~ 3/7
o
ing a graded series of information. Thus, :i 4/6

for example, rainfall, depth of oceans, ele- "" 5/5

S
vation of land, density of population, in- ~ 6/4
tensity of land use, and so on, are usually o
o 7/3
depicted by some technique that depends ~
'" 8/2 I.....
for a large portion of its effectiveness upon
9 /1
changing values.
1
The human eye is not particularly sensi- 10 0 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
EQUAL VISUAL IMPRESSIONS OF BLACKNESS
tive when it comes to distinguishing value
differences. Eight shades of gray, between
black and white, is about the limit, and FIG. 97. Graph of the relation of visual gray steps
consequently the cartographer must be to black/white ratios (approx.) .
relatively restrained in this respect. If a
greater number of divisions in a series must shows such a curve. The relationship
be shown, he must add hue or some pattern, could be graphed several ways, but the
such as dots or lines, to the areas to aid generalizations to keep in mind ar.e:
the user to distinguish among them. Also
important is the fact that physical!y equal 1. The visual gray scale is not the same
fractional steps of black and white ratios as an arithmetic progression of black and
from 0 (white) to 1.0 (black) do not ap- white ratios.
pear equal to the eye. Figure 96 is a scale 2. It is easier to distinguish light grada-
in which the steps are equal in terms of tions than dark gradations if the progres-
pigment ratios. sion is arithmetic.
The precise ratios of black to white 3. Even eight gradations of gray are dif-
necessary to produce a gray scale of equal ficult for the average person to distinguish.
130 Map Design
Another characteristic of vision and its and because the nature of the data dic-
relation to value, hue, and intensity, which tates that other devices be used, it is com-
the cartographer must bear in mind, is a mon for the cartographer to rely upon vari-
general phenomenon of vision called simul- ous kinds of patterns. These patterns are
taneous contrast. In value contrasts it is composed of dots (stippling), lines, or
particularly important. A basic generali- combinations. The possibilities are un-
zation regarding the employment of any limited.
color is that the appearance of a color is Very little study has been directed
markedly modified by its environment. toward the understanding of patterns, their
With respect to value, we find that a dark
area next to a light area will make the dark
appear darker and the light appear lighter.

FIG. 98. How environment modifies appearance.

The two gray areas are the same Zip-a-tone.

This effect, called induction, makes it diffi-

cult for a reader to recognize a given value
in various parts of a map when it is sur-
rounded by or adjacent to different values.
Figure 96 illustrates one aspect of induc- FIG. 99. A map employing line patterns.
tion. The "wavy" appearance of the value
blocks causes the recognition of values to effects upon the eye, and the ability to dis-
be difficult, and the difficulty increases in tinguish between them. Consequently, the
direct ratio to the similarity of the values. student can proceed only on a trial and
The effects of induction may be largely re- error basis. There are, however, a few gen-
moved by separating adjacent values with eralizations that are of assistance as guides
a white space or by outlining the areas to the use of patterns.
with black lines. In Fig. 98 the gray spots Patterns may be classified broadly into
are the same, but the one on the dark block two groups, those composed of lines and
appears much lighter, and the reverse is those composed of dots. Any line any-
true of the other. It is obvious that a reader where has, in the eye of the viewer, a direc-
would have difficulty in recognizing values tion; that is to say, he tends to move his
under such a situation. eyes in the direction of the line. If irregu-
lar areas are shaded by line patterns which
113 Contrast of Pattern do not vary much in value, as in Fig. 99,
Because many kinds of data cannot ef- the reader's eyes will be forced to change
fectively be shown by value shadings alone, direction frequently. Consequently, he
 Choice 01 Color 131
will experience considerable difficulty in
noting the positions of the boundaries.
If the line patterns of Fig. 99 are re-
placed with dot patterns, as in Fig. 100,
the map is seen te become much more
stable, the eye no longer jumps, and the
boundaries are much easier to distinguish.
Lettering is also easier to read against a
dot background than against a line back-
ground. If, however, the parallel lines are
fine enough and closely enough spaced the
resulting effect is one of value only and
has but a slight suggestion of direction.
Many parallel-line patterns are defi-
nitely irritating to the eye. Figure 101 is
an example of the irritation that can occur
from using parallel lines. The cause is
probably that the eyes are unable quite to
FJO. 100. Same map as Fig. 99 but employing
focus upon one line. The effect is some- dot patterns.
what reduced if the lines, whatever their
width, are separated by white spaces
greater than the thickness of the lines.

114 Choice of Color

Colors vary in a number of ways, and
the cartographer who contemplates using
color is hard pressed to make a choice.
Since very little experimental research has
been undertaken regarding color on maps,
the only course for the cartographer to
follow is to base his selections on certain
fundamental facts regarding the reaction
of the mind and the eye to color. In addi-
tion, he has a few well-known cartographic
conventions upon which he may lean, such
as blue water, green vegetation, etc. The
reaction of the mind and eye to hue, and
the extreme significance of value contrast,
as outlined in Article 112, are, howev.er, his FIo. 101. Line patterns can hurt the eyes, and
major guides. the map on which they are used, if they are not
The eye is not particularly sensitive to carefully chosen.
hue changes, as is indicated by the rela-
tively few words referring to hues in our sitive to some hues than to others, i.e., some
language. Consequently, the farther apart, are more "noticeable" than others. All
visually, hues can be separated, the better. observers agree that the eye is most sensi-
The eye is, moreover, definitely more sen- tive to red, followed by green, yellow, blue,
132 Map Design
and purple, in that order. . This series pro- however, be -adjusted to provide the maxi-
vides the cartographer with a partial basis mum visibility in the significant areas.
for choice of color, depending upon how It is a well-known fact that some colors
much emphasis is desired for the data to appear more individual than others. For
be represented by a color. Unfortunately, example, red is red, but orange seems to be
no satisfactory data seem to exist that composed of both red and yellow, and
make it possible to grade the colors pre- purple is made of blue and red. Many
cisely according to relative degree of sensi- colors are named for their apparent com-
tivity. ponents, such as yellowish green, greenish
In considering the sensitivity of the eye blue, and blue-violet. Normally only blue,
to hues, it is well to remember that pigment green, yellow, red, white, and black appear
hues themselves vary in terms of their in- as individual colors. The reason for this is
herent value or brightness which, in turn, not definitely known, but, nevertheless, all
is of considerable significance with respect authorities agree that the phenomena of
to their relative visibility and that of the "pure hues" together with the "intermedi-
data placed upon them. The relative lu- ate hues" are of considerable significance
minosity of the spectral colors for the nor- in color use. Their importance in cartog-
mal eye has been determined and is highest raphy for showing interrelationships or
in the yellow-green region (555 milli- mixtures of distributions is apparent.
microns) and falls to approximately half Value is one of the three color sensa-
its maximum within a range of 50 milli- tions which the eye receives simultane-
microns each way. Disregard of the obvi- ously, the others being hue and intensity.
ously significant value relationship by fol- Its greatest significance is in the applica-
lowing simply a wave-length progression tion of contrast; and the cartographer who
of hues has led to many visual difficulties works with hues soon finds it necessary
in map making. In many atlases, on the to adjust the values of his color areas so
International Map, on many wall maps, that legibility and perceptibility will not
and in numerous other instances where be lost. He may do this by watering down
colors have been used to show altitude, the paints or mixing white with them. He will
alsq soon learn that he cannot gain as
wave-length progression of colors in the
many distinguishable steps in a value scale
spectrum has been taken as the basis for
of yellow as he can in one of gray. It be-
hypsometric shading. The lower altitudes
comes necessary, then, to mix hues to ob-
have been shown in greens, followed by tain more distinguishable intervals.
yellows for the intermediate altitudes, and Intensity of colors varies, in the color-
then reds or near reds for the higher. Be- science sense, when we vary the amount
cause of the relative luminosity and pig- of gray mixed with a color. In practical
ment values of the colors, by far the light- use on maps intensity may be considered
est areas, and by comparison the most vis- loosely as brilliance. Some colors are
ible, are therefore the areas of intermedi- bright-they "knock your eye out"-
ate altitude, which are rarely the areas of whereas others of the same value and hue
great importance. Nevertheless, this pro- are subdued. Undue brilliance acts as a
gression, along with blue water, is almost deterrent to easy reading of a map and in
a convention in cartography, and we have general is not necessary, even for emphasis.
become so used to it that it cannot be ig- Soft or subdued shades or tints of low in-
nored. The value of the colors used can, tensity, such as pastels, are fully as visible
 Balance and Layout 133

MOST
...... ' 1
~
...."-o
Q.
<
:::E

"
z
;;:;
CAT~GORY I' 't-...
1

I
, 1

'1
ID
Z
o CATEGORY
1 1 ......
5
ID
I 2 I ~
~
i5
I I CATEGORY I
1 I 3 I
I 1 I
LEAST 1 I I

FIG. 102. Theoretical graph of a graded distribution showing the basis upon which one
chooses a scale of values or brilliance. The graph could be constructed in a number of ways,
but the curve of the "progression" of the data should match that of value and brilliance.

as the more "aggressive" and intense colors. example, on maps of climatic areas. In
The average eye and mind unconsciously such maps, temperature and rainfall are
assigns to value and to intensity a numer~ usually the major contributing elements,
ical rating. Darkness and brilliance are and the problem of showing an area that
assumed to represent "more" of some~ has both high temperature and low rainfall
thing, and lightness and tints represent is difficult. The tropical areas may· be
"less." One would not think of making a shown with considerable red which is made
map of rainfall distribution whereon the lighter toward the savanna areas of less
heaviest rainfall was shown by the lightest precipitation; but a change to another hue
tone and the least rainfall by the darkest uch as yellow at the boundary of the dry
tone. If there is to be a gradation of climates is likely to upset the progression
amounts on a map one can approach the owing to the necessity of using a . more
presentation problem by way of a graph, brilliant yellow in order to distinguish it
on which value or brilliance is plotted on from the white paper. It is desirable for
the abscissa and amount of the phenomena the curves of value and brilliance on col-
being presented is plotted on the ordinate, ored maps showing a graded scheme of
as in Fig. 102. This is a relatively simple things to parallel one another.
problem so long as the distribution is lim-
ited to a single phenomenon, but it becomes 116 Balance and Layout
complex when the categories to be shown When the cartographer begins the de-
are comprised of interrelated items, as, for si~ning and planning of a map he is faced
134 Map Design
with making a number of preliminary de- is out of balance it may be prominent and
cisioRs. The e involve problems of balance lie "above" the plane visually, or if weak
and layout, such as those due to format, it will recede "below" the balance plane.
projection shape, land-water relations, and The optical center of a map is a point
the general arrangement of the basic shapes slightly (about 5 per cent) above the cen-
of the presentation. ter of the bounding shape or the map bor-
Balance in visual design is the position- der (see Fig. 103). Size, value, brilliance,
ing of the various visual components in contrast, and, to some extent, a few other
such a way that their relationship appears factors influence the weight of a shape.
The balancing of the various items about
the optical center is akin to the balance of
a lever on a fulcrum. This is illustrated
in Fig. 104, where it can be seen that a
visually heavy shape near the fulcrum is
_ VISUAL balanced by a visually lighter but larger
. --
+__
__
__ ---- CENTER body farther from the balance point .
Many other combinations will occur to the
------- ACTUAL student.
- CENTER

FIG. 103. The visual as opposed to the actual

A B
center of a rectangle. Balancing is accomplished
around the visual center.

logical or, in . other words, so that it does

not raise doubt in the reader's mind. In a
well-balanced design nothing is too light
or too dark, too long or too short, or too o
small or too large. The importance of the
various components is directly related to FlO. 104. Visual balance. A, B , C, and D show
relationships of balance. A and B are analogous
their position and visual significance. Lay-
to a child and -an adult on a "teeter-totter"; C
out is the process of arriving at proper and D introduce relative density or visual weight.
balance.
Visual balance depends primarily upon The aim of the cartographer is to bal-
the relative position and visual importance ance his visual items so that they "look
of the basic parts of a map, and thus it de- right" or appear natural for the purpose of
pends upon the relation of each item to the map. The easiest way to accomplish
the optical center of the map and to the this is to prepare thumbnail sketches of the
other items, and upon the visual weights. main shapes, and then arrange them in
It may also help to think of the map as a various ways within the map frame until
horizontal plane; each item on a balanced a combination is obtained that will present
map would lie in this plane. If one item the items in the fashion desired. Figure
 Balance and Layout 135

FlO. 105. Thumbnail sketches of a map made in the preliminary stages to arrive at a proper
balance.

105 shows some thumbnail sketches of a upon these areas and will only incidentally
hypothetical map in which the various look at the locational base material "be-
shapes, i.e., land, water, title, legend, and neath" them. In cases like this the map
shaded area, have been arranged in various is out of balance intentionally; that is, all
ways.
The format, or the size and shape of the
paper or page on which a map is to be
placed, is of considerable importance in A
the problem of balance and layout. Shapes 2.7 : 3
of land areas vary to a surprising degree
on different projections, and in many cases
the necessity for the greatest possible scale
within a prescribed format dictates a pro- B
jection which produces an undesirable fit 2 :5
for the area involved. Likewise, the neces-
sity for fitting various shapes, such as large C
legends, complex titles, captions, and so 3 :5
on, around the margins and within the
border makes the format a limiting factor
of more than ordinary concern. Generally
speaking, a rectangle with sides having the
proportion of 3: 5 is the most pleasing shape FIG. 106. Various rectangles. C, with the ratio
(see Fig. 106). Of course, ' when circum- of its sides 3: 5, is more stable and pleasing than
stances dictate otherwise, other shapes the others.
must be used.
Occasionally the cartographer wishes to elements of the map do not lie in the same
emphasize one portion of the map or a plane (see Fig. 107). This effect is some-
particular relationship thereon. For ex- times referred to as the figure-ground re-
a.mple, he may wish to show territories that lationship.
changed hands in Europe, and he would The possibilities of varying balance rela-
like to make them appear above the back- tionships to suit the pu.rpose of the map are
ground base data so that the eye will focus legion. The cartographer will do well to
136 Map Design

FlO. lO7. All elements in map A lie generally in the same visual plane. In map B the land
has been made to rise above the water, and the more prominent boundaries have been made
to rise above the "level" of the land. Projection lines on the water only, instead' of shading,
would also tend to raise the land above the water level.

analyze every visual presentation he sees, It is impossible to generalize as to the

from posters to advertisements, in order to form a title should take; it depends entirely
become more versatile and competent in upon the map, its subject, and purpose.
working with this important factor of map Suppose, for example, a map had been
design. made showing density of population per
square mile of arable land in post-war
116 Titles, Legends, and Scales Hungary. The following situations might
The titles of maps are an important part apply:
of the design , and on different maps they
serve a variety of functions. The title 1. If the map appeareg in a text devoted
sometimes informs the reader of the subject to the general world-wide conditions at
or area of the map, and is therefore as im- that time with respect to the subject mat-
portant as a label on a medicine bottle. ter, then only
But this IS not always the ca e, for some HUNGARY •
maps are obvious in their subject matter
or area and in reality need no such title. would be appropriate, for the time and
In these instances the title is often useful subject would be known.
to the designer as a shape that he may use 2. If the map appeared in a study of
to help balance the composition. the current food situation in Europe, and
 Titles, Legends, and Scales 137
if it were an important piece of evidence should be used on a map unless it is ex-
for some thesis, then plained in a legend. Furthermore, any
symbol explained should appear in the leg-
Hungary end exactly as it appears on the map,
POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE drawn in precisely the same size and man-
ARABLE LAND ner. Legend boxes can be emphasized or
would be appropriate. subordinated by varying the shape, size,
or value relationship. Figure 108 illus-
3. If the map appeared in a publication
trates several variations. In the past it
,devoted to the changes in population in
was the custom to enclose legends in fancy,
Hungary, then
ornate outlines which by their intricate
POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE workmanship called attention to their pres-
ARABLE LAND ence. Today it is generally conceded that
1950 the contents of the legend are more impor-
tant than its outline, so the outline, if any,
would be appropriate, for the area would is usually kept simple.
be known but the date would be significant. The cale of a map also varies in impor-
tance from map to map. On maps showing
Many other combinations could be
road or rail lines, air routes, or any other
worked out, but there is no need to belabor
phenomenon or relationship that involves
the fact that the title must be tailored to
distance, the scale is an important factor
the occasion, Similarly, the degree of in making the map useful. In such cases
prominence and visual interest displayed the scale must be placed in a position of
by the title, through its style, size, and the prominence, and it should be de igned in
blackness of the lettering employed, must such fashion that it can be easily used by
be fitted into the whole design and purpose the reader.
of the map', The method of presenting the scale may
Legends are naturally indispensable to "ary. For many maps, especially those of
most maps, for they provide the explana- larger scale, the representative fraction,
tion of the various symbols us d. It should the RF, is useful for it tells the experi-
be a cardinal rule of the cartographer that enced map reader a great deal about the
no symbol that is not self-explanatory amount of generalization and selection that

/ ". . "1
I.-r-.",..j.....
,..;
".

FIG. 108. Variations in prominence of legend boxes.

138 Map Design
probably went into the preparation of the ens" the line work of the fair drawing,
map. It should, however, be borne in mind Drafting a map for reduction does not
that changing the size of a map by reduc- mean merely drawing a map that is well
tion changes the scale of the map, but does designed at the drafting scale. On the
not change the printed numbers of the RF. contrary, it requires the anticipation of the
On a map designed for reproduction the finished map and the designing of ea'ch
RF must be that of the final scale, not the item so that when it is reduced and repro-
drafting scale. duced it will be "right" for that scale. A
A graphic scale is much more common on map must be designed for reduction as
small-scale maps, not only because it sim- much as for any other purpose,
The greatest problem facing the cartog-
rapher in designing for reduction is that
MILES
o 16 32 4B 64 involving line-width relationships. In gen-
eral a map on which the line relations ap-
MILES pear correct at the drafting scale will ap-
o 50 100 150 200
pear "light" when it is reduced. Conse-
quently, the map maker must make his
20 10 0 20
, 40
!
60
!
map overly "heavy" in order to avoid its
6 H I
appearing too light after reduction. This
MILE.s
0 40 BO 120 applies especially to lettering and particu-
,
larly to lettering from preprinted type im-
I
0
I
i
40
i
i
i
BO 120
1"'"""9
I
160
i
pressions. It is necessary for the cartog-
KILOMETERS rapher to "overdo" his lettering, just as it
is necessary for him to make lines and
FlO. 109. Kinds of graphic Bcales. symbols too large and dark on the fair
drawing, Figure 110 illustrates these rela-
plifies the user's employment of it, but be- tionships. The use of a reducing glass will
cause an RF in the smaller scales is not aid in visualizing how the map will appear.
so meaningful. Graphic scales may be de-
when reduced.
signed in a variety of ways. Some ex-
Maps of a series should appear compa-
amples are shown in Fig. 109. On scales
that are likely to be used precisely it is rable, and since they are drawn for repro-
helpful to the reader if one part of the duction, they should be drafted at the same
scale is subdivided in order to make finer scale. This may necessitate changing the
readings possible, It is also helpful to scale of base maps, which is troublesome,
show both an English and a metric graphic but which insures that the line treatment
scale. and lettering will be uniform.
Specifications for drafting and for re-
117 Effects of Reduction duction are given in terms of linear change,
It is usually the practice to draft maps not areal relationships. It is common to
at a scale larger than the reproduction speak of a fair drawing as being "50 per
scale, This is done for a variety of reasons, cent up," meaning that it is half again larger
the most important of which is that it is than it will be when reproduced. The same
often impossible to draft with the precision map may be referred to as being drafted
and detail desired at the scale of the final for one-third reduction; that is, one-third
map, Also, reduction frequently "sharp- of the linear dimensions will be lost in
 The Workshee t 139

FlO. 110. Effects of reduction . ( A) When fair drawing is designed at scale, then (B) reduction
makes it too light. (C) When fair drawing is designed for reduction, then (D) reduction
produces proper relationships.

reduction. Figure 111 illustrates the rela-

tionships. Since it is common practice in
large printing plants to photograph many
illustrations at once, it is also desirable,
for economy, to make series drawings for
a common reduction.

118 The Worksheet

The cartographer can obviate most of
the troubles that beset the finishing of a
map by constructing a worksheet. One of
the most difficult operations in cartography
is that of correcting and changing the fair
drawing, for it usually is accompanied by FIG. 111. Relation of enlargement to reduction.
140 Map Design
a realization of careless and poor planning. be laid out as to size and spacing. If the
Any su.ch operation is bound to be an un- first try does not work then it may be
happy one if, with proper care, it could erased and done over. Borders and obvi-
have been a voided. ous line work need only be suggested by
The worksheet is the compilation and ticks.
planning of the map down to the last neces- When the worksheet and the compilation
sary detail. It is usually done on trans- have been completed, the drafting may be
lucent tracing paper or plastic. On it the done on tracing paper, cloth, or plastic di-
lettering is planned, and all line work is rectly over the worksheet or, if the draft-
done; in short, everything about which ing is to be done on a relatively opaque
there could be any question is determined. material, it may be done over a tracing
When completed, the worksheet is com-
table. If the drawing is to be done by the
parable to the handwritten manuscript, for
cartographer he will have in mind the
all that is necessary then is for the fair
character of the lines, etc.; but if it is to
drawing to be drafted by tracing, just as
the manuscript is made into good copy by be drafted by someone else he must pre-
the mechanical process of typing. pare a sample sheet of specifications to
The lines and other drawing on the work- guide the draftsman. This is simple to do
sheet may be done in pencil or with any if each category is in a different color or
satisfactory medium. Each kind of line otherwise clearly distinguished. Separa-
that is to be drawn differently on the fair tion drawings for small maps may easily
drawing may be put in a different color to be made from a single worksheet and will
obviate mistakes. Lettering, if the placing register.
is no problem, may be roughly done; if the The worksheet is a "must" for careful,
placing is important, the lettering should accurate, efficient map making.
 8
Map Lettering

119 The Importance of Lettering ing styles may contrast with this basic
Lettering is one of the symbols used on characteristic or they may blend with it.
maps to designate places and items, in the Through his choice of lettering style, size,
legend, in the title, and especially on the and positioning the cartographer can lead
map itself. Because of the familiarity of attention to, or direct it away, from the
its forms , it is not commonly considered names of the elements it is to identify.
a cartographic symbol, but in the last anal- Not the least important aspect of lettering
ysis it is difficult to draw a distinction be- is the fact that it provides one of the more
tween the lines we use to represent such noticeable indices of cartographic quality.
concepts as the land-water boundary and Striving for elegance can, of course, be
the lines we use to represent the concept of carried to extremes, but a well-lettered map
name. The forms the lines assume in let- is a pleasant thing to contemplate.
tering are more commonplace, but other- Cartographic lettering styles have
wise there is little difference between this changed often in the past. Before the de-
and other symbol forms. velopment of printing in Europe, all letter-
In cartography the study of lettering as ing on maps was done freehand with a pen
a symbol form is especially important, both or brush. After printing and engraving
because of its universal use and because it became the accepted methods of reproduc-
is a rather complex and, at times, bother- tion, the lettering on maps was the task
some element of the map. Whether we like of the engraver, who cut his letters with
it or not, places must be named ; and the a burin or graver in reverse on the copper
name may be small and easy to insert as, plate. 'The great Dutch atlas makers were
for example, "Cape Cod," which has the wont to include many pictures of animals,
whole Atlantic on which to lie, or it may ships, and wondrous other thing for, as
be long and difficult to insert in a small Hondius explained , "adornment .and for
area, such as "Philadelphia" or "Switzer- entertainment"; but their lettering was
land" on small-scale maps. The 'problem generally well planned in the classic style
of fitting in .the lettering among the maze and well executed, as is that illustrated in
of ot her symbols is oftentimes nothing Fig. 112.
short of frustrating. As might have been expected , when the
Lettering is an important element of the lettering was done by those more interested
design of a map. Most maps hav~ some in its execution than in it use, it became
sort of inherent design quality, such as a excessively ornate. The tendency toward
repeating pattern of lines, and the letter- poor lettering design continued well into
141
142 Map Lettering

FIG. 112. The Hondius map of America. This map was included in the Hondius-Mercator
Atlas of 1606. The original is in the Newberry Library, Chicago. Courtesy of Rand McNally
and Company.

fMIJr.I ~ ~!JJ!m:l,M;W ;ml!llil 'fJ! .!llllttRWl YI

A.i.I.1ftj(~1'"'.a;til! ~ ~hAl'B OlIDLOOIM'.
FIG. 113. Ornate lettering on a lithographed map of 1875. The name "Illinois" is more than
1 foot long on the original.
 Planning for Lettering 143
the Victorian era, when lettering and type tory job of freehand lettering-if he will
styles in general became so bad that there but try.
was a general revolt against them, which
caused a return to the classic styles and 120 Planning for Lettering
greater simplicity. Figure 113 is an ex- Planning the lettering for a map requires
ample of ornate lettering in the title of a careful consideration of a number of
nineteenth century geological map. The things. The more elaborate the map, of
fancy lettering of this and earlier periods course, the more elements must be consid-
provides good examples of manual dexter- ered; but, in general, there are at least
ity, being intricate and difficult to execute; seven major headings to the planning
but they are examples of poor lettering be- "checklist." The complexities of the map
cause they are difficult to read and because and its purposes will add subheads to the
they call undue attention to themselves. following major elements.
In the past century, and especially dur-
1. The style of the lettering.
ing the past several decades, many changes
2. The form of the lettering.
have taken place in cartographic lettering
3. The size of the lettering.
practice. No longer does the engraver do
4. The color of the lettering and its
the lettering; instead, maps are "en- background.
graved" by means of photography, and it
5. The method of lettering.
is up to the cartographer to plan and exe-
6. The positioning of the lettering.
cute the lettering on the copy. More re- 7. The relation of the lettering to repro-
cently, new techniques have been devel-
duction.
oped which make it possible, among other
advantages, to apply already printed let- The style refers to the appearance of the
tering to the copy, so tha~ there is little lettering, i.e., its design, and it includes
excuse for poor style. Mechanical aids for such elements as thickness of line and
ink lettering have also been introduced. serifs. The form refers to whether it is
The above-mentioned developments have composed of capitals, lower-case, slant,
combined to relegate the traditional free- upright, or combinations of these and other
similar elements. The methods of lettering
hand lettering somewhat to the background
include freehand, mechanical aids, and pre-
as a part of the art of cartography. It can
printed letters to be used as "stick-up," a
be stated without reservation, however,
term recently introduced in cartography to
that a map well lettered freehand will be include all methods of applying preprinted
a better-lettered map than one done in lettering. The positioning of the lettering in-
any other way, because many cartographic volves a consideration of when and where
lettering problems involving fitting, design, on the map, and in the construction sched-
and positioning are more effectively solved ule, the lettering is applied. As is appar-
freehand than in any other way. For this ent from Chapter 5, different methods of
reason, if for no other, it is well for the reproduction require variations in parts of
student of cartography to study and prac- the above processes, and this is especially
tice freehand lettering. Good freehand let- so when various effects are to be gained.
tering is a great asset to a cartographer, Regardless of the kind of map, the letter-
and it merely involves learning principles ing is there to be seen and read. Conse-
and practicing execution. Practically any- quently, the elements of visibility and leg-
one can learn to do an eminently satisfac- ibility are among the major yardsticks
144 Map Lettering
against which the choices and possibilities thin lines is not great, and , the serifs with
are to be measured. which the strokes are 'ended are smooth
and easily attached. Such letters are
121 The Style of the Lettering known as Classic or Old Style. They ap-
The cartographer is faced with a truly pear dignified and have about them an air
imposing array of possible style choices of quality and good taste that they tend
when he sets out to plan the lettering for to impart to the maps on which they are
his map. He not only has an infinite num- used. The lettering or type has an appear-
ber of different alphabet designs from ance that is neat, but at the same time it
which to select, but he must also settle
upon the wanted combinations of capital CHELTENHAM WIDE
letters, lower-case letters, small capitals,
italic, slant, and upright forms of each Chel tenham Wide
alphabet. There is no other technique in
cartography that provides such oppor- CHELTENHAM WIDE ITALIC
tunity for individualistic treatment, and Cheltenham Wide Italic
this is especially true with respect to the
monochrome map. The cartographer who GOUDY BOLD
becomes well acquainted with styles of
lettering and their uses finds that every Goudy Bold
map or map series presents an interesting
challenge. When this attitude obtains, let- GOUDY BOLD ITALIC
tering the map ceases to be the mechanical
chore some, whose maps reflect their dis- Goudy Bold Italic
interest, consider it to be.
Lettering and type styles have had a
CASLON OPEN
complex evolution since Roman times. FlO. 114. Some Classic, Old Style letter forms.
The immediate ancestors of our present- Courtesy Monsen-Chicago, Inc.
day alphabets include such grandparents lacks any pretense of the geometric. (See
as the capital letters the Romans carved F.ig. 114.)
in stone and the manuscript writing of the A radically different kind of face was
long period prior to the discovery of print- devised later, and for that reason it, un-
ing. Subsequent to the development of fortunately, is termed Modern. Actually
printing, the types were copies of the man- the Modern faces were tried out more than
uscript writing, but it was not long until two centuries ago, although we think of
designers went to work to improve them. them as coming into frequent use around
Using the classic Roman letters as models 1800. Modern type faces, and lettering,
for the capitals and the manuscript writ- look precise and geometric, as if they had
ing for the small letters, they produced the been drawn with a straightedge and a
alphabets of upper- and lower-case letters compass, which they have. The difference
that it is our custom to use today. between thick and thin lines is great and
The better designers, of course, kept sometimes excessive. (See Fig. 115.)
much of the free-flowing, graceful appear- A third type of style class includes some
ance of freehand lettering so that their varieties that are definitely modern in
letters looka;s though they-had been formed time but not in name, as well as some of
with a brush. The proportion of ·thick to older origin. This class is called Sans
 The Style of the Lettering 145
S~rif (without serifs), and has about it an and italic in type are similar to handwrit-
up-to-date, clean-cut, new, and nontradi- ing with Bowing lines. They have been
tional appearance. The forms are angular traditionally replaced in map work by the
slant letter. Square Serif is rarely seen
BODONI BOLD any more, but was popular during the last
century. (See Fig. 117.)
Bodoni Bold The above listing by no means exhausts
the possibilities. There are literally hun-
BODONI BOLD I TALIC dreds of variations and modifications pos-
sible, such as the open letter, light or heavy
Bodoni Bold It a lic face, expanded or condensed, and so on.
FlO. 115. Some Modern letter forms. Courtesy In the selection of type, or in the design of
Monsen-Chicago, Inc.

or of perfect roundness. There is nothing

subtle about most Sans Serif forms. (See (!Ioi.stet iSlatk
Fig. l1S.)
The above three classes are the basio STYMIE MEDIUM
groups of the classification of printing
types; there are, however, many variations. Stymie Medium
FlO. 117. Examples of Text and Square Serif
MONSEN MEDIUM GOTHIC letter forms. Courtesy Monsen-Chicago, Inc.

Monsen Medium Gothic Italic his own freehand lettering, the cartog-
rapher may be guided by certain general
COPPERPLATE GOTHIC principles that have resulted from a consid-
I TALIC
erable amount of research by the psycholo-
gist and others, as well as from the evolved
FUTURA M EDIUM
artistic principles of the typographer.
Legibility depends upon the recognition
LYDIAN BOLD
of familiar forms and upon the distinctive-
DRAFTSMANS ITALIC ness of those forms from one another. For
this rea on "fancy" lettering or ornate
Fro. 116. Some Sans Serif Jetter forms. Courtesy
letter forms are difficult to read. Flowing
Monsen-Chicago, Inc.
swash lines and excessively complex letter
Freehand lettering generally conforms forms may delight the clever draftsman,
closely to the Classic and to the Sans Serif, but they do not make words easy to read.
but is ordinarily called, respectively, Ro- For this reason Text lettering is particu-
'man 'and Gothic. larly difficult. Conversely, well-designed
There are several other styles of type Classic, Modern, and Sans Serif forms
and of freehand lettering which are not stand at the top of the list, and they rate
common but which are occasionally used about equally in legibility. Legibility also
on maps. These are Text, script or italic, depends, to some extent, upon the thickness
and Square Serif. Text, or black letter, is of the lines forming the lettering. The
similar to the manuscript writing, and is thinner the lines in relation to the size of
dark, heavy, and difficult to read. Script the lettering, the harder it is to read. The
146 Map Lettering
cartographer is therefore called upon in his signed. This requires some knowledge of
letter selection to do a bit of experimenta- the development of typography and of the
tion, for, although the bold lettering is more elements of letter design. If freehand let-
legible, the thicker lines may overshadow tering is the aim, the beginner is not en-
or mask other equally important data. It couraged to design his own alphabets, for
should also be remembered that lettering is the result is not likely to be fortunate.
not always the most important element in
the visual outline of the map; rather it may Futuro Light
be desirable, on occasion, that the lettering
recede into the background. If so, light- Futuro Light Italic
line letter forms may be the effective
choice. Futuro Medium
The problem of the position of the letter-
ing in the visual outline is one of consider- Futuro Medium Condensed
able significance. For example, the title
may be of great importance and the bal- Futuro Medium Italic
ance of the lettering of value only as a
secondary reference. Size is usually more Futura Demibold
significant, in determining the relative
prominence, than style, but the general Futura Demi&olJ Italic:
pattern of the lettering may also play an
important part. For example, rounded let- Futura Bold
tering may be lost along a rounded, com-
plex coastline, whereas in the same situa- Futura lold Italic
tion angular lettering of the same size may
be sufficiently prominent. Futura Bold Condensed
It is the convention in cartography to
utilize different styles of lettering for dif- Futura Bold C."d."s.d italic
ferent classes of features, but this may be FIG. 118. Variants of a single face . This face hac
easily overdone. As a general rule, the a larger number of variants than is usual but the
list is representative except that expanded (oppo-
fewer the styles, the better harmony there site of condensed) is missing. Courtesy Monsen-
will be. Different size combinations of Chicago, Inc.
capitals, small capitals, and lower case pro-
vide considerable variety, and most com- Letter design is an exacting and complex
mon type faces are available in several art that reflects the tradition, experience,
variants; it is better practice to utilize and the distillation of centuries of effort.
these as much as possible. (See Fig. 118.) It is better for the beginner to spend his
The cartographer may, of course, do the time copying the work of the masters of
same sort of thing freehand. If styles letter design until he has gained a "feel"
must be combined for emphasis or other for the simplicity and the shape and line
reasons, good typographic practice allows relationships that characterize good letter-
Sans Serif to be used with either Classic ing. It is particularly important, whether
or geometric Modern. Classic and Modern he use type or letters freehand, that he
should never be combined. familiarize himself with the elements of
Whatever the choices of style and com- letter design by reading in the copious liter-
bination, the lettering should be well de- ature of this fascinating subject.
 The Size of the Lettering 147
1i2 The Form of the Lettering Modern faces is a cursive fonn similar to
Alphabets consist of two quite different script or handwriting. Gothic slant and
letter forms called capitals and lower-case Sans Serif italic are simply upright letters
letters. These two forms are used together tilted forward . Italic forms are consider-
in a systematic fashion in writing, but con- ably harder to read than their upright
ventions as to their use are not so well counterparts; however, it is doubtful that
established in cartography. In general, there is much difference between the up-
more important names and titles are usu- right and slant letters of Gothic or Sans
ally put in capitals, and less important Serif in so far as legibility is concerned.
names and places are identified with lower-
case letters. Names requiring considerable 123 The Size of the Lettering *
separation of the letters are commonly Perhaps the commonest kind of decision
placed in capitals. regarding lettering, 'which must be made by
a cartographer, concerns the sizes to be
Kennerley-an upright Classic used for the great variety of items which
must be named on maps. Traditionally,
Kennerley in the Italic form specifications for lettering are usually
based on the size of the thing to be named
Monsen Medium Gothic-upright
or the space to be filled. Then the letter-
Monsen Medium Gothic Italic ing must be graded with respect to the
FlO. 119. Differences between italic and slant total design and intellectual content of the
forms. Courtesy Monsen-Chicago, Inc. map. Much of the criticism, however,
conscious or unconscious, that is leveled at
Legibility and perceptibility tests have map lettering is aimed specifically at size-
shown without any doubt that capitals are or lack of it. There seems to be a wide-
not so easy to recognize or read as are spread tendency among amateur (and even
lower-case letters, since the latter contain some professional) cartographers to over-
more clues to letter form. A greater use of
estimate the ability of the eye and to
well-formed lower-case letters will improve
underestimate the effects of reduction.
the legibility of a map.
Size of lettering or type face is designated
Most styles of type can be had in either
upright or italic fOnD , and, of course, free- by points, 1 point being nearly equal to
~ 2 inch. Lettering that is ~ inch high
hand lettering may be rendered either up-
right or slanted. The tendency in cartog- is roughly equal to I8-point type, although
raphy is for hydrography, land form, and not precisely since the size of type refers
other natural features to be labeled in slant to the body, not the letter on it. Reduced
or italic, and for cultural features (man- by one-half, it will be nearly equivah;nt to
made) to be identified in upright forms. 9-point lettering, although not the same
This can hardly be called a tradition, for as 9-point since each type size in a font
departure from it is frequent, except in the (all sizes and forms of one face), and in
case of water features. The slant or italic freehand lettering, is designed separately
form seems to suggest the fluidity of water. for more . perfect balance than would be
There is a fundamental difference be-
• Portions of this section have been modified
tween slant and italic, although the terms from Arthur H. Robinson, "The Size of Lettering
are sometimes used synonymously (see for Maps and Charts," Surveying and Mapping,
Fig. 119). True italic in the Classic or 1950, Vol. 10, pp. 37-44.
148 Map Lettering
produced by simple enlargement or reduc- the tests of one font at normal reading
tion of one design. distance with test obj ects of simple design
There have been numerous studies dur- which subtended known angles and had
ing the past half centl,!ry of the effect of previously been rated in visibility. The
type sizes and styles on' reading habits, table may be used as a kind of yardstick
but most of them are somew at limited in of prominence for the smaller sizes; e.g.,
their application to the specific problems 10-point type is roughly 4 times more vis-
of cartography. Of much more significance ible (or prominent) than 3-point. It should
to cartography are the variations in visi- be noted that the relationship is not arith-
bility and legibility of type faces and type metic but approaches logarithmic. This
sizes. Precise studies have been made by relationship, of course, does not continue
Luckiesh and Moss, based on physiologi- indefinitely. One may assume that ratings
cally sound determinations of the ability much beyond 24-point would probably have
of the eye. Assuming no other complica- little validity, since anyone who can't see
tions (the assumption is a bit unreal), the 24-point type would be rated as blind, and
eye reacts to size in relation to the angle visibility in the larger sizes would be more
the object subtends at the eye. With nor- dependent upon factors other than size.
mal vision an object that subtends an angle Within the narrow limits prescribed by
of l' can just be recognized. Letter forms the familiar "all other factors being equal"
are complex, however, and it has been de- the table provides the cartographer with
termined that about 3-point type is the a scale by means of which he can select
smallest, just recognizable type at usual relative sizes in accordance with the intel-
reading distance. Normal vision is, how- lectual significance he assigns to the dif-
ever, a misnomer, for it certainly is not ferent names appearing bn a map. It can
average vlsIon. It is safer to generalize rarely, if ever, be exact, for in many cases
that probably 4-point or 5-point type it is difficult to be precise in the determina-
comes closer to the lower limit of visibility tion of relative significance in the map de-
for the average person. sign, and because so many other factors of
Determinations of the relative visibil- design are operative in producing the final
ity of type have significance in cartog- "total" impression. But at least in his vis-
raphy. By means of a "visibility meter" ual outline, or plan of using media and
investigators have gathered the data shown technique, the cartographer need not double
in Table 10. The values result from rating the point size in order to make a name
twice as "important."
TABLE 10. RELATIVE VISIBILITY OF TYPE SIZE.
By far the most important aspect of type
(From Luckiesh and Moss.) size at present is indicated by the simple
Size in Relative question "Can the observer read it at all
points visibility under the circumstances?" Frequently,
3 1.10 cartographers are called upon to prepare
4 1.60 presentations for groups. They must face
5 2. 11 such questions as "What is the minimum
6 2.64
8 3.64 lettering size legible, under normal condi-
10 4.65 tions, on a wall map or chart from the back
12 5.66 or middle of a 40-foot room?" Or, "How
14 6.67 large should the lettering be on a graph or
18 8.67
24 11.68 map that is to be made into a slide and
 The Size 01 the Lettering 149
projected in an auditorium?" These are With such information and Tables 31-37
routine questions of considerable impor- in Appendix G most lens and projector
tance since they confront anyone who pre- characteristics may be ignored.
pares or uses graphics. Tables 31-37 in Appendii G give equiva-
Tables of equivalents are easy to use, but lent lettering values for projected maps
there are so many possibilities of changes that are magnified frQm 2 to 15. times their
in visibility and legibility due to other fac - original size and viewed at various dis-
tors, such as variations of lettering design, tances from the screen. An example will
lowering of background contrast, or con- illustrate their use. Assume that a map
fusing textural conflict, that simple tables is being prepared which measures 1 foot
must be used cautiously. Two types of across and is to be projected in an audi-
tables are here presented, one for maps torium 70 feet long and, further , that the
used in the original or in reduced form slide frame used in the projector equipment
(Table 11), the other for maps enlarged is 9 feet across on the screen. From Table
by projection (Table 12). 12 (linear magnification, 9), repeated here
Table 11 is based on the assumption that for purposes of illustration, the following
if a particular point size, at normal reading information may be derived:
distance from the eye (18 . inches) , sub-
A. The smallest lettering size which can
tends a certain angle at the eye, then any
be used on the original that can be read
size lettering if viewed at such a distance
from any place in the lecture hall by a
that it subtends the same angle is, for all
person with normal vision is 16 point.
practical purposes, the same size. Thus,
B . Only the front half of the audience
144-point lettering at 30 feet from the ob-
will be able to read 10-point type on the
server is the same a 8-point lettering at
original drawing.
normal reading distance, since each circum-
C. Lettering to be read only by the lec-
stance results in the same angle subtended
turer at the front as an aid in his presenta-
at the eye. It will be seen from the table
tion should be no larger than 6 point on
that legibility diminishes rapidly with dis-
the original.
tance. For example, any lettering ' of 16-
point size or smaller cannot be read even It is wise to reemphasize the fact that
at 10 feet from the chart or map, and let- the results obtained by using the tables
ters 1 inch high can be read from a distance here presented and those in Appendix G are
of 40 feet only by a person with above subject to some unavoidable errors, for
average VlSlOn. To those with average many other variables, in addition to size,
(not normal) vision such letters are likely establish relative or specific legibility. For
to be illegible from 25 feet. example, if any lettering is to be on a col-
Another type of table is required to an- ored background its legibility and visibility
swer the questions that arise when maps will be reduced (except if the background
and diagrams are to be reproduced on slides is yellow) roughly in proportion to the loss
and then projected. The problem in all its of value contrast. Differences in styles of
aspects becomes quite complicated, but the type, and especially in the background pat-
raw data concerning map size and results terns of shading or map data, may increase
consequent upon magnification are helpful. or reduoe legibility. The photographic
It should be practicable in most cases to quality of the slides, the lens q1,!ality, and
ascertain the actual size of a proj ected slide the amount of light from projectors fre-
frame as well as the size of the lecture hall. quently vary. Familiar word forms may
150 Map Lette~ing

TABLE 11. APPROXIMATE E QUIVALENT SIZES OF LE'M'ERING VIEWED FROM VARIOUS DISTANCES.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Point Letter Equjvalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from observer
size, height
at 18 in
inches inches 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
- - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - -
3-16
18 0.25 3
24 0.33 3
30 0.41 4-5
36 0.50 5 3
42 0.58 6 3
48 0.66 7 4
54 0.75 8 4-5 3,
60 0.83 9 4-5 3
72 1.00 10 5 4 3
84 1.16 12 6 4-5 3
96 1.33 14 7 4-5 3-4 3
108 1.50 16 8 5 4 3
120 1.66 18 9 6 4-5 3-4 3
132 1.83 20 10 7 5 4 3-4
144 2.00 22 11 8 5-6 4-5 4 3
180 2.50 28 14 9 7 5-6 4-5 4 3
216 3.00 32 16 10 8 6 5-6 5 4 3-4 3

TABLE 12. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION, 9.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from screen

Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6 8 4-5 3
8 10 5 4
10 12 6 4-5 3-4
12 16 8 5 4 3
14 18 9 6 5 4 3
16 22 11 8 5-6 4-5 4 3
18 24 12 8 6 5 4 3-4 3
24 32 16 10 8 6 5-6 5 4 3-4 3
30 42 21 14 11 9 7 6 5-6 5 4-5
36 48 24 16 12 10 8 7 6 5-6 5
,-,
 The Color of the Lettering and the Background 151
make undersize lettering recognizable. The able is the degree of value contrast be-
tables of equivalent sizes have bee~ cal- tween the lettering and its background.
culated solely on the basis of angle sub- Thus, black lettering on a white back-
tended at the eye and do not take into ground would stand near the top of the
account any of the less significant factors. scale, and as the value of the lettering ap-
Equivalent sizes are expressed to the near- proached the value of the background, visi-
est point in the smaller ranges with some bility would diminish. This is of concern
clear intermediates noted, and in the larger when either large regional names are
they are approximate to the nearest even "spread" over a considerable area com-
or common type size. Consequently, if posed of units colored or shaded differently
any doubt arises as to the effect of any or when names of equal rank must be
negative factors present, lettering sizes placed on areas of different values. It
should be 'increased. Results obtained by makes no difference whether the value con-
following such a rule of thumb will rarely trast is the result of color or of shading.
be unsatisfactory. The usual lett~ring in cartography is either
black or white (reverse lettering), but oc-
124 The Color of the Lettering and casionally lettering will be added to one
the Background of the color plates in the flat-color method
Legibility and perceptibility of lettering of map reproduction. Regardless of the
also depend considerably upon the color of color of the print and of the background,
the lettering and the background upon if the value contrast is great the lettering
which it stands (see Fig. 120). Commonly, will be legible.
lettering of equal importance does not ap- White or reversed lettering on a dark or
pear equal in various parts of the map be- colored background is an effective and easy
cause of background differences. Even way to create contrast in the map lettering.
when the same lettering is used everyWhere It may be accomplished in a number of
because of other design requirements, the ways:
cartographer should be aware of the pos-
1. Lettering in white paint or ink.
sible effects, and perhaps, within the limits
2. Pasting a photostat negative of letter-
of his design, he may be able to correct or
ing on a black background.
at least alleviate the situation.
3. Using a diapositive as a mask.
Stated in general terms, the legibility
4. Using white preprinted lettering (see
and perceptibility of lettering (other effects
Article 127).
being equal) depend upon the amount of
visual contrast between the lettering and However reverse lettering is accom-
its background. Putting aside such effects plished, it should be remembered that the
as might be due to texture of background, rule of value contrast still obtains. In
size of lettering, and so on, the basic vari- addition, white or open lettering appears

FlO. 120. Perceptibility and legibility depend upon lettering-background contrast.

152 Map Lettering
smaller than black lettering of the same raphy for a listing of books treating these
size (see Fig. 121). Consequently, if, for subjects.
example, all names on oceans are to be The most important aspect for the be-
white, it may be necessary to increase their ginner to appreciate is that lettering free-
size slightly in order to bring them in bal- hand requires planning. The planning in-
ance with the other lettering. cludes, in addition to selecting the kind
of letter (Gothic or Roman, slant or up-
right) and its sizes, the placing on the copy
of guide lines which will aid in placing the
letters and in making them conform to size.
Guide lines may be drawn with a straight-
edge or a curve, but guide lines are better
drawn with any of a number of patented
devices designed for this purpose, such as
the Ames lettering instrument or the Multi
and Braddock-Rowe lettering angles.
These devices have small holes in which a
Kennerley-an upright Classic pencil point may be inserted. The device
may then be moved along a drawing edge
Krnne-rley in the Italic f01'm by moving the pencil. By placing the pen-
Monsen Medium Gothic-upright
cil in other holes, parallel lines may be

Flo. 121.
Monsen Medium Gothic Italic
Reverse lettering appears slightly smaller
than its opposite of the same size.
13ao Ee Ef t
125 Freehand Lettering
The most versatile of all the forms of let-
tering is the freehand. With this method
names may be inserted, oriented, and scaled
as to size precisely as desired. Type and
mechanical lettering have not been devised
particularly for map use, and although
they are relatively rapid and under many
circumstances the desirable expedient, the FlO. 122. Guide lines.
best lettering for maps is the freehand;
and well-designed lettering is as important drawn. Guide lines usually consist of three
to the quality of a map as any other ele- parallel lines as shown in Fig. 122. The
ment of design. bottom two determine the height of the
The learnin of freehand lettering re- lower-case letters. As a rule of thumb for
quires familia 'ty with and an ai>ility to the beginner, the spacing relationship be-
use the basic tools. It also requires a tween the lines should be one-third/ two-
knowledge of the principles of letter for- thirds, with the larger space at the bottom.
mation and design. These elements re- This is by no means a general rule, for the
quire a much more thorough treatment relationship is quite variable and depends
than can be given in a book of this sort, upon the alphabet design. The upper
and the reader is referred to the bibliog- guide line indicates the height of the capi-
 Freehand Lettering 153
tals and the ascenders of such letters as
b, d, f, etc.
After the guide lines have been placed ,
SPACING
the lettering may be first drawn in lightly
with pencil, in order that spacing and posi-
tion problems may be solved. Spacing of
the letters is important, for with poor spac-
SR~a'Nt;
! I I I I I I I I I I
ing the words will appear ragged and un-
even. Since letters are not the same shape
the distance between them must be ad-
justed in order that the space will appear
MILES
to be the same. The beginner will soon
learn that there are different classes of
letters according to their regular or irregu-
lar appearance and according to whether
MfUtjS
I I I I I ! !
FlO. 123. Visua.l compared to mechanical spacing.
they are narrow, normal, or wide. They
must be separated differently depending
upon the combination in the word. Me- somewhat upon the pen and the paper, but
chanical spacing should be avoided (see obviously a sharp pen, such as a crow quill,
Fig. 123 ). cannot be moved 'l:lP against the paper, for
In order for the lettering pen or other it will dig into the surface and then spat-
tool to make the letter properly the letter ter. In general, strokes should be down or
should be stroked correctly. This depends to the side (see Fig. 124) .

'le
2_ L.

A 'lBI' '10 'E 'IF

'G 'lHl' '~ j 'K 'IL
;4

'1M' 'IN' 0 'P tQ 'f1

S T 'u' 'V \,ttl X
Y Z: FlO .
.J

124. Stroking the letters properly.

154 Map Lettering

FIa. 125. The Leroy scriber and one template. Courtesy Keuft'el and EMer Company.

TEMPLATE PEN NO.

NO . 00 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7N 8N

80 ABC
100 ABC D
120 ABC 0 £
140 ABC 0 E F
175 ABC 0 E F 8
200 ABC 0 E F GH
240 GH
ABC D E F
290 ABCDE FGHK
350 ABCDE FGHKL
425 ABCD EFGHKL
500 ABCDEFGHK_
FIG. 126. Sample of Leroy lettering. Courtesy Keuffel and Ellser Company.
 Mechanical Lettering 155
The greatest difficulty for the beginner Leroy is the patented name of a lettering
to overcome is his probable mental attitude system involving templates, a scriber, and
toward freehand lettering, for the chances special Leroy pens (see Fig. 125). A dif-
are that he will approach the operation ferent template is necessary for each size
with trembling, which will be reflected in lettering. The template is moved along
his lettering. He no doubt feels that the the T ~square, and the scriber traces the
"pressure is on" when he puts ink to paper, depressed letters of the template and re-
and he is likely to complain that he can do produces them with the pen beyond the
much better with pencil. He probably can
-because he is more relaxed. Smooth,
easy lettering with a loose hand is not dif-
ficult' if the beginner will give himself a
chance. As soon as he has mastered the
basic stroking, he is ready to go on to letter
design. Good design and good spacing are
far more important than precise execution.

126 Mechanical ~ettering

Mechanical lettering devices of several
kinds are available for the person who
cannot letter freehand acceptably and es-
pecially for the cartographic shop where a
variety of draftsmen are employed and
where uniformity is desired. These devices
are a relatively expensive crutch for the
person unwilling to learn freehand letter-
ing. With their use acceptable, clean-cut
FlO. 127. Varigraph lettering instrument. The
appearing maps may be lettered, but it dials are for adjusting the height and width of the
should be emphasized that the lettering letter. Courtesy The Va.rigraph Company, Madi-
produced by these devices app ars, for the son, Wise.
most part, mechanical and gives one the
impression of looking at a building blue- template. Spacing is usually done by eye.
print. Some of the complexities of good (See Fig. 126.) A variety of letter weights
map lettering have been detailed in previ- and sizes in capitals and lower case are
ous articles, and it is not to be expected possible by interchanging templates and
that any mechanical device can approach pens. In addition, templates with geolog-
their attainment without the expenditure ical and mathematical symbols ar-e avail-
of considerably more time and money than able. The normal template of the Leroy
would be involved in doing the same thing is a simple Sans Serif or Gothic, but ex-
freehand. Nevertheless, mechanical letter- tended, condensed and outline forms are
ing devices have a place in cartography for also available. A template carrying Chel-
the production of utility graphs, charts, tenham letters has been added :to those
and maps. available.
The best-known devices require a spe- Varigraph is the patented name of a let-
cial pen, feeding through a small tube, tering device also involving a template with
while the pen is guided either mechanically depressed letters and a stylus (see Fig.
or by hand with the aid of a template. 127). The device is actually a sort of
156 Map Let tering

FlO. 128. Sample of Varigraph lettering (Cartographic Roman) showing a few of the possible
variations from a single template.

1 " , , . -. ,. . ~. . .

FIG. 129. Wrico lettering guide. Courtesy Wood-Regan Instrument Company, Nutley, N. J.

small, adjustable pantograph which fits

over a template. The letters are traced
from the template and are scribed with a
pen at the other end of the pantograph-like
assembly. Adjustments may be made to
make large or small, extended or condensed
lettering from a single template. Tem-
plates of a variety of letter styles are avail-
able ranging from a simple Gothic to a
Sans Serif, and from a Cartographic Ro-
man (see Fig. 128) to Old English Text.
Wrico is the patented name of a letter-
ing system involving perforated templates
or guides and special pens (see Figs. 129,
130, and 131) . The lettering guides are
placed directly over the area to be lettered
and are moved back and forth to form the
various parts of a letter. The pen is held
NEEDLE
in the hand and is moved around the stencil PLUNGER
cut in the guide. The guide is held above
the paper surface to prevent smearing. A
considerable variety of letter forms are
possible including condensed and extended.
A different guide is necessary for each size,
although width of line may be varied by
changing the pen size.
Another method of applying lettering
to the map mechanically is by means of an
imprinter. This is a small form of a typog- POINT fERRULE
rapher's composing stick in which type
FIG. 130. Wrieo lettering pen. The "point" is
may be placed and locked in position. It hollow for the ink feed. Courtesy Wood-Regan
is then inked and pressed in place on the Instrument Company.
 Preprinted Lettering 157

FIG. 131. Wrico pen and guide in operation. Courtesy Wood-Regan Instrument Company.

map. The type must then be cleaned and apart and applied separately to fit curves.
disttibuted before another name can be If the position first selected for the name
a1Jplied. Curved lettering is, of course, dif- is not suitable, the name may be relocated
ficult to apply. The use of an imprinter is with no attendant problem of erasing.
relatively slow compared to other methods. One disadvantage of stick-up is that, at
Essentially the same technique was for- present, it is necessary to use type faces
merly used in the wax-engraving process, originally designed for printing books.
where the names were pressed in wax which Such type faces have not been designed for
was then electroplated and used as the any position except horizontal , neither
printing plate. The lettering on wax-en- have they been designed for any reduction.
graved maps appears more mechanical than When such type is put in a curved position
any other type of lettering, partly because it is not so well designed as is good free-
of the poor letter forms and partly be- hand lettering. Each font (one type face)
cause of the tendency to overcrowd. contains letters of different sizes, and each
size has been designed separately for use
127 Preprinted Lettering at that size. Consequently, when used on
During the past ten or fifteen years a maps planned for reduction there is a tend-
new technique of map lettering has become ency for. the lettering to appear somewhat
widely used. Known as stick-up lettering, light, since 18-point lettering reduced one-
this technique utilizes preprinte9 letters half has thinner strokes than the 9-point
on some medium that Can be made to ad- size of the same font. It is generally neces-
here to the map. Stick-up lettering has sary, when using stick-up lettering, to
a number of advantages over other methods choose a somewhat larger point size than
of lettering which require the use of ink would ordinarily be warranted.
on the copy. Any of the thousands of type The preprinting may be done on a vari-
sty~es and sizes used in printing can be ety of surfaces, depending upon the print-
selected. The letters may be used as com- er's materials, such as gummed stock re-
posed in a straight unit, or they may be cut quiring only wetting, or thin tissue which
158 Map Lettering
can be' "flo~ted" into place with a thin ad- slight curves without cutting apart; and
hesive 'or solvent, or Cellophane with an all have a wax backing. The same sort of
adhesive on the back. The last system material is available also in black ink on
combines the advantages of transparent a white backing, which automatically
backing and easy changing. The foremost masks the area around the letters, or in
commercial production of this kind of let- white ink for use over solid black to pro-
tering for map use is by Monsen-Chicago, vide open or reverse lettering.
Inc., which uses the same technique that In use, stick-up lettering is merely cut
is used for Zip-a-tone, wax-backed Cello- from the printed sheet with a sharp, thin
phane. Their Trans-Adhesive impressions knife or needle and placed in position (see
are available on glossy acetate, matte-fin- Fig. 132). It is then burnished tight, if
ish acetate, and flexible film (Vinylite) for wax-backed, or floated on with adhesive

FIo. 132. Preparing copy for the name plate of a map. Note the uee of preprinted symbole
in the lower portion of the illustration. Courtesy Rand McNally and Company.
 Positioning the Lettering 159
solvent. There are several other types of Names of features such as countries,
stick-up used in cartography employing mountain ranges, or oceans are usually
photographic techniques, but most of these spread so that the name includes the entire
are used exclusively by agencies or organi- feature; but even if spread, the letters must
zations owning the devices. However, in be placed in a curve or line so that each
any stick-up procedure the technique IS letter follows the last normally. The let-
basically the same, preprinted lettering. ters also must be evenly spaced. This re-
quires considerable planning in order to fit
128 Positioning the Lettering the individual letters in proper position
The manner in which the lettering is without interfering with other lettering or
placed on the map in relation to the other lines on the map.
map data is an important part of the let- Names of rivers should "run" with the
tering technique. The map usually has a streams if possible. River names are nor-
grid or pattern of lines on it, and an in- mally not spread apart as are names of
congruous appearance can easily result if countries, but they should follow the curves
the orientation of the basic lettering pat- of the adjacent portion of the stream. It
tern is not carefully determined. For ex- is a good practice to curve them in a fash-
ample, the projection grid may create one ion concave ' to the streams, so that the
pattern, and if the lettering pattern is set upper portions of the letters are closer to-
at an angle the entire map may appear gether. The upper part of lower-case let-
unstable. ters have more clues to letter form than the
Generally, the convention in cartography lower. _
is to place the lettering parallel to the Names of lakes, islands, swamps, penin-
parallels, which requires curving the letter- sulas, and other relatively small features
ing on many projections. This is difficult should be placed so that they are either
to do with lettering devices. The problem contained entirely within the feature or
may be lessened by indicating the grid only are entirely outside it. This is especially
on the water, which carries few names, or necessary when the color or tint of the fea-
by indicating the grid only as t icks near ture is different from its surroundings.
the border, and then placing the lettering Titles and legend lettering should be
balanced around a center line and posi-
horizontally. If the grid is necessary to
tioned carefully. This may be most easily
the map purpose, then these expedients
done by first planning each line on a sep-
cannot be used. A particular problem is
arate strip of paper and then shifting their
created by the "polar" and oblique forms position on the map until the correct ad-
of projections now so common. If the justment is obtained. If tracing paper or
lettering is placed parallel to the parallels other translucent material is used~ the
consistently, then that lettering at the side shifting may be done beneath the paper
will be standing vertically; and if the let- and the final position traced on the work-
tering is oriented with north at the top, it sheet or fair drawing.
will be upside down in the upper portion N ames of cities and other point locations
of the map. One method of preventing should be placed to one side or the other
such predicaments is to change the orien- of the symbol, and placed slightly above
tation of the lettering at the horizontal or below it. If put in line with the sym-
grid line, so that it can be read with no bol, the symbol and lettering may inter-
more than a quarter turn of the head. fere with one another.
160 Map Lettering
129 Geographical Names determination of how a name t hat exists in
The cartographer frequently finds that its original form in a non-Latin alphabet
the selection of styles and the application shall be rendered in the Latin alphabet.
of the lettering is not nearly so knotty a Various systems of transliteration from one
problem as is the selection of the proper alphabet to another have been devised by
or appropriate spelling ,of the names he experts, and the agencies have published
wishes to use. For example, does one name the approved systems. The Board on Geo-
an important river in Europe Donau (Ger- graphic Names has published numerous bul-
man and Austrian), Duna (Hungarian) , letins of place-name decisions and guides
Dunav (Yugoslavian and Bulgarian) , recommending treatment and sources of in-
Dunarea (Rumanian), or does one spell it formation for many foreign areas. These
Danube, a form not used by any country are available upon application. It is well
through which it flows! Is it Florence or for the cartographer to acquire, or at least
Firenze, Rome or Roma, Wien or Vienna , to have available, such bulletins for he is
Thessalonike or Thessoloniki, or Salonika frequently required to make decisions on
or Saloniki, or any of a number of other matters of transliteration. Even more fre-
variants? The problem is made even more quently he will find himself using map
difficult by the fact that names change be- sources that contain other alphabets, char-
cause official languages change or because acters, and ideographs.
internal administrative changes occur. The general rule is to use the conven-
The problem of spelling is difficult indeed. tional English form whenever such exists.
The problem is of sufficient moment that Thus, Finland (instead of Suomi ) and
governments that produce many maps have Danube River would be preferred. Names
established agencies whose sole job it is to of places and features in countries using
formulate policy and to specify the spell- the Latin alphabet may, of course, be used
in their local official form if the purpose
ing to be used for names on maps and in
of the map makes such treatment desir-
official documents. Such are the British
able or if there is no conventional English
Permanent Committee on Geographical
form.
Names (PCGN) and the United States The problem is much too complex to be
Board on Geographical Names (BGN) of treated in any detail in this book, but it is
the Department of the Interior. The ma- well for the student to be aware of it. His
jority of such governmental agencies con- main worry, as a student, will be that of
cern themselves only with domestic prob- consistency in whatever general system he
lems, but the two named above include the chooses. Above all, he must not let him-
spelling of all geographical names as part self fall into toponymic blunders by plac-
of their function. . ing on maps such names as the Rio Grande
One of the maj or tasks of such an River, the Sahara Desert, or the Sierra
agency (and of every cartographer) is the Nevada Mountains.
 9
Symbolization and
Distribution Maps

130 The Map as a Symbol fective story in the limited space avail-
The entire map is a symbol, as well as its able. In ' a sense, the symbolism of small-
parts, and it is not quite correct to desig- scale cartography has become standardized
nate only certain components as symbols. over the years, but the great possibilities
A coastline is actually a line of equal value of variation have, however, effectively pre-
(a contour), and has no existence at all, vented any rigid standardization, although
being but an imaginary line between water in the case of large-scale maps standardi-
and land. Similarly, everything, from the zation is more nearly al'proached. The
lines used to represent the imaginary earth cartographer who works with small-scale
graticule to the marks employed to repre- maps must of necessity be critical and
sent base or specialized data, cannot be imaginative, and adjust the representation
shown as it actually is but must be sym- and symbolism to the special purpose of
bolized . This is one of the major ways in his map.
which a map differs from an air photo- Standardization of symbols can and must
graph. The data on a map are selected be accomplished for a set of maps at a
and symbolized in order to tell a story, given scale, such as a topographic set, but
to make clear one or a series of relation- such standardization is likely to be useful
ships. A photograph of a portion of the
only at that scale and in that combination.
earth is a record, unsymbolized and un-
Special maps, such as those of the geog-
selected, of what is "seen" by the camera.
One of the major duties of the cartog- rapher or other social scientist, vary so .
rapher, then, is to understand the relations widely in ter~s of scale and purpose that
among symbols, their relative effectiveness, a large part of the cartographer's job is
and their relative suitability for the pur- concerned with the effectiveness of the
pose for which the map is being ' con- symbols he selects or designs. In the bal-
structed. ance of this chapter the various kinds of
The symbolism of cartography has de- symbols appropriate to represent facts
veloped over the centuries; consequently, other than base data are discussed, along
traditions and conventions regarding sym- with some of the fundamental principles
bolism have gained general acceptance. underlying their use. Needless to say, all
Symbols constitute a kind of code by which their possible variations or opportunities
the cartographer can present the most ef- of employment cannot be touched upon
161
162 Symbolization and Distribution Maps

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Quantity indicated by

UNIFORM ..... :....:....... ::~..

...~\t,. ..-•.~... :
.
• TOWN dots ··~/.·::.::~·-W.·:.:: . .. :
VARIABLE
(/)
....J
0
CO
:e
®

i:)
. CAPITAL

CEMETERY

LIGHTHOUSE
One dimensional
bars

>-

~::~~e~QI_ 0 _:c: _0_Q

(/) 8.M.
..... X BENCH MARK ~
Z c::
<
(5 ~ SHAFT
a...
~

ffi
MINE
HOSPITAL ,:: d;~~;t' ~
T __ ., 19
IMAGINARY
~ parallels and
o
CO I meridians
political
:e _ . _._ . _ boundaries
>-
(/)
WIDTH EXAGGERATED
W
Z
::::; _=_:::::1-==-_ road
stream

:L-:: _-*-.:JIL..
->it.. -.:.II:..-->it.. SWAMP
.JIt..- ..>11:.-

en
>-2:
1Xl~

~£
z:-
~I
POLITICAL UNITS 0%
1Xl0
%

FIG. 133. Illustrative outline of point, line, and area symbols. Modified from John K. Wright
by permission of The Geographical Review, published by the American Geographical Society
of New York.
 The Dot 163
here. The reader is advised to examine eties may represent any phenomenon hav-
closely the nume:rous examples of distri- ing territorial extent or simply location.
bution maps appearing in books, periodi- A dot may represent a city; a triangle, a
cals, and newspapers in order to acquire a triangulation station; a circle, the popula-
broader understanding of the manifold util- tion of a ' city or the production of an in-
ity of cartographic symbolism. dustrial plant. The variations and uses are
legion. Thus, a point symbol may repre-
131 Kinds of Symbols sent either simply kind as in the case of a
Map symbols may be separated into capital city or both kind and amount as in
two major categories, qualitative and the ease of a circle representing the popu-
quantitative, according to whether they lation of a city. The point symbol is not
represent kinds of phenomena, on the one adaptable to showing directly a ratio or
hand, or aIPount as well as kind, on the relationship.
other. Within each of those two major Representation of kind by point sym-
divisions the range of possible symbols bols merely requires that the symbol de-
falls into three subcategories, namely, sign be characteristic enough to be seen
point, line, and area symbols. Within each and understood by the map reader.
of these subcategories there are possible Representation of amount by a point
variations. The range is iilustrated by symbol may be accomplished either by re-
representative examples in Fig. 133. Their peating a uniform symbol, so that the ag-
characteristics and maj or utility will be gregate number represents a total, or by
separately considered in the following ar- varying the size (area or apparent volume)
ticles. of each symbol in proportion to the amount
Almost as important as the inherent at each location.
qualities of a symbol is its design, for, as
has often been stated (but less often 133 The Dot
heeded) , the map symbol that cannot be The simplest of all maps using point
seen or read is wasted and is but a useless symbols is the one wherein the data are
encumbrance. The appearance of a visual presented by varying numbers of uniform
item may be varied by size, shape, and dots, each representing the same amount.
color contrasts. Dots may be large or It is possible, of course, to substitute little
small, regular or irregular, dark or light or drawings of men, or sheep, or cows (or
colored. Lines may vary similarly. As whatever is being represented) for the
was pointed out in Chapter 7, contrast of simple dot. This generally reduces the
any of these qualities or combinations of amount of detail which may be presented,
them is the key to visibility. The possi- but it is sometimes desirable for rough dis-
bilities of variation are large indeed, and tributions or for maps for children. This
the cartographer would do well to exercise kind of map, called a dot map, is a great
his ingenuity and experiment with possi- favorite among geographers, because, given
bilites before settling upon anyone design the data, it is capable of showing more
or kind of symbol. clearly than any other type of map the de-
tails of location of many phenomena. It
132 Point Symbols provides a visual impression of relative
Point symbols such as dots, circles, density, easily comprehended by the
spheres, cubes, or any of the other vari- reader, but it does not provide him with
 164 Symbolization and Distribution Maps

FIG. 134. A dot map in which the dots are too FIG. 135. A dot map in which the dots are too
small so that an unrevealing map is produced. large so that an excessively "heavy" map is pro-
One dot represents 40 acres. duced. An erroneous impression of excessive po-
tato production is given. The same data and
number of dots are used as in Fig. 134.

FIG. 136. A dot map in which the unit value of FIG. 137. A dot map in which the unit value of
the dot is too large so that too few dots result; a the dot is too small so that too many dots result;
barren map revealing little pattern is produced. an excessively detailed map is produced. The
Each dot in this example represents 150 acres. dots are the same size as those in Fig. 136. Each
dot in this example represents 15 acres.
 The Size and Value of the Dot 165
any absolute figures. Theoretically, it dot) are inseparable. The total number
would be possible to count the dots and of dots should neither be so large that the
then multiply the number by the unit value map gives a greater impression of accuracy
of each dot to arrive at a total, but in prac- than is warranted nor should the total be
tice it is almost never done. so small that the distribution lacks any
A second advantage is the relative ease pattern or character. These unfortunate
with which such maps may be made. No possibilities are illustrated in Figs. 136 and
computation is ordinarily necessary beyond 137.
that of determining the number of dots
required, which merely necessitates divid-
ing the totals for each civil division by the
number decided upon as the unit value of
each dot.
Dot maps ordinarily show ·only one kind
of data, for example, population or acres of
cultivated land , but by using different-col-
ored dots or different-shaped point sym-
bols it is sometimes possible to include two
different distributions on the same map.
Of course, if there is no mixing of two
types of data they both may be shown on
the same map.

134 The Size and V alue of the Dot

If the visual impression conveyed by a
dot map is to be realistic the size of the
dot and the unit value assigned must be FIG. 138. A dot map in which the dot size and
carefully chosen. The five dot maps dot value have been more wisely chosen than in
shown here have been prepared from the the preceding examples. Each dot in this example
same data; only the size or number of dots represents 40 acres.
used has been changed. The maps show
potato acreage in Wisconsin in 1947. The selection of unit value and size of
If the dots are too small, as in Fig. 134, dots should be made so that in the denser
then the distribution will appear sparse and areas (of a dense distribution) the dots
insignificant, and patterns will not be vis- will just coalesce to form a dark area. Fig-
ible. If the dots are too large, then they ure 138 is constructed from the same data
will coalesce too much in the darker areas, as the preceding examples in this article
as in Fig. 135, and give an overall impres- but with a dot size and unit value m~re
sion of excessive density that is equally wisely chosen. Of course, if the distribu-
erroneous. It appears in Fig. 135 that tion is a sparse one even in the relatively
there is little room for anything else in the dense areas, as would be the case (to use
region. an extreme example) with areas of market-
Equally important is the selection of the able saw timber in South Dakota, then
unit value of the dot. As a matter of fact even the relatively dense areas should not
the two problems (size and value of the appear dark.
166 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
Professor J. Ross Mackay has developed The cartographer should remember that
an ingenious graph to assist in determin- the visual relationships of black to white
ing the desirable dot size and unit value. * ratios and the complications introduced by
. This graph, shown in Fig. 139, requires a the pattern of dots make it difficult, if not
knowledge of the sizes of dots that can be impossible, for a dot map to be visually
made by various kinds of pens. This in- perfect. The best approach is by experi-
formation is presented in Table 13. By ment after narrowing the choices by use
varying the relation between dot diameter of the graph.
and unit value, the cartographer can choose 13ts Locating the Dots
the relationship that will best present the
Theoretically the ideal dot map would
picture of the actual distribution.
be one with a large enough scale and with
the data sufficiently well known so that
TABLE 13. DOT DIAMETERS OF VARIOUS PENS. each single unit could be precisely located.
Dot diameter This is the case with large-scale topo-
Pen (line width) graphic maps which show each house or
Pen type number in inches each mine. They are the most accurate of
Barch-Payzant 8 0.012 dot maps. Ordinarily, however, it is de-
7 .018
6 .025 sired that the map be of a small enough
5 .036 scale so that a larger area can be shown,
4 .046 in order to indicate more clearly the pat-
3 .059 tern of distribution. Sometimes, if the
2 .073
1 .086 data are sparse enough, a unit value of one
(e.g., paper mills) can still be used on a
Leroy 00 .013
o .017 small-scale map and come close to present-
1 .021 ing a true picture. If, however, it is neces-
2 .026 sary to make the unit value of the dot
3 .035 greater than one, the problem then arises
4 .043
5 .055 of locating the one point symbol that rep-
6 . 067 resents several differently located units .
7 .083 It is helpful to consider the several units
Wrico 7 .018 to be represented as having a kind of cen-
7A .018 ter-ol-gravity, and then to place the sym-
6 .025
6A .025 bol as nearly as possible at that point. ' For
5 .027 example, an area of uneven distribution
5A .027 will have more dots in the dense and less
4 .036 in the sparse region, although all the car-
4A .036
3 .048 tographer knows from the original data is
3A .048 the total number of dots to place in the
2 .062 area. Consequently he must draw upon
2A .062
every available source of information to
Note: see' Fig. 64 for width sizes of Pelican- assist him in placing the dots as accurately
Graph08 nibs. as possible. Such aids as topographic
• J. Ross Mackay, "Dotting the Dot Map," maps, other distribution maps which he
SurtJeJ,linq and Mapping, 1949, Vol. 9, pp. 3-10. knows correlate well with the one being
 The Graduated Circle 167

~
~ ~ ~ I .f
/ / / / I II , , /; I I I I I / / /
DIAMETER OF DOTS IN INCHES
f3
::r
(.)

~ .7
"""
ca::
c(
:::>
~ .6
~

...0
~
ca::
c(
.4
w
~~ .3

""
c(

.2

.1

0
0

FlO. 139. Graph showing relation between dot size and dot density. Any relationship between
numbers of dots and diameters of dots that falls in or beyond the "zone of coalescing dots"
will produce dots on top of one another. Courtesy J. Ross Mackay and Surveying and
Mapping.

prepared, soil maps, climatic maps, and of a city, or (2) for representing aggregate
many others, as well as a good knowledge amounts for relatively large territories.
of the area being mapped, are indispensable. Repres~ntation is accomplished by vary-
A dot map in which the dots are evenly ing the size of the circle so that the area
spread over the unit areas, although nu- covered by the circle is in each case pro-
merically correct, could better use some portional to the amount represented. Since
other symbol than dots. the area of a circle is 1r1'2, and sin?e 1r is
constant, the method of construction is to
186 The Graduated Circle extract the square roots of the data and
The graduated dot or circle (or squa~e) then construct the circles with radii pro-
is used for presenting amounts when totals portional to the square roots. The unit of
are of more interest than details of loca- measure applied to the square roots may
tion. Thus, they are useful (1) when the be any desirable unit, such as tenths or
units represented are close together but are hundredths of an inch, and should be se-
large in number, such as in the population lected so that the largest circle will not be
168 Symbolization and Distribution Maps

to •• •• 40 10

M 1\,"

FIG. 140. Area available for crops by counties. The unit radius is too small.

to 10 10 .
40 10

MIL"

FIG. 141. Same data as Fig. 140 but the unit radius is too large.

too large, and the smallest, not too small. would be obtained by selecting a unit that
As long as the same unit is used for all would provide each county with a circle
circles, their areas will be proportional. more nearly the actual scale area of culti-
For example, Figs. 140 and 141 show vated land. Actual size is not often desir-
the area of land available for crops in some able, however, for if this were done rec-
counties. When too small a unit radius is tangular areas, largely cultivated, would
chosen, then the circles are too small to require circles which would spill over the
show much, as is illustrated in Fig. 140. boundaries.
Also, the impression is given that there is
practically no cultivated land in those 137 The Pie Chart
counties. When too large a unit radius is More than one kind of data can bEr shown
chosen, then the circles are too large. with the same graduated circle by making
Again, the representation does not reveal it into a pie chart. Thus, to use the illus-
much, and the impression is given that tration of cultivated land in a county, any
practically all the land is cultivated, as in part of the cultivated-land total may be
Fig. 141. A more reasonable presentation shown by segmenting the circle in the man-
 The Graduated Volume Symbol 169
ner in which a pie is cut. Any relation of and 143 show the total amount of farm
a part to the whole can be shown visually land in each county and at the same time
by the pie chart. For example, Figs. 142 show what percentage of that total is avail-
able for crops. The procedure merely re-
quires that the percentage be determined
and that, then, by using a "percentage pro-
t ractor" the various values be marked off
on each circle.
A "percentage protractor" may be con-
structed by drawing a circle and then sub-
dividing the circumference according to
percentage in the desired detail with divid-
ers. A small hole at the center will make
it possible to place the center of the pro-
tractor over the center of each graduated
circle. The appropriate per cent can be
marked off at the periphery.
It is important that the subdivision of
each circle begin at the same point; other-
wise, the reader will have difficulty in com-
paring the values. Also important is the
FlO. 142. Land in farms and per cent available
selection of the portion to be shaded or
for crops in Wisconsin by counties. The circle colored. As is illustrated in Figs. 142 and
represents the land in farms . The per cent avail- 143, this can have considerable influence
able for crops has been blacked in on each circle. on the effect gained by the reader.

138 The Graduated Volume Symbol

Occasionally the cartographer is faced
with a range of data that is so large that
he cannot effectively show both ends of
the range by graduated circles. If he
makes the circles large enough to be dif-
ferentiated clearly in the lower end of the
scale, then those at the upper end will be
too large. A solution, if the data must be
presented on a map is to symbolize the
data with apparent volume rather than
area. This is done by making a compa-
rable dimension of each proportional to the
cube roots of the data, in the manner in
which the two-dimensional graduated cir-
cles were made proportional to the square
roots.
FlO. 143. Same data as in Fig. 142, but in this
One kind of device used occasionally is
map the per cent not available for crops has been
blacked in on ea.ch circle. the sphere-like symbol. An illustration of
170 Symbolization and Distribution Maps

POPULAnON MAP
of

OHIO
1920
GUY·KAROW SMl11i

CITIES AND VILLAGES

• 200-1.000 •
• LOOO-~O

(I ~ooo 000.000
• ~ooo
. - £&000

. I5QOOO

_ "00. 0
00

FIG. 144. Use of apparent three-dimensional symbols. From Population Map of Ohio by
Guy-Harold Smith. Note that the legend has been relocated for purposes of illustration .
Courtesy of Guy-Harold Smith and The Geographical Review, published by the Ameri~
Geographical Society of New York.

its use is shown in Fig. 144. Another type sified by good execution and design. This
of graduated volume symbol is the cube or tends to offset somewhat the danger of the
the block pile, developed by Erwin Raisz, reader misinterpreting the relationship of
illustrated by Fig. 145. Volume symbols, these volumetric symbols.
being prepared so that their apparent val-
ues are proportional to the cube roots of 139 Line Symbols
the data, have the effect of actually lessen- There are many kinds of line symbols.
ing the plane area of the large symbols on The most familiar are those that are quali-
the map. This, of course, is what makes tative in nature, that is to say, those that
it possible to map a larger range of data show a kind of feature, such as a river or a
by this method. It has the marked disad- road. Although such line symbols are
vantage, however, that the smaller values fundamentally alike in that they represent
cover a relatively larger map area, so that the qualitative nattire of the feature with-
this portion of the data is magnified some- out ordinarily indicating any quantitative
what, unless the reader takes care to ap- value, they may be used for many kinds of
preciate the volume aspect. Three-dimen- purposes. For example, a line may rep-
sional symbols such as sphere-like and resent a road and show exactly where it
cube-like symbols may be very graphic, lies on a topographic map, whereas at a
especially if the visual impression is inten- smaller scale it may be drawn merely to
 Line Symbols 171

r', 5ca/~ ~ 2 milHon do//."

"i\ "-"-' \"' ,,-"', .. ., . . ..
' ''_ /

\
I
\
\
\
- -}
"
I
I

,i'" -
,
....... .i
\
i
,
1

FlO. 145. Another form of three-dimensional symbols, called block piles, developed by Erwin
Raisz. From a map by E . Raisz, taken from Mining and MetaUuTg1l, AIME, March, 1941.
172 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
show that two places are connected by a Considerable confusion has obtained re-
road. Another line, for example a bound- garding the terminology of these kinds of
ary,' may be used merely to separate unlike quantitative lines, and they are variously
areas. Thus, a line can be used qualita- called isorithm, isarithm, isopleth, and so
tively to join things, a line along which on, in the literature. The . simplest sys-
there is some constant quality; or it may tematic terminology has been suggested by
be used to separate things, a line along J. K. Wright who proposes the following
which there is no constant quality. outline:
Another kind of line is one along which
Isoline, any line along which there is a
there is some constant quantitative value
constant value (sometimes called isogram).
such as a line of constant compass declina-
tion. There are many kinds of such quan- 1. Isometric line, a line of actual con-
titative lines, and they are extremely useful stant value, e.g., elevation above ea
cartographic symbols. Because the value level.
along them is assumed to be constant the 2. Isopleth, a line of assumed constant
prefix "iso" (equal) commonly precedes value, e.g., population per square mile.
the term for the particular kind of value,
These terms will be employed in this book.
e.g., isobar, equal barometric pressure.
Isometric lines are common in cartog-
Still another kind of line is one along
raphy. The best-known example is the
which a specified quantitative value
contour (isohypse or hypsometric line ), all
changes. Such lines are used to show
points of which are, at least theoretically,
movement and variable amount, separately
the same elevation above some datum.
or in combination. Traffic flow or com-
Such a line can truly be located, and, as
modity flow between areas is frequently
a matter of fact, some contour lines have
represente<;I in this fashion. An a1TOW
been accurately surveyed level lines. Most
alone may represent nothing but move-
of them, however, have been located by
ment; but a line of varying width may
simple linear interpolation and estimation.
show differences in capacity, without show-
Nevertheless, such a line and all those like
ing any movement, such as roadbed load
it (isotherm, isobath, isogone, etc.) show
limits. As a matter of fact, the tapering
~ctual values capable of existing at points,
line of a river on a map is actually a flow
and thus, by connecting points of equal
line, although it is usually thought of as
value, along lines.
being a qualitative rather than a quantita-
Isopleths, equally common in cartog-
tive symbol.
,raphy, show concepts that cannot actually
As is true of all symbols, differentiation
among the various kinds of lines depends exist at points and thus cannot exist pre-
upon contrasts of size, shape, and color. cisely along lines. For example, a density
of population may be 50 persons per square
140 The Isoline or Isogram mile for a specified area. Such a value
Isolines are lines of constant width along cannot exist at a point, and the choice of
which there is either (1) an actual or (2) locating a line connecting "points" of equal
an assumed constant value. It is necessary density becomes a matter of interpreta-
for the cartographer and the map reader to tion, rather than of fact as in the case of
understand fully the nature of each, be- isometric lines.
cause quite different concepts (and accu- Isopleths can be used to represent sev-
racy) underlie their employment. eral types of ratios and proportions. These
 The Isoline Interval 173
are discussed in Article ]45.* Each of the upper or lower portion of the range. This
two types of lines requires a different ap- may be to the advantage of the map, as in
proach to the problem of their location and the case of high mountains bordering an
particularly to the selection of the intervals intensively utilized alluvial fringe, when
to be shown by the lines. In some cases both appear on the same map.
the cartographer is interested in presenting
the actual fact conveyed by his figures at
points, whereas in others he is concerned
with presenting the areal change from place
to place.

141 The Isoline Interval

Probably the most important problem
the cartographer must face in using iso- PER fARM
1941
lines is the choice of the interval between 1 3 7 I~

the lines actually drawn. Theoretically, , .h,::t(iiii[

of course, an infinite number of lines is pos-
sible; in practice, a selection must be
made.
In the case of isometric lines, such as
contours, there is in fact a value at every
point on the map, and there is no limit to
the interval which may be chosen. It
may be as small as desirable. There is,
however, the matter of accuracy which acts e 12 14 l!i
as a brake against choosing too small an . ,[ H>,',\
interval. Small intervals and numerous
lines may give an impression of accuracy FlG. 146. These two maps have been prepared
from the same ratios but employ different isopleth
not warranted by the spread of the data. intervals. The intervals in the top map increase
On the other hand, large interval may not in steps of I, Z, 4, and 8, whereas those in the
how sufficient detail. The cartographer bottom map increase in the reverse order, 8, 4, 2,
must analyze the data and the purpose of and 1. The result is to provide detail and accen-
tuate differences at the lower end of the sca.le in
the map, and select his interval accord- the top map and to reverse this rela.tionship in
ingly. the bottom map . Redrawn from Mackay, cour-
Isometric lines, by their nature, are tesy of Economic Geography .
closed lines in the sense of a contour line,
and shapes and form can be easily shown Isopleths present a somewhat different
by them. A constant interval that does not problem. Since the concept is such that
change throughout the entire range is' usu- every point does not have a precise value,
ally desirable. If the intervals decrease the selection of the interval is considerably
or increase, detail is emphasized in the more significant than it is with isometric
lines. Figure 146 is an example of the
• The student is referred to the excellent dis- variations that can result when different
cussion of this and other problems of isopleth
mapping in J . Ross Mackay, "Some Problems
intervals are chosen.
and Techniques in Isopleth Mapping," Economic On most maps containing isometric lines,
Geography, 1951, Vol. 27, pp. 1-9. one line is just as significant as any other.
174 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
In the case of isopleth mapping, however, some sort of regularity of progression ap-
it is frequently desirable to select lines and pears, at this writing, to be desirable. Be-
intervals which have some significance, fore isopleth intervals and line values are
either in themselves or in the areas they chosen, it is imperative that some experi-
delimit. It is also desirable to select the menting and testing be done on the map
interval in such a way that few isolated to see if the desired picture is presented.
spots result on the map. A frequency It is apparent from the above that a
graph, such as that illustrated in Fig. 147, high degree of professional integrity, as
in which the number of occurrences of each well as skill, is required of the cartog-
rapher who works with isopleths.

142 Locating the Isoline

8 Locating an isometric line is a matter of
simple linear interpolation between known
~6 values or control points, combined with
i=
%
::>
judgment of probable position under the
~ ~~
0
'-' circumstances, An isometric line is capable
::;4
IX IJ ~ l I~ llJ~ of having only one accurate position, and
....
n the cartographer's task is to come as close
., 'I
ID

~
,,'IIJ I'
:::E
U
~2 to that position as is possible in the par-
l ticular instance.
r~~ This is not the case with isopleths, for
0
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
BARLEY, BUSHELS PER ACRE they are not capable of having a single
position; their location is a matter of inter-
FlO. 147. An example of a frequency graph , The
pretation. The values upon which iso-
illustration is for barley production per acre per
county in 1947 in Wisconsin, pleths are based are ratios, percentages, or
proportions which are derived from two
ratio value is plotted on the vertical axis sets of data based on civil divisions, other
against the ratios on the horizontal axis, units of area, or portions thereof. The re-
may be an aid to selecting class intervals. sulting values, upon which the locations of
Generally, the low points on such a graph the lines depend, refer to the whole areal
are the most desirable, since they come unit employed, and each is "spread," so to
speak, oyer the entire area of the unit.
closer to satisfying the conditions men-
Therefore, unlike intrinsic values, there
tiop.ed above.
can be no points at which the values used
Although there is no theoretical limit to
in plotting the isopleths exist. Neverthe-
the number of intervals and their method
less, the lines must be located somewhere
of progression, there is a practical limit. and upon some basis. In order to do this,
If the interval or progression is confusing, control points are assumed, Two basic
the map will not serve its purpose. The elements of interpretation thus exist. One
most easily understood interval is a regu- involyes the location of the control points
lar one (20, 40, 60, etc.; or 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, between which interpolation is made, and
etc.), but the values . are frequently mean- the other is the choice of which pair8 of
ingless as regards the data from which control points are used when the isopleth
they are chosen. A compromise between value falls between a pair above and a
the results of the frequency graph ami pair below the selected value.
 Locating the Isoline 175
When the distribution is unifonn over an The four diagrams of statistical divisions
area of regular shape the control point may show possible locations of the center-of-
be chosen as the center. If the distribution gravity and center-ai-area for uniform and
variable distributions, with rural popula-
RURAL POPULATION tion used as an example.· They serve to
EVEN DISTRIBUTION illustrate the problem of locating the con-
trol point in regularly and irregularly
shaped divisions. In A, which is rectangu-
lar, the center-of-gravity and center-of-
area would, of course, coincide at the inter-
ection of the diagonals. Because the dis-
tribution is even, the centers in B also co-
B incide, but they lie outside the irregularly
UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION shaped area at some point that is more rep-
resentative of the whole division than any
point within it. The distributions are un-
.. even in C and D , so the center-of-gravity
o is displaced away from the center-of-area.
In each case, however, the center-of-grav-
ity is probably the most accurate location
c o for the control point.
OCtNT[,, - or -,., "EA Figure 149 illustrates the second problem
of locating isopleths, that of choosing be-
FlO. 148. Placing control points. From Mackay,
courtesy of Economic Geography.
tween pairs of control points when the one
pair provides a value above and the other
is known to be uneven the control point is a value below the chosen isopleth value.
shifted toward the concentration. Figure • Center-ol-area may be considered as the bal-
148 illustrates the concept.· ance point of the area without the distribution
taken into account, whereas the center-of-gravity
• The following discussion is based largely on takes into account any unevenness of the distri-
Mackay, op. cit. bution.

A B c
o 5
....
·· · .··~
..
I .... ..
....

FIo. 149. The problem of selecting pairs of control points to use in interpolation. See Article
142 for explanation. From Mackay, courtesy of Economic Geography.
176 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
The nine control numbers in diagram A trates the differences that can result when
have been chosen so that certain pairs of this problem is handled in two different
control numbers are above 5 and others are ways. Wherever a number could be con-
below 5. When the value of a number sidered as either above or below 10, it was
intermediate between four control points is chosen as below 10 in the top map and
being interpolated, it may be considered above 10 in the bottom map. In this par-
ticular example, supplementary informa-
tion gained by studying rural population
changes in the preceding and following dec-
ades would probably have provided a fairly
accurate basis for accepting or rejecting
the values.
In order to locate the isopleths as ac-
curately as is possible, considering their
limitations, it is necessary, just as when
making dot maps, for the cartographer to
draw upon all his knowledge of the area
and upon all the aids available. A thor-
ough knowledge of the character of the dis-
tribution being mapped is, of course, in-
dispensable.

143 Flow Lines

Flow lines are lines, usually of variable
width, showing movement along the route
of the line or between the terminal points
V::i/;::j Over 10 percent
connected by the line. The width of the
, .. ' decreo ••
line is usually proportional (linear) to the
FIG. 150. Two maps of rural population change number represented at each point. Figure
in Ontario. The problem illustrated in Fig. 149 151 is an example of a flow-line map.
is shown by two practical examples in these two Lines can increase or decrease in width
m&ps which have been prep&red from the same
census dat&.. See Article 142 for explan&tion. Re-
as values are added or subtracted. There
drawn from Mackay, courtesy of Economic Ge- are many types of flow maps, differing from
o(lraph'll. one another in the manner in which the
movement is shown. Actual movement
as above or below 5, depending upon the along the route may be represented, or, as
pairs of control points used in determining in origin and destination maps, the termi-
its value. Diagram B has been drawn on nal points may simply be connected. Ar-
the assumption that the values of the rowheads are often used to show the direc-
numbers lying between control points are tion of movement, although the varying
below 5, and diagram C with the numbers thickness and angle with which "tribu-
above 5. Since in this case there is no sup- taries" enter frequently show flow ade-
plementary information which may be used quately. Tributaries should, of course,
in making a choice, the matter is not capa- enter smoothly in order to enhance the
ble of solution. Diagram B is just as ac- visual concept of movement. In some in-
curate as diagram C. Figure 150 illus- stances the range of the data is so large
 Area Symbols 177

FlO. 151. A portion of a map using one form of simple flow lines. Map, prepared in the
Office of Econo91ic Warfare, howing coal exports of United States, United Kingdom, and
Union of South Africa in 1944. Widths of lines are not in proportion to amounts; numbers
show thousands of metric tons.

that a unit width value capable of allow- grass for marshes, patterns to show vege-
ing differentiation among the small lines tation, soil , or terrain types, and a host of
would render the large ones much too large. others. They differentiate kind, and each
It is, consequently, sometimes necessary to symbol used should be sufficiently varied
symbolize the smaller lines in some way, from the others so that no confusion can
such as by dots ar dashes. Volume flow result. Many qualitative symbols have
lines are also possible. Numbers may be become conventional through long' use.
placed alongside the lines to convey more Quantitative area symbols are employed
exact information. to convey data in two ways. Either they
may consist of the application of some col-
144 Area Symbols oring or shading to make the positions of
Area symbols, like line and point sym- isolines clearer, as in the case of the famil-
bols, may be used to represent either qual- iar relief map, or they may be used to sym-
itative or quantitative data. Qualitative bolize different values in areas the bound-
area symbols are those such as simulated aries of which have no actual numerical
178 Symbolization and Distribution Maps

FIG. 152. Three ways of using area symbols. A hypothetical distribution. See Article 144
for explanation. Note the unconscious application, by the reader, of greater value to the
darker areas.

value. Figure 152 shows the results of required, parallel lines must occasionally
three different ways of using area symbols be utilized. They should be surrounded by
to show amount. Map A is a shaded iso- other kinds of patterns as often as possible.
pleth map. Map B is a map whereon the Qualitative area symbolization should be
shading has been applied to the statistical accomplished by variation in pattern,
unit used in compilation. It is obvious that whereas quantitative variation should util-
the boundaries of the shading have no sig- ize value changes. The range from dark
nificance beyond showing the units used. to light automatically gives the impres-
The third map, C, uses lines simply to sep- sion of varying amount, with the darker
arate areas containing similar values. In standing for the greater. amount. The vis-
this map, although the lines have no con- ual values selected for categories on a map
stant numerical value, they do represent of graded intensities are extremely impor-
zones of change. tant. The same map with the same data
There is a wide range of prepared area may be made to appear quite different by
symbols available, and the ultimate range changing the spread of values, as is illus-
is limited only by the imagination of the trated in Fig. 153. The range appears
cartographer. Basically, area symbols much greater in map B than in map A.
may vary either in terms of pattern (lines, The general tendency is for one to as-
dots, etc.) or in terms of value, that is to sume that, within any gradation, black is
say, their relative darkness or lightness. "complete" and white is "empty." Con-
Parallel lines tend to cause the viewer to sequently, the positions on the value scale
have disturbing eye movements, as was should be chosen to bear a reasonable rela-
illustrated in Article 113, and it is generally tion to the spread of the data. If the visual
good practice to use parallel lines spar- range is great the reader cannot help but
ingly. Dot patterns are more stable and infer a great data range.
differentiate areas more clearly. Natur- The eye cannot accommodate much more
ally, when a large number of patterns is than six or eight steps from black to white,
 Distribution Maps 179

FIG. 153. The same data are used in maps A and B but symbolized with different spreads of
visual values. A hypothetical distribution.

out in Article 112. Consequently, if the

grading requires that the value steps be
too close together on the gray scale, the
cartographer may introduce numbers or
patterns to aid in differentiation, as is illus-
trated in Fig. 154.

145 Distribution Maps

In a gerferal sense, any map is a distri-
bution map, for it is impossible to present
relative location without showing distribu-
tion. Nevertheless, a large group of maps
containing point, line, or area symbols are
commonly termed distribution maps, in
contrast to atlas maps, topographic maps,
historical maps, and the other categories in
the commonly employed, loose, and over-
lapping classification of kinds of maps.
FIG. 154. Pattern aids when values are too close Many distribution maps employ statistical
together. A hypothetical distribution. data; but distributions may be nonnumeri-
cal in the statistical sense, so it would not
and even in this limited range consider- be proper to call them statistical maps.
able confusion can result from the juxta- These are the kinds of maps that show, for
position of different values, as was pointed example, areas predominantly inhabited by
180 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
Moslems or the distribution of important keep from doing this the cartographer is
fishing grounds. often forced to invent symbols such as
Maps showing quantitative distributions dashed lines or patterns of question marks,
are one of the cartographer's stock in trade. which may detract from the appearance of
They are capable of surprising variety and the map but which will serve the more im-
can be used to present almost any kind of portant purpose of preventing the map
data. Few maps can be made that do not reader from falling into the common trap
in some way present quantitative informa- of "believing everything he sees."
tion, even if the amounts involved result The examples of kinds of distribution
from so simple an operation as grading the maps in the balance of this chapter by no
symbols for cities of different size for an
means complete the list, for the number
atlas map. Column after column of num-
of possibilities of combination and presen-
bers in tables frequently are excessively
tation are almost infinite. Included, how-
forbidding, and the statistical map often
can present the same material in a more ever, are the major types of presentation
understandable and interesting manner. commonly used by geographers and other
Tabular materials of various kinds, rang- social scientists. For the purpose of con-
ing from a federal census to reports of com- sidering some of their characteristics and
missions (e.g., Interstate Commerce) and some aspects of their preparation, they
from the reports of industrial concerns to may be divided in two classes. In one
the results of one's own tabulation, exist in group we may put those maps that treat
staggering variety. With such a wealth of one or more classes of data which are ex-
material, it is to be expected that the car- pressed on the map in absolute or intrinsic
tographer finds a large percentage of his terms. The information presented by this
effort is devoted to preparing this type of type of map may be either quantitative or
map. qualitative such as numbers of people or
It is necessary for the student to have predominant races. Many combinations
well in mind that figures can lie, carto- are possible, and two or more kinds of data
graphically at least, if they are not prop- may be presented at once; but in no case
erly presented. Hasty evaluation of data, are the data expressed as a relationship,
or the selection of data to support conclu- except by visual implication.
sions unwarranted in the first place, results In the other group we may put those
in intellectually questionable maps. Their maps that show related values (e.g., ratios,
production is vicious for they may be, and averages, proportions, etc.) and on which
unfortunately sometimes are, used by their the mapped values are derived from some
authors or others to support the very con- sort of comparison of two kinds of data.
clusions from which they were drawn in There are three kinds of relationships, the
the first place. The exhortation, occasion- characteristics of which are presented in
ally implied or stated in this book, "to Table 14.* Most of these kinds of maps
make the map tell the story desired by present information that results from sim-
the author" is not contradictory to the pre- ple calculation, in which one element of the
ceding. The question is a matter of integ- data is a dividend and the other a divisor.
rity. Another great danger is that of pro- • Adapted from Mackay, "Some Problems and
viding an impression of precision greater Techniques in Isopleth Mapping," Economic
than can be justified by the facts. To Geography, 1951, Vol. 27, pp. 1-9.
 Processing Data 181
TABLE 14. EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF MAPPABLE RELATlONSHlPS.

Calculation
Mapped values characteristics Example
A. General ratios, 75,000 acres in farms .
Dividend and divisor = average SIze farm of
averages, yields, different 750 farms
etc.
100 acres

75,000 bushel~ of corn = 'eld of 30 bushels

2,500 acres 1ll corn YI
of corn per acre

B. Density 5,000 persons .

Dividend and divisor dif- '1 = denSity of 50 persons per
ferent. Divisor is total 100 square m] es
or significant part of the square mile
area of the statistical di-
vision 5,000 persons _ d 't f
· ted Ian d -
50 square mil es cuI tlva ensl y a
100 persons per square mile of cultivated
land

C. Proportions 1. Dividend and divisor in 1 4,000 beef cattle _ .. f 2 1

. 2000 d .
(percentages)
same units , airy cattIe - propOltlOn 0 to
of beef cattle over dairy cattle

2. Dividend a portion of 2. 4,000 beef cattle X 100 = 66rc f

the divisor 6,000 cattle (all kinds) 0 0

cattle are beef cattle

146 Processing Data the ystem of presentation that has been
The basic approach to processing data 'elected.
for statistical maps is by way of the kinds When data are obtained from a yariety
of symbols or techniques that may prop- of sources it usually is necessary to equate
erly be used to convey the information. them so that they provide comparable
The range of symbols was di cussed in the values. For example, different countries
preceding portion of this chapter, and it is u e different units of measure such as long
tons or short tons, U.S. gallons or Imperial
only necessary here to reiterate the fact
gallons, hectares or acres, and so on. Fre-
that the cartographer has a wide choice
quently the 'Llnits must be further equated
indeed. Consequently, his first action,
to bring them into strict conformity.' If,
after selecting or preparing the map base, for example, one were preparing a Ulap of
is to decide upon the mode of presentation. fuel reserves, it would not be sufficient only
He must decide if it is to be a static (all to change the tonnage units to comparable
the data as of one period or place) or a values, but it would also be necessary to
dynamic (change of time or place) map, bring the tonnage figures into conformity
and he must select the symbolism (point, on the basis of their BTU rating. It is also
line, or area), or combination). The next frequently necessary to process the statis-
step is to process the crude statistics in tics so that unwanted aspects are removed.
such fashion that they become usable for A simple illustration is provided by the
182 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
mechanics of preparing a density map of each temperature value to its sea-level
rural population (persons per square mile) equivalent.
bOased on county data. The populations After the statistical data have been made
and areas of minor civil divisions and the comparable the next step is to convert them
totals for counties may be available. If to mappable data. This may, of course,
that is the situation, the areas and popula- not be necessary for many maps such as
tions of incorporated divisions must be sub- the isothermal map referred to above, be-
tracted from the county totals. Another cause in that case the data need merely be
illustration is provided by the well-known plotted and isolines drawn. On the other
regional isothermal map. If the relation- hand, ratios" per acre yields, densities, per-
ships between temperatures, latitudes, air centages, and indices must be calculated
masses, etc., are desired the effects of eleva- before plotting. Some kinds of symbols,
tion must be removed from the reported such as graduated circles or spheres, re-
figures. This involves ascertaining the alti- quire determination of square roots or cube
tudes of each station and the reduction of roots. Many of these operations may be

ACR.ES DIAL POP"

1000 - - - - - - - -- - - -7 ( 100
90
80
70

80

5.0

40

30

20

10

FlO. 155. A nomograph for calculating population density per square mile from acres and
population. Logarithmic paper is used. On the one margin is plotted area in ClCrea, the
plotting being done on a strip of logarithmic graph paper pasted upside down 80 that the
smaller quantity appears at the top. On the opposite margin is plotted popu.lation, with the
smallest quantity at the bottom. Halfway between these scales and parallel to them is pasted
the dial, a strip of two-cycle logarithmic paper that is labeled and scaled (beginning at the
bottom) to indicate demitll per 8quare mile. To determine how far up the sheet to paste
this dial, a thread is stretched between 6,400 on the area Bcale and 100 on the population
scale. As an area of 6,400 acres (10 square miles) with 100 people would have a density of
10 people per square mile, the middle strip should be adjusted so that the thread crosses it
at 10. Calculations can then be made by merely stretching the thread between a point on
the area scale and one on the population scale, the point where the thread crosses the dial
being the density per square mile. From Alexander and Zahorchak, courtesy The Geo-
graphical Review, published by the American Geographical Society of New York.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Distribution Maps 183
most efficiently handled by various kinds mile. Figure 155 illustrates a nomograph
of calculating aids. of this type. Another type is used to de-
Perhaps the most useful aid for this pur- rive plotting values from data such as are
pose is the slide rule. Quite acceptable ac- shown in Fig. 156.
curacy can be attained with the slide rule, Figure 139 in Article 134 is a more com-
and percentages, ratios, division, and mul- plex kind of nomograph. Practically any
tiplication can be computed almost as fast kind of calculation involving variables can
be set up on 'a nomograph, and the stu-
./ dent may refer to any standard work on
3 nomography for ideas.
'/
~ 147 Qualitative and Quantitative
V Distribution Maps
V One of the major tasks of the cartog-
V rapher is to select ways of presenting quali-
----
_"..
2 tative data. The types of data he may
".-
/ :."",..
need to present run a long gamut, from
/ ./
V V ""'" such qualitative facts as religions, domi-
nant livelihoods, or racial characteristics
~ V' to settlement forms, vegetation characteris-
1 I' tics, or dominant agricultural practices.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 These maps present kinds of things but do
FIG. 156. A nomograph to provide plotting val-
not show amount.
ues. The nomograph is constructed to show the Qualitative maps generally utilize area
square or cube roots of the plotting range on the symbols, and are distinguished by present-
horizontal axis. Of course, the range may extend ing the cartographer with a problem for
to any limit. The vertical scale is determined by which there is no easy solution. When the
the actual drawing scale. Thus, all that is neces-
di tribution of qualities is map) ed in its
ary is to place the compass on the graph at the
appropriate point on the horizontal scale and set entirety, it i immediately evident that
it at the line of square or cube roots. qualitative areas are generally not mu-
tually exclusive. Consequently, the car-
as the cartographer can read the figures. tographer is forced to devise a means of
The manipulation of the slide rule for these showing overlap. This may be done in a
purposes can be learned in a short time. number of ways, a suggested in Fig. 157,
quare roots and cube roots can al 0 be none of which i suited to all circumstances.
derived from the slide rule, or can be deter- If the map is a color map it is possible to
mined from mathematical tables such as choo e colors that give the impression of
those in Appendix B. mixture. For example, a red and a blue
If a large number of calculations. in- when superposed appear purple, and that
volves the same kinds of units on a variable color looks like a mixture. On the other
cale, it is frequently a saving of time to hand, a color produced by mixing red and
prepare a nomograph. Nomographs should green does not look like a mixture of its
be reserved for calculations involving two components.
or more variables, as, for example, when The selection of area symbols for quali-
data are (1) population and (2) acres, and tative maps poses the problem, common to
the desired result is persons per square all qualitative distribution maps, of sym-
184 Symbolization and Distribution Maps

INTERDIGITATION OVERLAP OF SYMBOLS AREA OF MIXTURE SYMBOLIZED

FIG. 157. Methods of showing mixture and overlap.

bolizing without much value contrast. As

was pointed out earlier, clarity and visibil-
ity are the result of contrast, and, of the
various kinds of contrast, value (degree of
darkness) is probably the most important.
Value changes are, however, inappropriate
on a qualitative map because of the univer-
sal tendency to assign quantitative mean-
ing to value differences. Thus a darker
area symbol looks more "important" to the
map reader. Of course, such emphasis
could be used to advantage, if the cartog-
rapher were desirous of drawing attention
to one or more of the various qualitative
elements he is mapping. The use of color
complicates the problem even further.
Quantitative information may be com-
bined with the qualitative to present details
of distribution. This may be accomplished
in two ways: (1) by showing ratios or a
proportion of the whole and (2) by sym-
bolizing totals and showing percentages FlO . 158. Quantitative-qualitative population map
thereof. Figure 158 shows the ratio be- showing the percentage of "Indians" to total pop-
tween two components. It should be noted ulation of Peru by provinces. E:ourtesy The
Geographical Review, published by the American
that the presentation gives no indication Geographical Society of New York.
of the total numbers involved. The total
amount may be included in the presenta- circle is subdivided to show the relative
tion by using pie charts in which the area amount of each component of the total.
of the circle represents the total, and each Such a map is illustrated in Fig. 142.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Distribution Maps 185
D istribution maps are limited in the de- tails, and the level of quality and COlll-
tail they can convey by the size of the pletenes depends upon the ability of the
areal units for which data are available. cartographer to bring all the pertinent evi-
There is no question that, in the large dence to bear on the problem of where to
majority of instances, qualitative and put the dots.
quantitative changes rarely coincide with Considerable detail can be introduced in
administrative districts, but it is often the map if the map is made on the basis of
necessary to use their boundaries as lines the smallest civil divisions and then
of change on maps. If more nearly correct greatly reduced. Placing the dots with
impressions of distribution are desirable the reference to minor civil divisions can be
dot map may be employed. This type of easily done by using tracing paper, cloth,
map is useful for showing distribution de- or plastic for the map and putting under

FARMS
NUMIIER

1949

J D OT ' 10 FA.RMS

WISCONSI N

FIG. 159. An undesirable pattern on a dot map. See text for explanation. Courtesy Wis-
consin Crop Reporting Service.
186 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
it a map of the minor civil divisions as a 159 and 160 were made in the same office
guide. Only the larger administrative and pre ent nearly the same dot distribu-
units need then be shown on the map. tions. Figure 159 was prepared by a rela-
Care must be exercised so as not to leave tively inexperienced cartographer who
the guiding boundary areas blank, for they placed the dots a bit too evenly within the
will show up markedly in the final map as the minor civil divisions. An undesirable
white lines. Care must also be taken that overall pattern of regularity resulted. Fig-
the dotting does not inadvertently produce ure 160 was made by a more experienced
lines and clusters of dots that do not occur cartographer who, by Illooking ahead,"
in actuality. Such regularity can easily placed the dots in the minor civil divisions
occur and is quite noticeable by contrast so that a more desirable, smoother pattern
to its amorphous surroundings. Figures resulted.

MILK COWS
NU MBER
1949

L.EGEND
I DOT -1 00 HEAD

WISCONSIN

Flo. 160. Nearly the same distribution as that shown on Fig. 159 but prepared by a more
experienced cartographer. See text for explanation. Courtesy Wisconsin Crop Reporting
Service.
 Qualitative and Quantitative Distribution Maps 187
The preparation of dot maps for distri- square kilometer. For example, the map-
butions wherein there are areas of extreme ping values for a population density map
concentration poses a difficult problem. are obtained by dividing the population by
The difficulty is frequently encountered the number of areal units in the civil divi-
when preparing population maps. Dot sions for which the data are available.
maps are easily constructed for rural popu- Such a map provides a detailed representa-
lations where an appropriate unit value tion from which specific values are avail-
and dot size have been chosen. It is more able. To proceed with the same example,
difficult to map total population, for in the relation of population to productive
urban areas with their large totals and area is frequently more important in pre-
small area the dots simply fall on top of dominately agricultural societies than is a
one another. One solution is to symbolize simple population to total area ratio. If
the city population with graduated circles, the data are available an interesting dis-
which may be lightly shaded or merely left tribution can be shown by relating popula-
a open circles. tion to cultivated land or to productive
The distribution of intrinsic or absolute area defined in some other way. Figure
numbers presented on dot maps is a par-
161 illustrates a map of this. kind.
ticularly useful device, not only because a
Other kinds of information can be de-
good visual impression of the distribution
rived from area and related to population.
and its pattern can be presented, but also
For example, one can easily compute the
because such maps can be useful as a step
in understanding correlations of distribu- average distance between spaced units. If
A is the area, and n the number of units
tion. The dot map lends itself well to the
superposition of other kinds of data, and in the area, and D is the average distance
between them, then
the areal relations between the two may be
quickly apparent on the map. The prep-
D = 1.0746VA -+- n
aration of dot maps of population or other
types of distributions and the placing jIl The values of D can be plotted and iso-
them of boundaries such as those indicat- pleths can be drawn, or area symbols can
ing soils or landforms may show up areal be u ed to differentiate the ·unit categories.
coincidences or correlations not previously Observation of supplementary data fre-
uspected. quently shows that one part of a unit area
Density maps differ from other distribu- has a higher density than another, yet
tion maps in that they show relative values, only the density for the whole area may
rather than absolute. The raw data are be available directly from the statistics.
made relative to the total area (or to a sig- John K Wright has presented a relatively
nificant part) of the divisions for which simple system for calculating the d~nsities
the distribution data are available: The of parts; his explanation follow: * ilAs_
pecific value that results is a kind of sume, for example, a township with a
density index, and it requires some mental known average den ity of 100 persons to
calculation on the part of the reader to ap- the square mile. Assume, further, that
preciate it.
• John K. Wright, "A Method of Mapping
The most common density map is that Densities of Population with Cape Cod as an
which shows the number of things per Examp) ," The Geographical R eview, 1936, Vol.
square mile, or some other unit such as 26, pp . 103-110.
188 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
Dens i ty orfOI baud
on civil divisions

0' '£ltSOIitS "(1, sou,,,e M'L[

CW CUL TIVAT£O LAND

"001
•• 0

:~ -!-••
l50 ._ ,':
250 "
//

FlO. 161. A "nutrition" map. Note the inclusion by the C&1'tographer of the helpful index
to the date of the information. Note also the unconventional orientation in order to con-
serve scale. Map by W. Zelinsky, courtesy of the Far Eastern Quarterly.

examination of topographic maps and con- m is 10 persons to the square mile, a density
sideration of other evidence have shown of 460 to the square mile must be as-
that this township may be divided into two signed to n in order that the estimated
parts, m, comprising 0.8 of the entire area densities m and n may be consistent with
of the township and having a relatively 100, the average density for the township
sparse population, and n, comprising the as a whole.
remaining 0.2 of the township and having liThe figure 460 for the density in n was
a relatively dense popUlation. If, then, we obtained by solving the following funda-
estimate that the density of popl:llation in mental equation:
 Qualitative and Quantitative Distribution Maps 189
D - (Dmam) population distribution prevailing over T 711,
- - - - - = D..
1 - am or part of one township, and over the whole
or of S, an adjacent township. It would be
100 - (10 X 0.8) reasonable, therefore, to assign to T m a
------=460
0.2 density comparable· with the average den-
sity in S.
where D is the average density of popu-
"Having assigned estimated but consist-
lation of the township as a whole, Dm the
ent densities to two parts [of an area J, one
estimated density in m, am the fraction of
may then divide each (or one) of these
the total area of the township comprised
parts into two subdivisions and work out
in m, 1 - am the fraction comprised in n,
and Dn the density that must accordingly densities for the latter in the same manner;
be assigned to n. and the process may be repeated within
"Dm and am are estimated approximately. each subdivision.
It is not necessary to measure am accu- "The method is merely an aid to con-
rately, since the margin of error in a rough sistency in apportioning estimated densi-
estimate is likely to be less than the margin ties, either of population or of other phe-
of error in the best possible estimate of D",. nomena, within the limits of ... territo-
"Study of neighboring townships some- rial units for whose subdivisions no statis-
times gives a clue to a value that may tical data are available. Obviously it
reasonably be assigned to D",. For ex- should not be applied in mapping densities
ample, the topographic map may show of population within counties in the United
what would appear to be similar types of States, since census figures are published

Approximate number
of persons per sq. mile

A"

FIG. 162. The left-hand map shows the density according to whole civil divisions, and the
ri,ht-hand map showB the refinement that can be developed by this system. Redrawn from
The Geographical Review, published by the American Geographical Society of New York.
190 Symbolization and Distribution Maps
for the townships and other minor civil either multiplication or division. Figure
divisions within the counties. On the other 162 show the refinement that can be made.
hand; it might well be applied in mapping The bounding lines of the area symbols on
various phenomena for which statistics are the right-hand map are neither civil bound-
available by counties but not by minor aries nor i ograms in the strict sen e. They
civil divisions." have been called dasymetric line and are
Table 38 in Appendix H enables one to u eful where the mapped data do not change
solve the fundamental equation without gradually.
 10
Representing the Te~rain

148 Representing the Terrain which the cartographer could base his
In the preceding chapter variou tech- drawings, land forms could not be well rep-
niques of ymbolism were discussed accord- resented. As oon as surveying did pro-
ing to the principles underlying their util- yide the basic infonuation, the repre enta-
ity. Another approach to the arne prob- tion of terrain became almost of primary
lem would be to consider separately the concern.
yariou categories of information com- There i something about the three-di-
monly pre ented on maps and then to dis- Illen ional surface that intrigues cartog-
cu the yarious technique by which each raphers, and set it a little apart from the
can be ymbolized. The difficulty with other symbolization technique. Fir t, it
such an approach is that there i consid- require a bit more skill. Moreover, it is a
erable similarity in the methods of repre- continuous phenomenon ; that 'is, all por-
senting such phenomena as population tions of the earth above the sea have a
data, agricultural data, manufacturing three-dimensional form, and as soon as the
data, and so on, which would necessarily land is represented all of it must be repre-
re ult in a grea.t deal of repetition. There sented, at least by implication. It is also
is, however, one category of geographical the one phenomenon the cartographer
data that is so different from the others work with that exists as an impression in
a to make it almost imperatiYe that it be the minds of most map reader , and the
treated eparately. This is the category reader is therefore relatively critical in hi
concerning the surface of the land . The approach to it repre entation on the map.
data in this category also Illay be l' pre- Becau e of it univer al spread, and be-
ented by point, line, or area symbol , or cause of the relatiye importance to man of
by combinations of them. minor land forms, the representation of
The representation of t he three dimen- terrain has also been a great problem to
ions of the earth's surface has always been the cartographer. If he show the ' surface
of pecial concern to cartographers,· but the in sufficient detail to satj fy the local ig-
earlie t map and even tho e of the Middl nificance of the land forms, then the prob-
Ages howed little of this probably because lem arise of how to present the other map
of the paucity of knowledge about land data. If he shows with relative thorough-
forms. To be sure, mountains were shown ne s the nonland-fonn data, which perhaps
as piles of crags, and ranges appeared a are more important to the purpose of the
"so many sugar loave "; but until preci e map, he may be reduced merely to sug-
surveying provided some foundations upon gesting the land surface, an expedient not
191
192 Representing the Terrain

FlO. 163. A portion of a modern topographic map. The terrain is emphasized by colored
shading which is overprinted on contours. The black halftone cannot do justice to the ex-
cellence of the original. Waldron Quadrangle, Arkansas, United States Geological Survey,
1949.
 Representing the Terrain 193

FIG. 164. Drawing land forms for a modern atlas. Drawn in black on a blue-line base plate,
the 8urface representation is printed in brown on the final map. Courtesy Rand McNally
and Company.

likely to please either the map maker or area beneath him, and the passenger has
the map reader. And, to make matters naturally become more interested than he
worse (or better, depending on how one formerly was in the general nature of that
looks at it), the development of aviation surface, for he may now see it. His height
has made the effective and precise repre- above it provides a reduction similar to
sentation of terrain a most important task. that of a map.
The pilot must be able to recognize the The story of the development 'Of land-
194 Representing the Terrain

FIG. 165. A much reduced portion of a modern wall map emphasizing surface . The detailed
terrain is derived from photographing a carefully made, three-dimensional model. The map
is reproduced by complex color printing analogous to process color. Map by Wenschow
(Germany), courtesy Denoyer-Geppert Company, Chicago, III.

form representation is a recital of the time is capable of exact measurement of

search for symbolizations suitable to a such elements of the land surface as slope,
variety of purposes and scales. On large- altitude, volume, and shape. The maj or
scale maps the desirable symbolization is problem arises from the fact that, gen-
one that appears natural and at the same erally speaking, the most effective visual
 The H istory of Representing the T errain 195
presentation is the least commensurable, larly wiII this probably be true of the ter-
whereas the most commensurable is the rain representation on special~purpose
least effective visually. One of the major maps, for each such map will be a new
decisions of every survey has been in what challenge.
manner to balance these opposing condi~
tions. Although it is somewhat early as 149 The History of Representing the
yet to judge, there is some indication that Terrain
advances in color printing have enabled the If we restrict the notion of the carto-
cartographer to reach a relatively effec~ graphic repre entation of the terrain to
tive combination, without undue sacrifice those undulations of some magnitude, we
of either desirable end. The new, shaded
relief, contour maps of the United States
Geological Survey are a case in point (see
Fig. 163).
Perhaps even more of a problem has
been that of depicting land forms on
smaller-scale maps. If we reserve for the OR
geographer and geomorphologist the spe~
cialized techniques of terrain appreciation ~~~~
and analysis, small-scale land-form repre-
~~~.A.
sentation is a major problem for atlas maps,
wall maps, and other general-purpose refer- ~~~~
ence maps, as well as for those special-pur-
pose maps in which regional terrain is an FJO. 166. Crude symbolization of hills and moun-
important element of the base data. The tains.
smaller scale requires considerable general-
ization of the land forms, which is no simple find that the first symbols were crude draw-
task, as well as the balancing of the surface ings of hills and mountains as they· might
representation with the other map data, so be seen from the side, such as those de-
picted in Fig. 166. This constituted a more
that neither one overshadows the other.
or less standard form until the latter part
(See Fig. 164.) No less a problem is the
of the eighteenth century (1799), when a
representation, in bolder strokes, of the
flow-line symbol, called the hachure, was
land forms for wall maps, so that such im- advocated by an Austrian army officer.
portant elements as major regional slopes, Each individual hachure is a line of vary-
elevations, or degrees of dissection are ing width that follows the direction of
clearly visible from a distance (see Fig. greatest slope. By varying the wjdths of
165). Practically every conceivable tech- the lines according to the steepness of the
nique, from brilliant coloring to the artists' slopes on which they lie, the steepness of
shading, has been tried. the rise may be indicated. When many of
For many years to come the representa- them are drawn close together, they collec-
tion of land forms will be an interesting tively show the slopes and "ups and downs"
and challenging problem, for it is unlikely of the surface. This turned out to be par~
that convention, tradition, or the paralysis ticularly useful on the then recently initi~
of standardization will take any great hold ated, large-scale, topographic military
on this aspect of cartography. Particu- maps; and, for nearly a century, the ha-
196 Representing the Terrain

.
,.,
~
_.

..... .0

FIG. 167. Genus hachure, species woolly worm. From an old Russian atlas.

chure was widely employed. Figures 173 ample of which is shown in Fig. 167. These
and 174 are examples of hachured maps. worms are not yet extinct, and they still
On small-scale maps or maps of poorly may occasionally be encountered.
known areas, hachuring degenerated into Another line symbol, the contour, had
the familiar "hairy caterpillars," an ex- been invented in the first half of the eight-
 The History 01 Representing the Terrain 197
eenth century (1730), before the advent of tween commensurability on the one hand
the hachure. A Dutchman named Cru- and visual effectiveness on the other was
quius, being called upon to represent the readily apparent. For the last several dec-
bottom configuration of the Merwede ades the problem has been one of how to
River, did so by using isolines of equal combine the techniques to achieve both
depth. Others, perhaps independently, ends. The newer topographic maps are the
seized upon the idea of representing dry- most effective yet produced.
land surface with a similar type of line The representation of the land surface
ymbol; but it was not until relatively late at large scales is concerned essentially with
in the nineteenth century that contours be- the three major elements of configuration,
came a common method of depicting the the slope, the height, and the shape of the
terrain on survey maps. One development, surface formed by elevations and angles.
which grew out of the use of contours on The various methods outlined above, and
large-scale maps, was their extreme gen- their combinations and derivatives, seem
eralization on small-scale maps, resulting to provide the answer, more or less, for the
in the familiar "relief map," together with problem at large scales; but the representa-
its layer coloring according to altitude, tion of land surface at smaller scales is
originally developed more than a century another matter. Here the generalization
ago (1842). The colors, of course, are area required is so great that only the higher
symbols between isolines. orders of elevation and slope may be pre-
After the development of lithography in sented by contours or hachures, whereas
the first half of the nineteenth century it detail, if shown, becomes so intricate that
became possible easily to produce continu- the map i u eful for little else. To be sure,
ous tonal variation or shading. It was not the exceptionally skillful cartographic
until after about 1870, however, that thi artist can apply shading or hachuring effec-
type of area symbol was utilized for the tively, but such skill is not easy to develop.
representation of the terrain, the hading As knowledge of the land surface of the
applied being a function of the lope. Not earth ha grown, so also has the need for
long after, color gradations were combined some method of presenting effectively that
with shading, and some truly "visual" maps surface at smaller scales.
of the land surface were forthcoming. The problem ha not been solved . There
Various techniques of shading and color- have been many attempts at solution, but,
ing were tried, but the general aim was to to the present, each has been found want-
achieve the impression on the flat map of ing. Layer coloring between selected and
an actual third dimension. Warm and cool generalized contours has been the tech-
colors (yellow-red as opposed to blue- nique most often employed, mainly be-
green) were combined with various kinds cause of its relative simplicity; but it leaves
of shadows, so that the visual effect· of the much to be desired. Character of surface
third dimension was most strikingly is presented only by implications of eleva-
achieved. tion; the generalized contours show little
By the beginning of the present century except regional elevations, which are not
the basic methods of presenting terrain on very significant; and the problems of color
large-scale topographic maps (contouring, gradation and multiple printing plates are
hachuring, and shading) had been discov- difficult. The larger the scale, of course,
ered, and the essential incompatibility be- ~he more efficient the system becomes.
198 Representing the Terrain
Hachure at small scales are likely to re- edge of land forms is sufficient to interpret
vert to the woolly wonn, and the shading them. In the former clas would fall the
technique, without expen ive multiple color interesting "orthographieal relief" and "re-
plate , tends to become little el e than a lief contour" work of Profe or Tanaka of
background color, which serves only to re- Japan. In the latter would fall the land-
duce the visibility of the oth r map data. fonn unit-area technique, the nonpictorial
In lieu of layering, hachuring, and had- morphographic technique, the average-
ing at mall scale, orne other technique lope technique, the relative-relief tech-
have been uggested and tried. One of nique, and so on. orne of the e techniques
the more common, and more effectiYe, de- will be considered below.
vices is that of drawing the terrain pictori-
ally, as. a kind of bird' -eye view. This 150 Contours
may be done a a black line drawing, or a Representation of the form of the land
a continuous tone line drawing on Ross by means of contours is the mo t commen-
or Coquille board, or it may be rendered surable system yet devi ed. A contour is
in wa h or crayon for halftone reproduc- an isometric line of equal eleyation above
tion. Figure 180 is an example of pictorial ea level, and the characteristics of con-
terrain. Many variations of technique tours a they lie on the land are not diffi-
have been employed invoh'ing combina- cult to vi ualize. It is well , howeyer, for
tion of layer coloring, hading, hadowing, the student to bear in mind one fact of
and pictorial repre entation . Excellent utmost significance, namely, that a contour
examples are the interesting perspectives map (and mo t other maps, for that mat-
of Richard Edes Rarri on that have ap- ter) as ume a vertical view at eyery por-
peared in Fortune magazine and elsewhere. tion of the map. That i to ay , the reader
The other systems of land-form repre- is directly above each point and is looking
sentation that have been tried or suggested down along a line perpendicular to the a -
.either require more effort and expense than sumed ea-level surface .
the results seem to warrant or they are so The assumed sea-level surface is called
complex and intellectually involved that the datum plane, which is the urface pro-
their use is limited to the professional geog- jected beneath the land of a particular
rapher and geomorphologist, who e knowl- earth spheroid. This surface i essentially

1- Reader's
1 1 1
--~----~----~--~--~--~--~----~----~
1 1 1 .J, view

Map
~ ~ ,f\ "..
\
\
\
\ '"\\ I
I
I
I _ System
\ \
\ \ I
I
I of projection
\
\ \ I
\ I Land surface

Spheroid
(datum)

FlO. 168. The building of U 'ontoul' map . The section outlined and designated as A is en-
larged in Fig. 169. The curvatures are, of course, greatly exaggerated .
 Contours 199
that which would be assumed by a world- datum. The system of projection flattens
wide ocean that was not modified by vari- them. Lines are drawn along the imagi-
ations in density and gravity.- It is ap- nary contact between the elevation planes
parent that the spheroid surface is not a and the land surface. Everywhere along
flat surface but is curved in every direction. each line the same elevation above the
It is the problem of the mapper to establish datum obtains. These lines are the con-
the horizontal position on, and the eleva- tour lines.
tion above, this surface of a large number Figure 170 is a pictorial view and a map
of points on the land. When enough posi- view of the same hypothetical land form
tions are known and the curved datum shown in section in Fig. 169. In a sense,
surface has been transformed into a plane the contours are the shorelines that would
surface by means of a projection system, result if sea level were to be raised by suc-
such as the polyconic, the ma.p may then cessive 20-foot intervals. This illustrates
be made. The map reader sees the repre- one especially important feature of con-
sented land surface orthographically. Fig- tours that is not necessarily true of other
ure 168 illustrates these important rela- isolines, namely, that all the land inside a
tionships. contour must be higher than the land out-
Figure 169 is an enlargement of a por- side it. In places where a depression exists
tion of Fig. 168 to show the system of rep- such as a kettle, sink, or crater, it is shown
resenting the land surface by means of iso- by a contour with small ticks on the inner
metric lines of equal elevation above sea side. This shows that the land inside that
level, i.e., the datum. The various eleva- particular line is lower than the land out-
tions above sea level may be considered as side it.
imaginary curved surfaces parallel to the Contours on a topographic map are re-
• This concept is an expedient, for it is now markably expressive symbols, if they have
well known that the surface that would be as- been correctly drawn and if the interval
sumed by a continuous ocean, with the present between t hem is relatively small. The
surface density and gravity differences retained,
would not be that of a spheroid. Rather, it would
most obvious expression is that of eleva-
have local undulations, and would instead be a tion. The elevation of all points on a map
geoid surface. It is the establishment of this may be determined within one-half the
surface that is one of the problems of geodesy. contour interval. For example, if t he in-
Although considerable is known about the nature
of the geoid surface in some parts of the world, terval between contours is 20 feet , and if
not enough is known for it to be used as a datum. any point not on a contour must necessarily

Elevation
above
sea level
in feet

FIG. 169. Surfaces of equal elevation above sea level, successively spaced, are the basis of
contour lines. The curved datum and elevational surfaces have here been made into true
planes as by means of projection and are seen in cross section.
 FIG. 170. Pictorial and map view o{ contours on the hypothetical island seen in profile in
Fig. 169. In the upper drawing the flattened elevational planes are shown cutting part way
through the island. In the lower drawing the traces of the intersections oC the planes with
the surface become contours. Note the depression contour.

DOWN
t-) ) )
I I I I
), ),
I I ~
DOWN
-»,T) ) )
I I
120
I I I I I I I I
100 I I I
I I
80
I I
60 I
40 I
20 I

DOWN

120
7,-
I
) )),)) DOWN
t- )) ) ~ )
I
I
100 I
80
60
40
20
0

FIG. 171. Some examples of characteristic contour patterns and the profiles of the shapes on
which they lie.
200
 Contours 201
be above the lower and below the higher interval must necessarily be large, and as
of the two contours between which it is lo- the interval is increased the amount of sur-
cated, then a point can be reckoned to the face detail lost between the contours be-
nearest 10 feet. One must, however, bear comes correspondingly greater. If, owing
in mind that not all contour maps are of
DOWN
the same order of accuracy. Before the
acceptance of the air photograph as a de-
vice from which to derive contours, the
lines were drawn in the field with the aid
of a scattering of tlspot heights" or eleva-
tions. Consequently, often they were by
no means precisely located.
The shapes of undulations of the land
surface are well indicated by the pattern 140 - -....
of spacing of the contours. Smooth, steep, 120
gentle, concave, convex, and other simple 100 --.~
shapes are all readily apparent on contour
maps as indicated in Fig. 171. Contours 60
40
always bend upstream when they lie 20
athwart a valley; they always bend down
slope when crossing a spur (see Fig. 172).
The angle of slope of the land is shown
by the spacing of the contours, and pro-
cedures have been worked out whereby
even the average slope of areas may be de-
termined from the spacings of the contours.
Profiles of the land along a traverse, or
along a road or railroad , can easily be con- 120----1
structed from a contour map by working 100 - - - I
backwards from the map (Fig 170) to the 8 0 - - - 1
profile (Fig. 169) . The recognition of top- 6 0 - - - 1
ographic forms, structural details, and even 4 0 - - - 1
20---1
rock types may often be derived from the 0 _ _-111"/
contour patterns on topographic maps. FIG. 172. Characteristic patterns of contours
Although contours do not present quite so crossing a valley or spur.
clear a visual picture of the surface as
does shading, the immense amount of infor- to lack of data or scale, the contour inter-
mation that may be obtained by careful val must be excessive, other methods of
and experienced interpretation makes the presentation, such as hachures or shading,
contour by far the most useful device for are likely to be preferable. In some cases,
presenting the land on topographic maps. lack of data results in form lines being em-
It is apparent that much of the utility ployed in place of contours. The e are dis-
of contours depends upon their spacing, continuous lines which, by their orienta-
and the choice of a contour interval is not tion, suggest shapes but from which pre-
an easy task. In areas of high relief the cise elevations are not to be rea.d.
202 Representing the Terrain

FlO. 173. A section of a hachured topographic map with vertical illumination. Austria-
Hungary, 1: 75,000.
 Shading 203
151 Hachures or in valleys, appear the same, and only
Hachures are not commensurable as con- streams or spot heights strategically placed
tours are, but for many purposes, espe- make it possible for the reader to tell them
cially at smaller scales, they provide a apart. Another difficulty of hachuring is
more readily visible picture of the land. that its effectiveness, when printed in one
The hachure is a line symbol drawn down color, is dependent in large degree upon
the slope, and it is varied in width or spac- the darkness of the ink. Thus, a consid-
ing with the slope of the land on which it erable problem is created, for as darker
lies. The steeper the surface, the darker inks are used to make the terrain more
the representation. The original form of effective the other map detail becomes cor-
hachures was based on the assumption of respondingly obscured.
'a light source directly over each portion It is interesting to note that precise,
of the map in line with the reader. As effective hachuring depends upon a consid-
the light shone upon the assumed three- erable knowledge of the terrain. In actual
dimensional land surface it would be re- practice, contours were often drawn on the
flected in the direction of origin (to the field sheets of a survey, and the final map
reader) in some proportion to the angle of was hachured in the office from the con-
the slope (see Fig. 173) . A number of dif- tours. Thus the original French survey
ferent slope-darkness relationships have for the 1: 80,000 map had contoured field
been u ed. For example, the originator. sheets but was published only in the ha-
Lehmann , established a system wherein chured form . In modern times hachures
any slope 45° or more would appear black have been little u ed on topographic maps.
on the map. They are still employed in smaller scales
The varying amounts of light and dark in atlases and on occasional special maps.
may be produced either by thickening lines,
as in the Lehmann system, or by decreas- 152 Shading
ing the spaces between lines of the same Shading is the representation of the land
thickness. Many different combinations surface by means of variations in light and
have been tried, but they all are based on dark. In the outline of symbolism pre",
the same general idea-a change of slope sented in the preceding chapter, shading
changes the amount of light reflected. occupies a place in the area-symbol cate-
Other variations have been incorporated gory. The variations of light and dark, as
in the system, such as having the light in a chiaroscuro drawing, are applied ac-
come from some angle other th.an vertical. cording to a number of different systems.
Oblique lighting produced a more realistic For example, the shading may vary accord-
picture, and some of the shaded hachure ing to th~ slope of the land as een from
maps produced in this fashion are remark- above, in a fashion similar to vertically
ably effective, as for example the Dufour lighted hachuring, or it may be applied ac-
map illustrated in Fig. 174. cording to the angles of light reflection
The major difficulty experienced with that might occur if the light source were
hachures is that, although slope is their at some particular angle. In its simplest
basis, it cannot practically be measured form, shading attempts to create the im-
from the map, regardless of the precision pression, appropriately exaggerated, one
underlying the representation. Flat areas, might gain from viewing a carefully lighted
whether they are on the tops of uplands model of the land, as is illustrated in Fig.
204 Representing the Terrain

FlO. 174. A section of the Dufour map of Switzerland in which obHquely Hghted hachure
shading is employed. Sheet 19, 1858, Switzerland, 1: 100,000.
 Shading 205

FlO. 175. A portion of a topographic model. Reproduction by halftone.

206 Representing the Terrain
175. Of course, the usual shaded map is or crayon; in any case it must be repro-
not quite the same as an area seen from duced by halftone, since it employs con-
above,' for the observer is, in theory, di- tinuous tone. (See Fig. 176.)
rectly above all parts of the map; there is The drawing or the photograph of the
no perspective. model may also be reproduced in color,
Not long after hachuring with vertical and various other effects are thus possible.
lighting was employed on topographic For example, several identical halftones
maps, it was discovered that a more realis- may be separated during the retouching
tic effect could be attained by varying the stage; portions of them may then be
line widths to give the effect of light com- printed in different colors, so as to achieve
ing from the side. The Dufour map of an effect of elevational layer tints, in ad-
Switzerland, started in 1833 and completed dition to the realistic terrain. The coloring
in 1866, and illustrated in the previous ar- need not conform strictly to elevational
ticle, is an outstanding example. This lines, but may be employed simply to dis-
method was followed in other surveys as tinguish lowlands from uplands in any par-
well. In such maps the graphic quality ticular region.
took precedence over the desire to indicate It is, of course, not necessary that the
precise slope, although attempts to combine vertically viewed terrain drawing be drawn
them were extensively investigated. in such a way that its reproduction re-
The versatility of lithography gave the quires the halftone process. The obliquely
cartographer of the nineteenth century a illuminated hachure map, exemplified by
medium previously lacking, and he was the Dufour lDap (Fig. 174) , is one example
quick to take advantage of it. Lithog- of the kind of copy that could be repro-
raphy allowed smoother and easier appli- duced by a line cut. Ros board and Co-
cation of shading with a crayon , which was quille board may also be employed to the
considerably faster than the tedious draw- same end. (ee Fig. 177.) The line-cut
ing of hachures, even if the hachures were method reduces the cost considerably, but
not graded precisely according to slope does not allow quite as much contrast or
categories. After the use of stone for lithog- detail.
raphy declined, the gradation of light and One of the problems facing the cartog-
dark (continuous tone) was accomplished rapher, when he plans to employ vertically
by halftoning. The "terrain plate" is usu- viewed shaded terrain, is the direction from
ally prepared separately and is half toned ; which the apparent illumination is to come.
the line work of the map is then either A curious and not completely understood
combined with it and printed as a combi- phenomenon is that under different direc-
nation line and halftone, with one press tional illumination, depressions and rises
plate, or it is printed separately, as two will appear reversed. Consequently, the
impressions with different inks. Continu- illumination direction must be chosen so
ous-tone drawing is generally decidedly that the proper effect will be obtained.
preferable to photographing a model when Generally, when the light comes from the
the reproduction is to be a monochrome, upper right, elevations appear "up" and de-
because much more contrast and sharper pressions, "down." In addition to pro-
detail can be attained in the drawing. The viding the correct impression of relief, the
continuous-tone monochrome drawing may direction of lighting is important in illumi-
be done in wash (painted with a brush), nating effectively the terrain being pre-
by airbrush, by carbon pencil, charcoal, sented. Many areas have a "grain" or
 Shading 207

FlO. 176. A chiaroscuro (light and shad ) drawing of a portion of the terrain of western North
America by Richard Edes Harrison. Reproduction by halftone. The terrain is vertically
viewed with the light source at the side. The white rivers were masked out with the dia-
positive of the drainage drawing. hading done with crayon on drawing paper.
208 Representing the Terrain

Che
[flying %rth
o 50 100 300
MILES

08 OTHER AIRFtEL-OS

gulf
ISO'

FlO. 177. A much reduced, vertically viewed terrain drawing, done with No. 60 Castell pencil
and India ink on Ro88 board; reproduction by line cut. The lighting is from an angle, but
the shading is also a function of elevation, III lowlands are systematically darkened. This is
a portion of one-half of a split drawing used ifor the end paper of a book. From The Flying
North, by Jean Potter, copyright 1947, courtesy The Macmillan Company, publishers.
 Shading 209
pattern of terrain alignment that would The late Max Eckert, one of Europe's fore-
not show effectively if the illumination most cartographers, attempted to use point
were from a direction parallel to it. For symbols in the hachure-slope manner.· By
example, a smooth ridge with a northwest- using more carefully controlled dot sizes
southeast trend would require the same il- gradeq according to slope, he hoped to
lumination on both sides, if the light were produce a map in which the amount of light
to come from the northwest. Finally, the that would be reflected from a vertical
cartographer must select the direction of source would be accurately represented.
lighting so that the items of significance The author also presented a suggestion
will not all be in the dark shadow areas. combining point symbols with the unit-
The utility of shading as a visual vehicle area technique in which the darkness was
for presenting land form has long been ap- a function of the average slope of uniform
preciated. It was to be expected that there
small areas.t
would be attempts to make it in some way
commensurable as well as visually effec- * Max Eckert, Die Kartenwissenschajt, Berlin
tive. The first such attempt was the ha- and Leipzig, 1921, Bd. 1, pp. 585-590.
t Arthur H. Robinson, "A Method for Produc-
chure. A number of other possibilities ing Shaded Relief from Areal Slope Data," Annals
have been suggested, but none of them have of the AS80ciation of American Geographers, 1946,
been tried beyond the experimental stage. Vol. 36, pp. 248-252.

FlO.178. An example of Professor Tanaka's illuminated conto~r meth.od. Courtesy of The

Geographical Review, published by the American Geographical Society of New York.
210 Representing the Terrain
Two interesting suggestions having to do includes those maps that show terrain by
with contours and profiles have been made means of pictorial symbols on a base map.
by Professor Tanaka of Japan.· His lat- The grouping is by no means a classifica-
est suggestion is to illuminate contours tion, for who is to say that terrain sketched
systematically so that they provide an im-
pression of shading with oblique illumina-
tion, as well as being commensurable.
Figure 178 is an example.

153 Pictorial Terrain

Almost as soon as maps were drawn, the
major terrain features were represented
pictorially in crude fashion. As artistic
abilities have increased and as knowledge
of the earth's surface has expanded, the
pictorial representation has become in-
creasingly effective. Within the past fifty
years this method of presenting the land
features has made great strides. One rea-
son for this has been the advent of the
airplane; the airplane has made us more
conscious of the appearance of terrain, and
the air photograph has provided a source
of information hitherto unavailable.
Pictorial terrain on maps ranges from
the schematic terrain commonly seen in
newspaper maps to the cientifically ac-
curate diagrammatic phy iographic, or
land-type, drawing; it may be line cut or
halftone ; and it may be monochrome or
multicolor. Whatever its use and its form,
pictorial terrain drawings may be grouped
FIG. 179. Sketches showing the difference between
in two general categories: (1) the perspec- the perspective-<:irawing type (at top) and the
tive drawing and (2) the pictorial map. pictorial-map type (at bottom).
This arbitrary grouping places in the
first category those drawings that essay on an orthographic or near orthographic
to show a portion of the earth, as seen from projection is not a map? Nevertheless, in
some distant point j the second category the first category terrain is shown more
• K. Tanaka, "The OrthographicaJ Relief realistically with more or less "true" per-
Method of Representing Hill Features on a Topo- spective, whereas in the second terrain is'
graphical Map," Geographical Journal, 1932, Vol. shown 'more diagrammatically and the per-
79, pp. 213-219; K. Tanaka, "The Relief Contour spective of the whole is not correct. The
Method of Representing Topography on Maps,"
The Geographical Review, 1950, Vol. 40, pp. 444- relationship between them is shown by
456. Fig. 179.
 Pictorial Terrain 211

FIG. 180. A much reduced worksheet or "scrub sheet" of a perspective land-form drawing by
Richard Edes Harri on . The map, for which this was the preliminary study, appeared in final
form in Fortune magazine, 1942.

The perspective drawing ha become they can hardly be shown at all at most
popular in recent decades (see Fig. 180). medium and small scales. For example,
Drawings of this type are usually done on the highest mountain on the earth, Everest,
an orthographic . projection, or a near- is a bit over 29,000 feet above sea level, or
orthographic, such as a photograph of the only about 5 ~ miles. If the terrain of the
globe. The terrain is then modeled 0 that continent of Asia were represented pictori-
the earth's curvature is simulated and 0 ally and accurately on a map with a scale
that the entire drawing provides the im- of 1 : 10,000,000, Mount Everest would be
pression of a view of the earth as een from only about %0 inch high! Consequently,
a point far above. Remarkably graphic almost all pictorial-terrain repre entation
(but not realistic) effects can be created must greatly exaggerate and simplify the
with this method of terrain representation. terrain. This introduce problems of
They are particularly u eful as illustra- selection and generalization, which make
tions of national viewpoints and of strate- it absolutely necessary that the cartog-
gic concepts in a world that is . growing rapher be relatively competent in the field
smaller each year. of land-form geography.
The student should have clearly in mind One of the more distinctive contributions
why pictorial terrain cannot be realistic of American cartography is the pictorial
but must exaggerate to a tremendous de- map in which the terrain is represented
gree. Actual departures of the earth's sur- schematically on a base map. Although
face up or down from the spheroid are very this type of map is not limited to cartog-
small, relative to horizontal distances, and raphers in the United States, it has reached
212 Representing the Terrain

FIG. 181. A portion of a small-scale physiographic diagram by A. K. Lobeck. Courtesy of

the Geographical Press, Columbia University, New York.
 Pictorial Terrain 213

FlO. 182. A portion of a small-scale land-form map. From Landforms of Arabia by Erwin
Raisz.
214 Representing the Terrain
its highest development through the efforts varieties of land forms and land types *
of A. K. Lobeck, Erwin Raisz, Guy-Harold (see Fig. 182).
Smith, a.nd a few others. Its origin is re- There is, of course, no sharp distinction
lated to the earlier work of W. M. Davis, between the physiographic diagram and the
who developed terrain sketching and block land-form map. All possible combinations
diagramming to a high art. of emphasis on underlying structure, rock
The pictorial map of terrain is known typeJ and process may be employed.
by many names, depending upon the pur- Whatever the combination, the terrain is
pose of the map. Some are called physio- positioned on the map without perspective,
graphic diagrams, wherein the main aim is but the terrain symbols are derived from
to present the surface forms in ome rela- their oblique appearance.
tion to their genesis. The maps of A. K. No treatment of pictorial terrain in car-
Lobeck are of this type. In his maps he tography would be complete without men-
suggests by varying darkness and texture tion of the block diagram from which the
the major structural and rock-type dif- physiographic diagram stemmed. The
ferences having expression in the surface block diagram has had a profound influ-
forms (see Fig 181) . ence on terrain representation, and the car-
Land-form, or land-type, maps are those tographer can expect to be called upon to
in which more emphasis is given to the sur- draw one occasionally. The block dia-
face forms and less to their genesis. This • See E. Raisz, "The PbysiograpJlic Method of
type of map is exemplified by those of Representing Scenery on Maps," The Geographi-
cal Review, 1931, Vol. 21, pp. 297-304 ; E. Raisz,
Erwin Raisz, who has developed a set of General Cartography, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill
schematic symbols to represent the basic Book Company, New York, 1948, pp. 120-121.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
if
D!;VILS LA\(~

FIG. 183. A simpJe block diagram prepared for student field-trip use. The natural appear-
ance of the surface forms on a perspective block makes the concepts easily understandable
to anyone.
 Other Methods of Depicting Land Surface 215
gram may be thought of as a small portion mountainous Norway lies at an elevation
of a large perspective drawing of the earth, of less than 5,000 feet. The conclusion is
which has been removed as a block and inescapable, namely, that layer tinting at
enlarged to exhibit the detail. Commonly small scales portrays little about the land
the underlying structure is placed on one surface except elevation zones. Such in-
face of the block in correct visual relation formation is of value to an airplane pilot
to the overlying topography, so that the and to a number of others concerned with
relation between them is obvious. Almost subjects, such as meteorology, wherein alti-
any degree of elaborateness may be incor- tude is of some consequence. It is, how-
porated in a block diagram , ranging from ever, of little value in presenting the sig-
the successive stages in the development of nificant differences or similarities of the
an area to multiple cross sections of the land surface. It should be emphasized that
structure (see Fig. 183). For examples of the larger the scale, assuming a reasonable
the e the reader is referred to the many degree of contour simplification, the more
works of W. M. Davis and A. K. Lobeck. useful the la,yer system. When tpe scale
The latter has produced a text which is has been increa cd to the point at which
required reading for anyone interested III the character of the isolines themselves and
developing his skill along this line.* their relationships become meaningful,
then the representation graduates to being
154 Other Methods of Depicting Land a contour map, which is a most useful map.
Surface The one concept, besides elevation, that
Perhaps the most widely used method of the relief map does help to portray for large
presenting land-surface information on areas is that of the second-order, three-
wall maps, in atlases, and on other "physi- dimensional structure of a region. Thus,
cal" maps is that called by various names a relief map of South America shows
such as layer tinting, hypsometric coloring, clearly a ridge of high land near and paral-
or altitude tinting. This is the application leling the western coast. This may be use-
of different area symbols (hue, pattern, or ful to one who is familiar with geographic
value) to the areas between the isometric interrelationships, for he can speculate with
lines (contours). On small-scale maps the some certainty regarding the climate, vege-
simplification of the chosen contours must, tation, drainage, occupance, and other pos-
of necessity, be large. Consequently, the sible consequences. To the uninitiated,
"contour" lines on such maps are not par- however, simple layer tinting may well be
ticularly meaningful, and the system de- meaningless.
generates, 0 to speak , into a mere pre en- Colored layer tints at small scales, when
tation of categories of surface elevation. combined with pictorial terrain or shading,
It is an obvious fact that surface elevation nearly satisfy most of the land-foIJll re-
is, in itself, of little consequence with re- quirements of the general map reader. It
gard to the character of third-order land gives him the major structure as well as
forms. For example, much of the great the detail. On the other hand, to do this
plains of the United States lies at an ele- is expensive, and it demands a skill not
vation between 2,000 and 5,000 feet, yet generally enjoyed by most cartographers.
a considerable proportion of it is as flat as The Wenschow wall maps, previously men-
any coastal plain. In contrast, most of tioned, and the works of Richard Edes
'" A. K. Lobeck, Block Diagrams, John Wiley & Harrison are outstanding examples of such
Sons, New York, 1924. combinations. Their reproduction is neces-
216 Representing the Terrain

LEG~NO

o 0 - 100 'c<r
,,///-,,___ 0 100 - 200 ,
GTI 200 - 300
~ 300 - 400
~400-:IlO '
eSOO - 600 '
_ GOO - 700
5 'P SCAlC
_ 700 - 800 ..

GEOGR I
APR I

Flo. 184. A relative- or local~re)jef m,ap. The values were obtained for each 5' quadrangle.
The lines are isopleths. Drawn by Guy-Harold Smith, and reproduced by courtesy of The
Geographical R eview, published by the American Geographical Society of New York.
sarily by color process, or some equally ex- tail, geographers have been searching for
pensive method, and their reproduction ways to present a more useful representa-
cost effectively removes them from the en- tion of the land surface. Several methods
deavors of the average cartographer. Even ha ve been suggested:
the inclusion of a sample in this book is out 1. Terrain unit or descriptive land-form-
of the question. category method.
Because of the relative inadequacy of 2. Relative-relief method.
the layer-tinting method for showing de- 3. Slope-value method.
 Other Methods of Depicting Land Surface 217
With the possible exception of the first boIs, as in layer tinting, may also be ap-
named, none has attained an acceptance plied. The method is of value when ap-
that even approaches hachuring, shading, plied to areas of considerable size, for basic
or layer tinting. The method of symboli- land form and physiographic divisions are
zation and presentation, which is the car- emphasized; but it .seems to be unsuited
tographer's major role, is straightforward; for differentiating important terrain de-
area symbols are used to reinforce either tails too small to extend beyond the con-
isograms or dasymetric lines. The major fines of the unit area chosen for statistical
problem, inherent in these methods, is the purposes. It is best adapted to relatively
determination of what to present, not how small-scale representation.
to present it. Consequently, to utilize these From the time the hachure became pop-
methods himself the cartographer must be ular, the cartographer and geographer have
essentially a geomorphologist, or he must been concerned with the representation of
simply present the work of others. the slope of the land. Hachuring and
The terrain-unit method employs de- shading, although not particularly com-
scriptive terms that range from the simple mensurable, provide a graphic account of
"mountains," "hills ," or "plains" designa- slopes on medium- and large-scale maps.
tions to complex, structural, topographic The problem of presenting actual slope
descriptions such as "maturely dissected values on small-scale maps is not easily
hill land, developed on gently tilted sedi- solved. One technique, suggested by Raisz
ments." The lines bounding the area sym- and Henry, is the slope-category method.·
bols have no meaning other than being In this method, areas of similar slope are
zones of change from one kind of area to outlined and presented by means of area
another. This method of presenting land
symbols (see Fig. 185). The system empha-
forms has been found useful in textbooks
sizes detail, and the relationships between
and in regional descriptions for a variety
slopes and important minor topographic
of purpose , ranging from military terrain
features are well presented, at the expense,
analysis to regional planning. Its basic
limitations are the regional knowledge of however, of the major topographic features.
the maker and the geographical competence In this respect it is somewhat t he opposite
of the map reader. of the relative-relief technique. Other
In both Europe and the United States slope techniques, such as per cent of flat
the concept of relative relief, as opposed to land per unit area have been tried, but,
elevation above sea level, has been tried.· except for specialized teaching or research
Relative, or local , relief is the difference purposes, they ha.ve not been widely used.
between the highest and lowest elevations • E . Raisz and J. Henry, "An Average Slope
in a limited area, e.g., 5' quadrangle (see Map of Southern New England ," The Geographi-
Fig. 184). These values are then plotted cal R eview, 1937, Vol . 27, pp . 467-472. See also
Glenn T. Trewartha. and Guy-Harold Smith, "Sur-
on a map and isopleths drawn. Area sym-
faoe Configuration of the Driftless Cuesta.form
• See Guy-Harold Smith, "The Relative Relief Hill Land," Annals of the Association of Ameri-
of Ohio," The Geographical Review, 1935, Vol. 25, can Geographer8, Vol. 31, 1941, pp. 25-45; see
pp. 272-284. map of average slope, p. 27.
218 Representing the Terrain

AVERAGE SLOPES
SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND
RELATIVE RELIEF

50 KILOMETERS

FIG. 185. A portion of a slope-value map by Raisz and Henry. The areas of similar slope
were outlined on topographic maps by noting areas of consistent contour spacing. Courtesy
of The Geographical Review, published by the American Geographical Society of New York.
 Appendix A
Natural Trigonometric Functions
The following table gives the values of the values may be used. For precise calcula-
sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent of degrees tions, however, one should employ a more
from 0° to 90°. For degrees at the left use complete table and especially one showing
the column headings at the top; for degrees the logarithms of the trigonometric func-
at the right use column headings at the tions.
bottom. The values of the secant and cosecant may
For fractions of degrees an appropriate be derived as follows : secant = 1 -+ cos; co-
amount of the difference between adjacent secant = 1 -+ sin.

TABLE 15. NATURAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.

0
0
Sin Tan Cot Cos ° Sin Tan Cot Cos 0

-
0 .0000 .0000 - 1.0000 90 23 .3907 .4245 2.356 .9205 67
1 .0174 .0175 57 .290 .9998 89 24 .4067 .4452 2.246 .9135 66
2 .0349 .0349 28 .636 .9994 88 25 .4226 .4663 2.144 .9063 65
3 .0523 .0524 19.081 .9986 87 26 .4384 .4877 2 .050 .8988 64
4 .0698 .0699 14 .301 .9976 86 27 .4540 .5095 1.963 .8910 63
5 .0872 .0875 11.430 .9962 85 28 .4695 .5317 1.881 .8829 62
6 .1045 .1051 9.514 .9945 84 29 .4848 .5543 1.804 .8746 61
7 .1219 .1228 8.144 .9925 83
8 .1392 .1405 7.115 .9903 82 30 .5000 .5773 1.732 .8660 60
9 .1564 .1584 6.314 .9877 81 31 .5150 . 6009 1.664 .8572 59
32 .5299 .6249 1.600 .8480 58
10 .1736 .1763 5.671 .9848 80 33 .5446 .6494 1.540 .8387 57
11 .1908 .1944 5. 145 .9816 79 34 .5592 .6745 1.483 .8290 56
12 .2079 .2126 4·Z05 .9781 78 35 .5736 .7002 1.428 .8191 55
13 .2249 .2309 4.331 .9744 77 36 .5878 .7265 1.376 .8090 54
14 .2419 .2493 4.011 .9703 76 37 .6018 .7535 1.327 .7986 53
15 .2588 .2679 3.732 .9659 75 38 .6157 .7813 1.280 .7880 52
16 .2756 .2867 3.487 .9613 74 39 .6293 . .8098 1.235 .7771- 51
17 .2924 .3057 3.271 .9563 73
18 .3090 .3249 3.078 .9511 72 40 .6428 .8391 1.192 .7660 50
19 .3256 .3443 2.904 .9455 71 41 .6561 .8693 1.150 .7547 49
42 .6691 .9004 1.111 .7431 48
20 .3420 .3640 2.747 .9397 70 43 .6820 .9325 1.072 .7313 47
21 .3584 .3839 2.605 .9336 69 44 .6947 .9657 1.035 .7193 46
22 .3746 .4040 2.475 .9272 68 45 .7071 1.0000 1.000 .7071 45
-
0 0
0
Cos Cot Tan Sin ° Cos Cot Tan Sin

219
Appendix B
Squares, Cubes, and Roots

TABLE 16. SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS.

n n2 Vn v'10n n8 ~ ~

1 1 1.000 3.162 1 1.000 2.154

2 4 1.414 4.472 8 1.260 2.714
3 9 1.732 5.477 27 1.442 3.107
4 16 2.000 6.325 64 1.587 3.420
5 25 2.236 7.071 125 1.710 3.684
6 36 2.449 7.746 216 1.817 3.915
7 49 2.646 8.367 343 1.913 4.121
8 64 2.828 8.944 512 2.000 4.309
9 81 3.000 9.487 729 2.080 4.481
10 100 3.162 10.000 1000 2.154 4.642
11 121 3.317 10.488 1331 2.224 4.791
12 144 3.464 10 .954 1728 2.289 4.932
13 169 3.606 11.402 2197 2.351 5.066
14 196 3.742 11.832 2744 2.410 5.192
15 225 3.873 12 .247 3375 2.466 5.313
16 256 4.000 12.649 4096 2.520 5.429
17 289 4.123 13.038 4913 2.571 5.540
18 324 4.243 13.416 5832 2.621 5.646
19 361 4.359 13.784 6859 2.668 5.749
20 400 4.472 14.142 8000 2.714 5.848
21 441 4.583 14.491 9261 2.759 5.944
22 484 4.690 14.832 10 648 2.802 6.037
23 529 4.796 15.166 12167 2.844 6.127
24 576 4.899 15.492 13824 2.884 6.214
25 625 5.000 15.811 15625 2.924 6.300
26 676 5.099 16.125 17576 2.962 6.383
, 27 729 5.196 16.432 19683 3.000 6.463
28 784 5.292 16.733 21952 3.037 6.542
29 841 5.385 17.029 24389 3.072 6.619
30 900 5.477 17.321 27000 3.107 6.694
31 961 5.568 17 .607 29791 3.141 6.768
32 1024 5.657 17.889 32768 3.175 6.840
33 1089 5.745 18.166 35937 3.208 6.910
34 _c
1156 5.831 18 .439 39304 3.240 6.980
35 1225 5.916 18.708 42875 3.271 7.047
36 1296 6.000 18.974 46656 3.302 7.114

220
 Appendix B 221
TABLE 16. SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS (Continued).

n n2 vn y'I07i ni ~ ~

37 1369 6.083 19 .235 50 653 3.332 7. 179

38 1444 6.164 19.494 54 872 3.362 7.243
39 1521 6.245 19 .748 59319 3.391 7.306
40 1600 6.325 20.000 64000 3.420 7.368
41 1681 6.403 20 .248 68921 3.448 7.429
42 1764 6.481 20 .494 74088 3.476 7.489
43 1849 6.557 20 .736 79507 3.503 7. 548
44 1936 6.633 20 .976 85184 3.530 7.606
45 2025 6.708 21.213 91125 3.557 7.663
46 2116 6.782 21.448 97336 3.583 7.719
47 2209 6.856 21.679 103823 3.609 7.775
48 2304 6.928 21.909 110592 3.634 7.830
49 2401 7.000 22 .136 117649 3.659 7. 884
50 2500 7.071 22 .361 125000 3.684 7.937
51 2601 7.141 22.583 132651 3 .708 7.990
52 2 704 7.211 22.804 140608 3.733 8.041
53 2809 7.280 23 .022 148877 3.756 8.093
54 2916 7.348 23 .238 157464 3.780 8.143
55 3025 7.416 23 .452 166375 3.803 8.193
56 3136 7.483 23 .664 175616 3.826 8.243
57 3 249 7.550 23 .875 185193 3.849 8.291
58 3364 7.616 24 .083 195112 3.871 8.340
59 3 481 7.681 24 .290 205379 3 .893 8.387
60 3 600 7.746 24 .495 216000 3.915 8.434
61 3 721 7.810 24 .698 226981 3.936 8.481
62 3844 7.874 24 .900 238328 3.958 8.527
63 3969 7.937 25.100 250 047 3.979 8.573
64 4096 8.000 25.298 262144 4.000 8.618
65 4 225 8.062 25.495 274625 4.021 8.662
66 4356 8.124 25.690 287496 4.041 8.707
67 4489 8.185 25 .884 300 763 4.062 8.750
68 4624 8 .246 26 .077 314432 4.082 8.794
69 4761 8.307 26 .268 328509 4.102 8.837
70 4900 8.367 26 .458 343000 4.121 8.879

71 5041 8.426 26.646 357911 4.141 2.921

72 5184 8.485 26 .833 373248 4 .160 8.963
73 5329 8.544 . 27.019 389017 4.179 9.004
74 5476 8.602 27.203 405224 4.198 9.045
75 5625 8.660 27.386 421875 4 .217 9.086
76 5776 8.718 27 .568 438976 4.236 9.126
77 5929 8.775 27.749 456533 4.254 9.166
78 6084 8.832 27.928 474552 4.273 9.205
79 6241 8.888 28 .107 493039 4.291 9.244
80 6400 8.944 28.284 512000 4.309 9.283
222 Appendix B
TABLE 16. SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS (Continued).

n n2 v'n v10n n3 ..yn ~10n

81 6561 9.000 28.461 531441 4.327 9.322

82 6724 9.055 28.636 551368 4.344 9.360
83 6889 9.110 28.810 571 787 4.362 9.398
84 7056 9.165 28.983 592704 4.380 9.435
85 7225 9.220 29.155 614125 4.397 9.473
86 7396 9.274 29.326 636056 4.414 9.510
87 7569 9.327 29.496 658503 4.431 9.546
88 7744 9.381 29.665 681472 4.448 9.583
89 7921 9.434 29.833 704 969 4.465 9.619
90 8100 9.487 30.000 729000 4.481 9.655
91 8281 9.539 30.166 753571 4.498 9.691
92 8464 9.592 30.332 778688 4.514 9.726
93 8649 9.644 30.496 804 357 4.531 9.761
94 8836 9.695 30.659 830584 4.547 9.796
95 9025 9.747 30.822 857375 4.563 9.830
96 9216 9.798 30 .984 884 736 4.579 9.865
97 9409 9.849 31.145 912673 4.595 9.899
98 9604 9.899 31.305 941192 4.610 9.933
99 9801 9.950 31.464 970299 4.626 9.967
100 10000 10 .000 31.623 1000000 4.642 10.000
 Appendix C
Geographical Tables *

TABLE 17. LENGTHS OF DEGREES OF THE PARALLEL.

Statute Statute Statute

Lat. Meters Lat. Meters Lat. Meters
miles miles miles

o I o I o I

000 111321 69.172 3000 96488 59.956 6000 55802 34.674

100 111304 69.162 3100 95506 59.345 6100 54110 33.623
200 111 253 69.130 3200 94495 58.716 6200 52400 32.560
300 111169 69.078 3300 93455 58.071 6300 50675 31.488
400 111051 69.005 3400 92387 57.407 6400 48934 30.406
500 110900 68.911 3500 91290 56.725 6500 47177 29.315
600 110715 68.795 3600 90 166 56.027 6600 45407 28.215
700 110497 68.660 3700 89014 55.311 6700 43622 27.106
800 110245 68.504 3800 87835 54.579 6800 41823 25.988
900 109959 68.326 3900 86629 53.829 6900 40012 24.862

1000 109641 68.129 4000 85396 53.063 7000 38188 23.729

1100 109289 67.910 4100 84137 52.281 7100 36353 22.589
1200 108904 67.670 4200 82853 51.483 7200 34506 21.441
1300 108486 67.410 4300 81543 50.669 7300 32648 20.287
1400 108036 67.131 4400 80 208 49.840 7400 30781 19.127
1500 107553 66.830 4500 78849 48.995 7500 28903 17.960
1600 107036 66.510 4600 77 466 48.136 7600 27017 16.788
1700 106487 66.169 4700 76058 47.261 7700 25123 15.611
1800 105906 65.808 4800 74628 46.372 7800 23220 14.428
1900 105294 65.427 4900 73174 45.469 7900 21311 13.242

2000 104 649 65.026 5000 71698 44.552 8000 19394 12.051
2100 103972 64.606 5100 70200 43.621 8100 17472 10.857
2200 103264 64.166 5200 68680 42.676 8200 15545 9.659
2300 102524 63.706 5300 67140 41.719 8300 13612 8.458
2400 101754 63.228 5400 65578 40.749 8400 11675 7.255
2500 100 952 62.729 5500 63996 39.766 8500 9735 6.049
2600 100 119 62.212 5600 62395 38.771 8600 7792 4.842
2700 99257 61.676 5700 60 774 37.764 8700 5846 3.632
2800 98364 61.122 5800 59135 36.745 8800 3898 2.422
2900 97441 60.548 5900 57478 35.716 8900 1949 1.211

9000 0 0

• Tables 17 and 18 are from U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; Table 19 is from Smithsonian Geographical
Table8.
223
224 Appendix C

TABLE 18. LENGTHS OF DEGREES OF THE MERIDIAN.

Statute Statute Statute

Lat. Meters Lat. Meters Lat. Meters
miles miles miles

0 0 0

0-1 110567.3 68.703 30-31 110857.0 68.883 60-61 111423.1 69.235

1-2 110568.0 68.704 31- 32 110874.4 68.894 61- 62 III 439.9 69.246
2-3 110569.4 68.705 32-33 110892.1 68.905 62- 63 111456.4 69.256
3-4 110571.4 68.706 33- 34 110910.1 68.916 63-64 111 472.4 69.266
4-5 110574.1 68.707 34-35 110928.3 68.928 64-65 111488.1 69.275
5-6 110577.6 68.710 35-36 110946.9 68.939 65-66 111503.3 69.285
6-7 110581.6 68.712 36-37 110965.6 68.951 66-67 111518.0 69.294
7-8 110586.4 68.715 37-38 110984.5 68.962 67-68 111 532.3 69.303
8-9 110591.8 68.718 38-39 III 003.7 68.974 68-69 111546.2 69.311
9-10 110597.8 68.722 39-40 111023.0 68.986 69-70 111559.5 69.320

10-11 110604.5 68.726 40-41 III 042.4 68.998 70-71 111 572.2 69.328
11-12 110611.9 68.731 41-42 111061.9 69.011 71-72 111584.5 69.335
12-13 110619.8 68.736 42-43 111081.6 69.023 72-73 111 596.2 69.343
13:"'14 110628.4 68.741 43-44 111 101.3 69.035 73- 74 111 607.3 69.349
14-15 110637.6 68.747 44-45 111 121.0 69.047 74-75 111617.9 69.356
15-16 110647.5 68.753 45-46 111140.8 69.060 75-76 111 627.8 69.362
16-17 110657.8 68.759 46-47 111160.5 69.072 76-77 111 637.1 69.368
17-18 110668.8 68.766 47-48 111180.2 69.084 77-78 111645.9 69.373
18-19 110680.4 68.773 48-49 111199.9 69.096 78-79 111 653.9 69.378
19-20 110692.4 68.781 49-50 111219.5 69.108 79-80 111661.4 69.383

20-21 110705.1 68.789 50-51 111239.0 69.121 80-81 111668.2 69.387

21-22 110718.2 68.797 51-52 111258.3 69.133 81- 82 111674.4 69.391
22-23 110731.8 68.805 52-53 111277.6 69.145 82-83 111679.9 69.395
23-24 110746.0 68.814 53-54 111296.6 69.156 83- 84 111684.7 69.398
24-25 110760.6 68.823 54-55 111 315.4 69.168 84-85 111688.9 69.400
25-26 110775.6 68.833 55-56 111334.0 69.180 85-86 111 692.3 69.402
26-27 110791.1 68.842 56-57 111352.4 69.191 86-87 111 695.1 69.404
27-28 110807.0 68.852 57-58 111370.5 69.202 87- 88 111697.2 69.405
28-29 110823.3 68.862 58-59 111388.4 69.213 88-89 III 698.6 69.406
29-30 110840.0 68.873 59-60 111405.9 69.224 89-90 111699.3 69.407
 Appendix C 225
TABLE 19. AREAS OF QUADRILATERALS OF EARTH'S SURFACE OF 1° EXTENT IN LATITUDE AND
LONGITUDE .

Lower lati- Lower lati-

tude of Area in tude of Area in
quadrilateral square miles quadrilateral square miles
0 0

0 4752.16 45 3354.01
1 4750.75 46 3294.71
2 4747.93 47 3234.39
3 4743.71 48 3173.04
4 4738.08 49 3110.69
5 4731.04
6 4722.61 50 3047.37
7 4712.76 51 2983.08
8 4701.52 52 2917.85
9 4688.89 53 2851.68
54 2784.62
10 4674.86 55 2716.67
11 4659.43 56 2647.85
12 4642.63 57 2578.19
13 4624.44 58 2507.70
14 4604.87 59 2436.42
15 4583.92
16 4561.61 60 2364.34
17 4537.93 61 2291.51
18 4512.90 62 2217.94
19 4486.51 63 2143.66
64 2068.68
20 4458.78 65 1993.04
21 4429.71 66 1916.75
22 4399.30 67 1839.84
23 4367.57 68 1762.33
24 4334.52 69 1684.24
25 4300.17
26 4264.51 70 1605.62
27 4227.56 71 1526.46
28 4189.33 72 1446.81
29 4149.83 73 1366.69
74 1286.12
30 4109.06 75 1205.13
31 4067.05 76 1123.75
32 4023.79 77 1041.99
33 3979.30 78 959.90
34 3933.59 79 877.49
35 3886.67
36 3838.56 80 794.79
37 3789.26 81 711.83
38 3738.80 82 628.64
39 3687.18 83 545.24
84 461.66
40 3634.42 85 377.93
41 3580.54 86 294.08
42 3525.54 87 210.12
43 3469.44 88 126.10
44 3412.26 89 42.04
 Appendix D
Tissot's Indicatrix

The law of deformation was developed by constitute then the major and minor axes of
M. A. Tissot, and appears in full in his the ellipse. The function of the ellipse is
Mbnoire sur la reprb;entation des surfaces et that of an indicator in that it provides com-
les projections des cartes geographiques, Paris, parable values with reference to the original
1881, which includes 60 pages of deformation circle. The ellipse is on that account re-
tables for various projections. An account ferred to as the indicatory ellipse or the
of it appears in English in Oscar S. Adams, indicatrix.
"General Theory of Polyconic Projections," For the purpose of comparing alterations
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Special Pub- in the linear and angular elements on differ-
lication 57, Washington, D. C. ]934, pp. 153- ent projections, only the maximums for each
163. The following account is based in the point are needed. The semimajor and semi-
main on the explanation by F. J. Marschner minor axes of the indicatrix denote the maxi-
and is used by permission of the A nnals of mum changes in scale, and at the same time
the Association of American Geographers. provide the necessary data for determining
the angular deformation and the areal ex-
aggeration. The semimajor axis, OA = a
The Law of Deformation
(Fig. 186) , and the semiminor axis, OB = b,
Tissot demonstrated that when a spherical are expressed numerically in terms propor-
surface is transformed into a plane surface tionate to unity, this being the radius of the
there occurs more or less transformation of original circle, r = OM = 1.
the angles and surface areas around each All points in the circumference of the
point. On the sphere there are at each point circle necessarily have their counterparts in
• on the surface an infinite number of tangents the ·periphery of the ellipse, but only one
each of which, of course, represents a direc- point within a quadrant is subjected to the
tion on the sphere. The law of deformation maximum angular deflection from its orig-
states that, whatever the system of represen- inal position with reference to the coordi-
tation, there are at each point of the spherical nates of the quadrant. The point subjected
surface at least two tangents perpendicular to to the greatest deflection is identified in the
each other which will reappear at right angles circumference of the circle with M, and has
to each other on the projection, although all its counterpart in the periphery of the ellipse
the other angles at that point are altered in point M'. As a consequence, the original
from their original position. An infinitely angle MOA = U is altered to M'OA = U',
small circle, the center of which is the inter- and the difference of these two angles,
secting point of the tangents on the spherical U - U' = w, denotes the maximum pos-
surface, will be deformed on the projection sible angular deflection within one quadrant.
and become an ellipse. The two perpendic- If an angle were to have its sides located
ular diameters of the circle, which retain in two quadrants and if they were to occupy
their relative positions on the projection, the position of maximum change in both
226
 Appendix D 227
2
directions, then the angle in question would r 7r, while the area of the ellipse is ab7r.
incur the maximum deflection for one quad- Therefore, since the axes of the indicatrix
rant on both sides, so that 2w denotes the are based on the unit circle in which r = 1
possible maximum angular change that may and since 7r is a constant, the product of
occur at a point. ab = S fully expresses the areal relationship

/".----
-_ --' ........
between the ellipse and the circle. For the
purpose of comparing map projections only
a, b, 2w, and S are needed as indices, and if
/
/' the condition of equivalence is satisfied even
/ S can be omitted.
/ In the preceding, the discussion of the
I indicatrix has been based on the supposition
/
I that the original circle always appears in the
I representation in the standard form of an
ellipse; this is not necessarily true. On con-
formal projections the scale, by definition, is
\ the same in every direction at a point. The
\ scale differs, however, from point to point.
\
\ It will be equal to unity at some points; it
\. will be greater or less at others; but it will
"-
"-
........ ,- _-
FIG. 186. The indicatrix in the aboye illustration
......- / '
always be the same in every direction around
a point. That is to say, a = b. Hence, the
angular relations around a point will be the
has been constructed as an equal-area representa- same on a conformal projection as they are
tion of the circle to which the following indices on the sphere. On conformal projections the
apply: OM=r=l; OA=a = 1.25; OB = b= indicatrix thus appears in the ' form of a'
0.80; MOA =U= 51°21'4Q"; M'OA=U'=38° circle, but the indicatrix will differ in size
39' 35" ; U - U' = w = 12° 40' 50" ; 2w = 25° 21'
from the original circle. Only on standard
40"; ab = S = 1.25 X 0.80 = 1. From Marschner.
lines or at standard points represented with-
out exaggeration is the original size retained
Changes in the surface area mayor may in the representation. Under these circum-
not be a corollary to the transformation of stances, the indicatrix can be considered as
the circle into an ellipse. If there has been a special case of the ellipse in which a equals
a change in the surface area its magnitude b, but does not equal 1. With a and b being
can be readily established by comparing the equal, the index of areal change is derived
areal contents of the original circle with that from the square of the radius of the indica-
of the indicatrix. The area of the circle is trix, S = a2 •
Appendix E
Lambert Projection Tables

TABLE 20. TABLE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A LAMBERT AzrMUTHAL EQUAL-AREA PROJECTION
CENTERED ON THE EQUA.TOR. COORDINATES IN UNITS OF THE EARTH'S RADIUS (R = 1). (From
Deetz and Adams.)

Long. 0° Long. 10° Long. 20° Long. 30° Long. 40°

Lat.
x y x y x y x y x y

0° 0 0.000 0.174 0.000 0.347 0.000 0 .518 0.000 0.684 0.000

10° 0 0 .174 0.172 0.175 0.343 0.177 0.512 0.180 0.676 0.185
20° 0 0.347 0.166 0.349 0.331 0.352 0.493 0.359 0.651 0.369
30° 0 0.518 0.156 0.519 0.311 0.525 0.463 0.535 0.610 0.548
40° 0 0.684 0.142 0.686 0.283 0.693 0.420 0 .705 0.553 0.722
50° 0 0.845 0.124 0.848 0.245 0.855 0.364 0.868 0.478 0 .887
60° 0 1.000 0.101 1.003 0. 199 1.010 0.295 1.023 0.386 1.041
70° 0 1.147 0.073 1.149 0.144 1.156 0.212 1.167 0.277 1. 183
80° 0 1.286 0.039 1.287 0.078 1.291 0.114 1.299 0 .148 1.308
90° 0 1.414 0.000 1.414 0 .000 1.414 0 .000 1.414 0.000 1.414

I Long. 50° Long. 60° Long. 70° Long. 80° Long. 90°
Lat.
x y x y x y x y x y

0° 0.845 0.000 1.000 0 .000 1.147 0.000 1.286 0.000 1.414 0 .000
10° 0.835 0.192 0.987 0.201 1.132 0.212 1.267 0.227 1.393 0.246
20° 0.804 0.382 0.949 0.399 1.086 0.421 1.213 0.448 1.329 0.484
30° 0.752 0.567 0.886 0.591 1.011 0.621 1.125 0.659 1.225 0.707
40° 0 .679 0.744 0 .798 0.773 0.906 0.809 1.002 0.854 1.083 0.909
50° 0.586 0.911 0.685 0.942 0.773 0.981 0.849 1.028 0.909 1.083
60° 0.471 1.065 0.548 1.095 0.614 1.132 0.668 1.175 0.707 1.225
70° 0.335 1.203 0.387 1.228 0.430 1.257 0.463 1.291 0.484 1.329
80° 0.178 1.321 0.204 1.336 0 .224 1.353 0.238 1.372 0.246 1.393
90° 0.000 1.414 0.000 1.414 0.000 1.414 0.000 1.414 0.000 1.414

228
 Appendix E 229

TABLE 21. TABLE FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A LAMBERT EQUAlrAREA PRO/ECTION CENTERED AT
LATITUDE 40°. COORDINATES IN UNITS OF THE EARTH'S RADIUS (R = 1). (Adapted from Deetz and
Adams.)

Long. 0° Long. 10° Long. 20° Long. 30° Long. 40°

Lat.
x y x y x y x y x y

90° 0 +0.845 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845
80° 0 +0.684 0.032 +0.686 0.063 +0.692 0.093 +0.704 0.120 +0.718
70° 0 +0.518 0.062 +0.521 0.121 +0.533 0.175 +0.553 0.231 +0.580
60° 0 +0.347 0.082 +0.352 0.174 +0.369 0.257 +0.396 0.334 +0.434
50° 0 +0.174 0.112 +0.181 0.222 +0.200 0.328 +0.234 0.427 +0.280
40° 0 0.000 0.133 +0.007 0.264 +0.029 0.391 +0.067 0.510 +0.120
30° 0 -0.174 0.151 -0.166 0.300 -0.142 0.445 -0.102 0.582 -0.045
20° 0 -0.347 0.166 -0.338 0.329 -0.313 0.489 -0.272 0.642 -0.214
10° 0 -0.518 0.177 -0.509 0.353 -0.484 0.524 -0.442 0.689 -0.383
0° 0 -0.684 0.185 -0.675 0.369 -0.651 0.548 -0.610 0.722 -0.553
_10° 0 -0.845 - - - - - - - -

Long. 50° Long. 60° Long. 70° Long. 80° Long. 90° Long. 100°
Lat.
x y x y x y x y x y x y
--
90° 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845 0.000 +0.845
80° 0.143 +0.736 0.163 +0.758 0.178 +0.782 0.188 +0.808 0.192 +0.834 - -
70° 0.278 +0.613 0.318 +0.646 0.349 +0.701 0.371 +0.751 0.382 +0.804 - -
60° 0.403 +0.481 0.463 +0.538 0.511 +0.602 0.547 +0.674 0.567 +0.752 0.570 +0.833
50° 0.518 +0.338 0.583 +0.408 0.663 +0.489 0.713 +0.580 0.744 +0.679 0.755 +0.785
40° 0.620 +0.186 0.702 +0.267 0.801 +0.361 - - - - - -
30° 0.710 - 0.027 0.825 +0.115 - - - - - - - -
20° 0.785 -0.138 - - - - - - - - - -
100 0.844 -0.307 - - - - - - - - - -
0° 0.887 -0.478 - - - - - - - - - -
\
Appendix F
Stereographic Projection Tables
Professor James A. Barnes has worked out For south latitudes less than 0:: L =
a simplified method of calculating tables for - tan t(q, + 0:).
constructing the stereographic projection. For south latitudes greater than 0: : L =
Anyone who can read values from a table of - tan t(180° + 0: - q,).
logarithms of the trigonometric functions
Note: Plus and minus signs indicate
can compute values for a projection centered
whether the value is above or below the
on any point on the sphere. The formulas
center of the projection. The center of any
originally appeared in Surveying and M ap-
parallel is midway between U and L.
ping. The symbols are:
Calculation of the position of the meridians:
a = angle of tilt (position of center).
q, = latitude. Q = - tan 0:.
A = longitude. N = sec 0: . tan tAo
U = upper intersection of parallel with M = sec a . cot A.
central meridian.
Note: Nand M correspond to Bow and
L = lower intersection of parallel with
Center values in the following tables.
central meridian.
Q = intersection of homolatitude of cen- The following tables have been computed
ter point and central meridian. (by J . A. Barnes) for projections centered at
N = intersection of meridian and homo- IOO-Iatitude intervals (the table for 40° ap-
latitude. pears in Article 66), and will be sufficient for
M = center of meridian arc on homolati- most purposes of small-scale maps, where
tude. . the stereographic is desired as an end, or as
a means to an end as suggested in Articles
Calculation of the position of the parallels:
69 and 70. For large-scale and precision
For north latitudes and equator: U = work the formulas above should be used to
+
tan t(180° - q, - a). compute values for the exact center.
For south latitudes less than a : U = Values in the tables and those resulting
+ tan -!(180° + q, - a). from the above formulas are for a globe with
For south latitudes greater than 0: : U = a diameter of unity (D = 1). To determine
- tan t(q, + 0:). figures to scale multiply each calculation by
For north latitudes greater than 0:: L = the diameter of the generating globe of
+ tan t(q, - 0:). chosen scale.
For north latitudes less than a and equa- Directions for the use of the tables appear
tor: L = - tan t(o: - q,). in Article 66.

230
 Appendix F 231

TABLE 22. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE- TABLE 23. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE-
OGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 0°. OGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 10°.

D = 1 D = 1
Parallels Upper Lower Parallels Upper Lower
North pole 1.00000 North pole 0.83910
BO° 1.19175 0.83910 BO° 1.00000 0.70021
70° 1.42815 0.70021 70° 1.19175 0.57735
60° 1.73205 0.57735 60° 1.42815 0.46631
50° 2.14451 0.46631 50° 1.73205 0.36397
40° 2.74748 0.36397 40° 2.14451 0.26795
30° 3.73205 0.26795 30° 2.74748 0.17633
20° 5.67128 0.17633 20° 3.73205 0.08749
10° 11 .43005 0.08749 10° 5.67128 0 .00000
0° 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0° 11.43005 -0 .08749
10° -0 .08749 -11.43005 10° -0.17633 -0 .17633 -0 .17633
20° -0.17633 -5.67128 20° -0.26795 -11.43005
30° -0 .26795 -3 .73205 30° -0.36397 -5 .67128
40° -0 .36397 - 2.74748 40° -0.46631 -3 .73205
50° -0 .46631 -2 .14451 50° -0.57735 -2.74748
60° -0.57735 -1.73205 60° -0 . 70021 -2.14451
70° -0 .70021 -1.42815 70° -0 .83910 -1 .73205
BO° -0.83910 -1.19175 80° -1.00000 -1.42815
South pole -1.00000 South pole -1.19175
H = 0.00000 H = -0 .17633
Meridians Bow Center Meridians Bow Center
10° 0.08749 5.67128 10° 0.08884 5.75876
20° 0.17633 2.74748 20° 0 .17905 2.78986
30° 0.26795 1.73205 30° 0.27208 1.75877
40° 0 .36397 1.19175 40° 0.36958 1.21014
50° 0.46631 0.83910 50° 0.47350 0.85204
60° 0 .57735 0 .57735 60° 0.58626 0.58626
70° 0.70021 0.36397 7()0 0.71101 0.36958
SOo 0 .83910 0 .17633 SOo 0 .85204 0.17905
90° 1.00000 0.00000 90° 1.01543 0.00000
232 Appendix F

TABLE 24. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE- TABLE 25. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE-
OGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 20°. OGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 30°.

D =1 D =1
Parallels Upper Lower Parallels Upper Lower
North pole 0.70021 North pole 0 .57735
BO° 0.83910 0.57735 80° 0.70021 0.46631
70° 1.00000 0.46631 70° 0.83910 0.36397
60° 1.19175 0.36397 60° 1.00000 0.26795
50° 1.42815 0.26795 50° 1.19175 0.17633
40° 1.73205 0.17633 40° 1.42815 0.08749
30° 2.14451 0.08749 30° 1.73205 0.00000
20° 2.74748 0.00000 20° 2.14451 -0.08749
10° 3.73205 -0 .08749 10° 2.74748 -0 .17633
0° 5.67128 -0 . ]7633 0° 3.73205 -0 .26795
10° 11.43005 -0.26795 10° 5.67128 -0.36397
20° -0 .36397 -0 .36397 -0 .36397 20° 11 .43005 - 0.46631
30° -0.46631 -11.43005 30° -0 .57735 -0 .57735 -0.57735
40° -0.57735 -5.67128 40° -0 .70021 -11.43005
50° -0.70021 -3.73205 50° -0 .83910 -5 .67128
60° -0.83910 -2 .74748 60° -1 .00000 - 3.73205
70° -1.00000 -2.14451 70° -1.19175 -2.74748
80° -1.19175 -1.73205 80° -1 .42815 -2 .14451
South pole -1.42815 South pole -1 .73205
H = -0 .36397 H = -0 .57735
Meridians Bow Center Meridians Bow Center
10° 0.09310 6.03526 10° 0.10103 6.54863
20° 0. 18764 2.92381 20° 0.20360 3.17251
30° 0.28515 1.84321 30° 0.30940 2.00000
40° 0.38733 1.26824 40° 0.42028 1.37295
50° 0.49624 0.89295 50° 0.53845 0.96891
60° 0.61440 0.61440 60° 0.66667 0 .66667
70° 0.74515 0.38733 70° 0.80853 0.42028
BO° 0.89295 0.18764 80° 0.96891 0.20360
90° 1.06418 0.00000 90° 1.15470 0.00000
 Appendix F 2JJ

TABLE 2ft TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE- TABLE 27. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE-
OGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 50°. OGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 60°.

D = 1 D=1
Parallels Upper Lower Parallels Upper Lower
North pole 0 .36397 North pole 0.26795
80° 0.46631 0.26795 80° 0.36397 0.17633
70° 0.57735 0.17633 70° 0.46631 0.08749
60° 0.70021 0.08749 60° 0.57735 0.00000
50° 0.83910 0.00000 50° 0.70021 -0 .08749
40° 1.00000 -0 .08749 40° 0.83910 -0.17633
30° 1.19175 -0 . 17633 30° 1.00000 -0 .26795
20° 1.42815 - 0.26795 20° 1.19175 -0.36397
10° 1.73205 -0 .36397 10° 1.42815 -0 .46631
0° 2.14451 -0 .46631 0° 1.73205 -0.57735
10° 2.74748 -0 .57735 10° 2.14451 -0.70021
20° 3.73205 -0 .70021 20° 2.74748 -0 .83910
30° 5.67128 - 0.83910 30° 3.73205 -1.00000
40° 11.43005 -1.00000 40° 5.67128 -1.19175
50° -1.19175 -1.19175 -1.19175 50° 11.43005 -1 .42815
60° -1 .42815 - 11 .43005 60° -1 .73205 -1.73205 -1 .73205
70° -1 .73205 -5 .67128 70° -2.14451 -11.43005
80° -2.14451 -3 .73205 80° -2.74748 -5.67128
South pole -2 .74748 South pole -3 .73205
H=-1 .19175 H = -1.73205
Meridians Bow Center Meridians Bow Center
10° 0.13611 8.82296 10° 0.17498 11 .34230
20° 0 .27432 4.27432 20° 0.35265 5.49495
30° 0 .41686 2.69460 30° 0 .53590 3 .46410
40° 0.56624 1.85404 40° 0.72794 2.38351
50° 0.72545 1.30541 50° 0.93262 1.67820
60° 0 .89820 0 .89820 60° 1.15470 1.15470
70° 1.08933 0.56624 70° 1.40042 0.72794
80° 1. 30541 0.27432 80° 1.67820 0.35265
90° 1.55572 0.00000 90° 2.00000 0.00000
234 Appendix F
TABLE 28. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE- TABLE 29. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STERE-
OGRA,PHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 70°. OGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 80°.

D = 1 D = 1
Parallels Upper Lower Parallels Upper Lower
North pole 0.17633 North pole 0 .08749
SOo 0.26795 0.08749 80° 0.17633 0.00000
70° 0.36397 0.00000 70° 0.26795 -0.08749
60° 0.46631 -0 .08749 60° 0.36397 -0.17633
50° 0.57735 -0.17633 50° 0.46631 -0.26795
40° 0.70021 -0.26795 40° 0.57735 -0 .36397
30° 0.83910 -0.36397 30° 0.70021 -0.46631
20° 1.00000 -0.46631 20° 0.83910 -0.57735
10° 1.19175 -0.57735 10° 1.00000 -0.70021
0° 1.42815 -0.70021 0° 1.19175 -0.83910
10° 1.73205 -0.83910 10° 1.42815 -1.00000
20° 2.14451 -1.00000 20° 1.73205 -1.19175
30° 2.74748 -1.19175 30° 2.14451 -1.42815
40° 3.73205 -1.42815 40° 2.74748 -1.73205
50° 5.67128 -1.73205 50° 3 .73205 -2.14451
60° 11.43005 -2.14451 60° 5.67128 -2.74748
70° -2 .74748 -2.74748 -2.74748 70° 11.43005 -3 .73205
80° -3.73205 -11.43005 80° -5.67128 -5.67128 -5.67128
South pole -5.67128 South pole -11 .43005
H = -2 .74748 H = -5.67128
Meridians Bow Center Meridians Bow Center
10° 0.25580 16.58172 10° 0 .50383 32.65958
20° 0.51555 8.03309 20° 1.01543 15.82208
30° 0.78343 5.06418 30° 1.54306 9 .97447
40° 1.06418 3.48446 40° 2.09602 6.86303
50° 1.36339 2.45336 50° 2.68536 4.83228
60° 1.68806 1.68806 60° 3.32483 3.32483
70° 2.04727 1.06418 70° 4.03233 2.09602
SOo 2.45336 0 .51555 80° 4.83228 1.01543
90° 2.92381 0.00000 90° 5.75877 0.00000

TABLE 30. TABLE FOR CONSTRUCTING THE STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION CENTERED ON 90°.
D = 1
Parallels Upper Lower Parallels Upper Lower
North pole 0 30° 1.73205 -1 .73205
80° 0 .08749 -0.08749 40° 2.14451 -2.14451
70° 0 . 17633 -0.17633 50° 2.74748 -2.74748
60° 0 .26795 -0.26795 60° 3 . 73205 -3 .73205
50° 0.36397 -0.36397 70° 5.67128 -5.67128
40° 0.46631 -0.46631 SOo 11.43005 -11.43005
30° 0.57735 -0.57735 South pole 00 00

20° 0.70021 -0.70021 H=oo

10° 0.83910 -0.83910
0° 1.00000 -1.00000 Meridians are straight lines through the center
10° 1.19175 -1.19175 with equal angles between them.
20° 1.42815 -1.42815
 Appendix G
Lettering Magnification Tables
Tables 31-37 provide equivalent lettering The tables are used by permission of Survey-
sizes for projected maps that are magnified ing and Mapping, in which they originally
from 2 to 15 times their original size and are appeared.
viewed at various distances from a screen . Notes: (1) Approximate equivalent letter
Equivalent sizes are expressed to the nearest heights in inches of point sizes appear in
even or common point size in the smaller Table 11, Article 123. (2) For magnifica-
ranges, with some clear intermediates noted, tions intermediate to those shown in the
and in the larger sizes they are approximate tables the data may be determined for all
to the nearest even or common point size. practical purposes by a linear interpolation.

TABLE 31. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION, 2.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from screen

Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6
8
10
12 3
14 4
16 4-5
18 5
24 7 4
30 9 4-5 3
36 10 5 4

235
236 Appendix G

TABLE 32. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION, 3.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from screen

Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6
8 3
10 4-5
12 5
14 6 3
16 7 4
18 8 4-5
24 10 5 4
30 12 6 4-5 3-4
36 16 8 5 4 3

TABLE 33. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION, 4.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from screen

Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6 3
8 4-5
10 6 3
12 7 4
14 8 4- 5
16 9 4-5 3
18 10 5 4
24 14 7 4-5 3-4
30 18 9 6 4- 5 3- 4 3
36 22 11 8 5-6 4-5 4 3
,
 Appendix G 237

TABLE 34. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION , 6.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from screen

Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6 5
8 7 4
10 9 4-5 3
12 10 5 4
14 12 6 4- 5 3
16 14 7 4- 5 3- 4
18 16 8 5 4 3
24 22 11 8 5-6 4- 5 4 3
30 2 14 9 7 5--6 4-5 4 3
36 33 16 10 8 6 5-6 5 4 3- 4 3

TABLE 35. LINE AR MAGNIFICATION, 9.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed a.t distance (feet) from screen
Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6 8 4- 5 3
8 10 5 4
10 12 6 4-5 3- 4
12 16 8 5 4 3
14 18 9 6 5 4 3
16 22 11 8 5-6 4- 5 4 3
18 24 12 8 6 5 4 3-4 3
24 32 16 10 8 6 5-6 5 4 3-4 3
30 42 21 14 11 9 7 6 5--6 5 4-5
36 48 24 16 12 10 8 7 6 5-6 5
238 Appendix G

TABLE 36. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION , 12.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from screen

Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

6 10 5 4
8 14 7 4-5 3- 4
10 18 9 6 4-5 3- 4 3
12 22 11 8 5-6 4-5 4 3
14 24 12 8 6 5 4 3-4 3
16 30 14 10 8 6 5 4 3- 4
18 32 16 10 8 6 5-6 5 4 3-4 3
24 42 21 14 11 9 7 6 5-6 5 4-5
30 54 27 18 14 12 9 8 7 6 5-6
36 68 34 24 16 13 11 9 8 7 6

TABLE 37. LINE AR MAGNIFI CATION , 15.

(Blank spaces indicate nonlegibility.)

Approximate equivalent size in points viewed at distance (feet) from screen

Point size
on original
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-
6 13 6--7 4- 5 3
8 18 9 6 4- 5 3-4 3
10 24 12 8 6 5 4 3
12 28 14 9 7 5-6 4-5 4 3
14 32 16 10 8 6 5 4-5 4 3-4 3
16 36 18 12 9 8 6 5 4-5 4 3-4
18 42 21 14 11 9 7 6 5-6 5 4- 5
24 54 27 18 14 12 9 8 7 6 5-6
30 68 34 23 17 13 12 10 9 8 7
36 80 40 27 20 16 14 12 10 9 8
 Appendix H
Estimating Densities of Fractional Areas
The table below, devised by John K. D Dmam
Wright, enables one to solve without multi~ Values of and - - - may be ex-
I-am I-am
plication or division the fundamental equa~ tracted from the table as follows. The table
tion required to estimate densities of frac- is entered at the top with am and entered at
tional areas referred to in Article 147. The the side with D or Dm as arguments. When
explanation and tables are here presented by D is the argument, the left-hand column
permission of The Geographical Review, pub- under the particular value of am gives values
lished by the American Geographical Society D
of New York. of When Dm is the argument, the
The basic equation is 1 - am
right-hand column under the particular
D Dmam D",.am
D" = - - - value of am gives values of - - - .
I - am 1 - am 1 - am
in which D" = the density in area n. In order to obtain D", subtract the value
D = average density of the area obtained from entering the table with Dm as
as a whole (number of units argument from the value obtained from en-
-;- area). tering the table with D as argument. (If
Dm = estimated density in part m this value is a minus quantity, then the
of area. value of Dm is too large to be consistent
a", = the fraction (0.1 to 0.9) of with the values of D and of am.)
the total area comprised in For example: D = 100, Dm = 10, am =
m. 0.8. From row 100 and the left-hand column
1 - am = the fraction (0.1 to 0.9) of under 0.8 extract value 500; from row 10 and
the total area comprised in the right-hand column under 0.8 extract
n. value 40; 500 - 40 = 460 = D1'l'

239
240 Appendix H

Cl'°Cl
" ..... ~M~lO= ..... OO= ~ :::~~:!:!!;~!::~~
~ C::~~~~~~~~ g ;;;~::5~:g~l:;[!l~
~ ;~~~~~~~~

l ~OOt-~"~~"-I&I~OOt-~";M"-I~laBOOt-~"~M""lol~ggt-~~"::5"-lg
c!I 1I1 cooo~~~.~ .. _
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 Bibliography

Selected Literature of Generally Available Sources Useful for

Additional Readings
The following list includes references to Wellman Chamberlin, The Round Earth on Flat
only those items which are in English, and Paper, The National Geographic Society, Wash-
ington, D. C., 1947.
which are readily available or easily pro- C. H. Deetz and O. S. Adams, "Elements of Map
cured. They will be found useful for refer- Projection," U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
ence or for further reading in the topics Special Publication 68, Washington, D. C. (lat-
under which they have been included. est edition available).
Irving Fisher and O. M. Miller, World Maps and
General Globes, Essential Books, New York, 1944.
C. H. Deetz, "Cartography," U.s. Coast and Geo- Wm. Garnett, A Little Book on Map Projections,
detic Survey Special Publication t05, Washing- Philip and Son, London, 1921.
A. R. Hinks, Map Projections, Cambridge Univer-
ton, D. C., 1936.
sity Press, Cambridge, England (latest edition
David Greenhood, Down to Earth, Holiday House,
available) .
New York, 1951. H. A. Hoffmeister, Construction 0/ Map Projec-
Erwin Raisz, General Cartography, 2nd Ed ., Mc- tions, McKnight & McKnight, Bloomington,
Graw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1948. III., 1946.
World Cartography, Vol. 1, United Nations, New G. P. Kellaway, Map Projections, 2nd Ed., Meu-
York, 1951 (available from Columbia Univer- then & Co., London, and E. P. Dutton & Co.,
sity Press). New York, 1949.
F . J . Marschner, "Structural Properties of Me-
Hitstorical Background dium and Small Scale Maps," Annals 0/ the
Lloyd A. Brown, The Story 0/ Maps, Little, Association 0/ American GeographerB, Vol.
Brown & Co., Boston, 1949. XXXIV, 1944.
H. G. Fordham, Maps, Their Hitstory, Charac- O. M. Miller, "Notes on Cylindrical Map Projec-
teritstics and Uses, Cambridge University Press, tions," The Geographical Review, Vol. 32, 1942.
Cambridge, England, 1943. Erwin Raisz, General Cartography.
W. W. Jervis, The World in Maps, Oxford Uni- Arthur H. Robinson, "An Analytical Approach to
versity Press, New York, 1938. Map Projections," Annals 0/ the Association 0/
M. Proudfoot, "The Measurement of Geographic American Geographers, Vol. XXXIX, 1949.
Arthur H. Robinson, "The Use of Deformational
Area," Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C.,
Data in Evaluating Map Projections," Annals
1946.
0/ the Association 0/ American Geographers,
Erwin Raisz, General Cartography. Vol. XLI, 1951.
John K. Wright, "Highlights in American Car- J . A. Steers, An Introduction to the Study oj Map
tography, 193~1 949," Compte rendu du XVIe Projections, University of London Press, Lon-
congres international de geographie, Lisbon, don, 1937.
1949. J. Q. Stewart, "The Use and Abuse of Map Pro-
jections," The Geographical Review, Vol. 33,1943.
Coordinate Systems and Projections
W. G. V. Balchin, "The Representation of True Techniques and Design
to Scale Linear Values on Map Projections," Faber Birren, The Story 0/ Color, The Crimson
Geography, Vol. 36, 1951. Press, Westport, Conn., 1941.
243
244 Bibliography
S. W. Boggs, "Cartohypnosi ," Scientific Monthly, J . A. Barnes and A. H. Robinson, "A New Method
Vol. 64, 1947. for the Repr sentation of Dispersed Rural
E. De Lopatecki, Advertising Layout and Typog- PopUlation," The Geographical R eview, Vol. 30,
raphy, The Ronald Press, New York, 1935. 1940.
Max Eckert, "Dn the Nature of Maps and Map T. W. Birch, Maps, Topographical and Statistical,
Logic," Bulletin of the American Geographical Oxford University Press, London, 1949.
Society, Vol. 40, 1908 (translated by W. L. G. S. W. Boggs, "Mapping the Changing World:
Joerg). Suggested Developments in Maps," Annals of
Ralph M. Evans, An Introduction to Color, John the Association of American Geographers, Vo)'
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1948. XXXI, 1941.
Higgins Ink Company, Technique8, 5th Ed., Sten DeGeer, "A Map of the Distribution of
Brooklyn, N. Y., 1948. Population in Sweden: Method of Preparation
International Printing Ink Corporation, Three and General Results," The Geographical R e-
Monographs on Color, New York, 1935. view, Vol. 12, 1922.
L. H. Joachim (editor), Seventh Production Year- Wellington D. Jones, "Ratio and Isopleth Maps
book, The R eference Manual of the Graphic in Regional Investigation of Agricultural Land
Arts, Colton Press, New York, 1941. Dccupance," Annals of the AS80ciation of Amer-
L. O. Quam, "The Use of Maps in Propaganda," ican Geographers, Vol. XX, 1930.
Journal of Geography, Vol. 42, 1943. R. R. Lutz, Graphic Presentation Simplified,
Arthur H . Robinson, The Look of Maps, An Ex- Funk and Wagnalls Co., New York, 1949.
amination of Cartographic Design, University J. Ross Mackay, "Dotting the Dot Map," Sur-
of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisc ., 1952. veying and Mapping, Vol. 9, 1949.
Walter Sargent, The Enjoyment and Use of J. Ross Mackay, "Some Problems and Techniques
Color, Charles Scribner's Sons, Chicago, 1923. in Isopleth Mapping," Economic Geography,
Hans Soffner, "War on the Visual Front; Use of Vol. 27, 1951.
Maps, Charts, and Diagrams for Purposes of F. J . Mar chner, "Maps and a Mapping Program
Propaganda," American Scholar, Vol. 11, 1942. for the United States," Annals of the Associa-
U.S. Government Printing Office, Typography and tion 0/ American Geo(Jraphers, Vol. XXXIII,
Design, Washington, D . C., 1951. 1943.
John K. Wright, "Map Makers Are Human . E. Mather, "A Linear Distance Map of Farm
Comments on the Subjective in Maps," The Population in the United States," Annals 0/
Geographical Revieto, Vol. 32, 1942. the Association of American Geographers, Vol.
XXXIV, 1944.
Lettering and Type Erwin Raisz, "The Rectangular Statistical Dia-
Merideth F . Burrill, "U.S. Board on Geographical gram," The Geogra,phical R eview, Vol. 24, 1934.
Names," Surveying and Mapping, Vol. 6, 1946. Erwin Raisz, "Landform, Landscape, Land-Use
Ross F . George, Speedball Text Book, Hunt Pen and Land-Type Maps," Journal 0/ Geography,
Co., Camden, N . J., 1948. 1946.
Higgins Ink Company, Letteri1l{l, 2nd Ed., Brook- Erwin Raisz, General Cartography.
lyn, N. Y., 1949. E. C. Wilcox and W. H. Ebling, "Presentation of
U.s. Government Printing Office, Typography alld Agricultural Data in the States," Journal oj
Design. Farm Econamics, Vol. 31, 1949.
Daniel B. Updike, Printing Type8, Their History, John K. Wright, "A Method of Mapping Densi-
Form8, and U8e; a Study in Survivals, Harvard ties of Population with Cape Cod as an Ex-
University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1922. ample," The Geographical Review, Vol. 26, 1936.
J. G. Withycombe, "Lettering on Maps," Geo- John K. Wright, "A Proposed Atlas of Diseases,
graphical Journal, Vol. 73, 1929. Appendix I, Cartographic Considerations," The
Geographical Review, Vol. 34, 1944.
Kinds of Map8 and Distribution Mappin'g John K. Wright, "The Terminology of Certain
John W. Alexander arid George A. Zahorchak, Map Symbols," The Geographical Review, Vol.
"Population Density Maps of the United 34, 1944.
States: Techniques and Patterns," The Geo-
graphical Review, Vol. 33, 1943. Representing the Terrain
H . J . Allcock and J . R . Jones, The Nomogram, R. R Batchelder, "Application of Two Relative
Pitman & Sons, London, 1938. Relief Techniques to an Area of Diverse Land-
 Bibliography 245
forms: A Comparative Study," Surveying and national Geographical Congre8S of Cambridge,
Mapping, Vol. 10, 1950. 19t8, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Preston E. James, "On the Treatment of Surfa.ce England, 1930.
Features in Regional Studies," Annal.! of the Guy-Harold Smith, "The Relative Relief of
A880ciation of American Geographer8, Vol. Ohio," The Geographical Review, Vol. 25, 1935.
XXVII, 1937. K. Tanaka, "The Orthographical Relief Method
Capt. H. G. Lyons, "Relief in Cartography," Geo- of Representing Hill Features on a Topographi-
graphical Journal, Vol. 43, 1914. cal Map," Geographical Journal, Vol. 79, 1932.
J . E. Mundine and Hal Shelton, "Visual Topog- K. Tanaka, "The Relief Contour Method of Rep-
raphy," Photogrammetric Engineering, 1945. resenting Topography on Maps," The Geo-
Erwin Raiaz, "The Physiographic Method of Rep- graphical Review, Vol. 40, 1950.
resenting Scenery on Maps," The Geographical
Review, Vol. 21, 1931. Government Publications
Erwin Raisz, General Cartography. Branches of the government have issued useful
Art.hur H. Robinson, "A Method for Producing publications concerning many aspects of cartog-
Shaded Relief from Areal Slope Data," Annal.! raphy. Particularly helpful are those issued by the
of the Association of American Geographer8, U.s. Coast and Geodetic Survey relating to projec-
Vol. 36, 1946. tions and the Department of the Army relating
Eugene Romer, "Hachure in Recent Cartog- to topographic mapping and drafting, map read-
raphy," Report of the Proceeding8 0/ the lnter- ing, and map reproduction.
 Index

Aeronautical charts, 7 Central meridian, 57

Albers projection, construction of, 64 Changing scale, by pantogra.ph, 110
deformation on, 36 by photograph, 110
table {or, ()5 by i}howstat, 11Q
Altitude tints, 215 by similiar squares, 111
Altitudes, representation of, 132 Charts, aeronautical, 7
Ames Lettering Instrument, 152 portolani, 5
Area, alteration of, by proj e~tion s, 30 Chord, determination of, 62
measurement of, 22 Choropleth, see Area symbols
Area symbols, 162, 177 Chronometer, 5
Art in cartography, 12, 20 Circles, drawing of, 84
Azimuth,20 graduated, 167
Azimuthal equidistant projection, 33, 45 on stereographic projection, 72
construction of, 74 Clarity in map design, 123
deformation on, 45 Classic (Old Style) lettering, 144
Azimuthal projections, 44 Classification, of kinds of maps, 1, 8, 121
comparison of, 69 of map symbols, 163
construction of, 69 of projections, 27
shifting center of, 76 Cloth, tracing, 90
transformation of, 75 Coastlines, 112 ; see also Compilation
changes in, 112
Balance in map design, 133 drafting of, 113
Barch-Payzant pen, 86, 87, 166 generalization of, 117
Barnes, James A., 230 kinds of, 113
Base data, 8 Color in cartography, 126; 8ee also Design
Base map, changing scale of, 109 choice of, 131
determination of scale of, 108 effect of environment on, 130
importance 0\, 11}S hue in, inmvidua\ity ot, 1'6'1.
scale of, 106 intensity of, 132
Ben Day patterns, 99, 101 relative luminosities of, 132
Block diagram, 214 sensitivity of eye to, 131
Blue-line board, 102, 193 in terrain representation, 197
..-: Blueprint, 95 of lettering and of background, 151
---noard on Geographical Names, 160 value in, 128
Boards, drawing, 80 Color printing, 101
Bonne projection, 36 Compass rose, 20
construction of, 65 Compasses, drawing, 84
deformation on, 37 Compilation, 107, Ill, 140
Boundaries, political, 114 compared to surveying, 3
along rivers, 115 of coastlines, 112
drafting of, 114 procedure of, 106, 111
kinds of, 115 Conformal projections, employment of, 41
Braddock-Rowe Lettering Angle, 152 I..ambert conic, 43
Brightness, see Value Mercator, 41
transverse, 54
Cadastral maps, 2, 114 stereographic, 43
Cartography, history of, 3-6 Conformality, definition of, 29, 39
247
248 Index
Conformality, deformation in, 39 Deformation, law of, 226
Conic projec;tion with two standard parallels, 48 on map projections, 29
construction of, 61 Albers, 36
deformation on, 49 azimuthal equidistant, 45
Conic projections, construction of, 60 Bonne, 36
Construction of map projections, Albers, 64 conic, with two standard parallels, 49
azimuthal,69 cylindrical equal-area, 41
azimuthal equidistant, 74 Eckert IV, 40
Bonne, 65 equirectangular, 48
conic, with two standard parallels, 61 gnomonic, 44
cylindrical equal-area, 59 Lambert conic, 42
Eckert IV, 68 Lambert equal-area, 41
equirectangulnr, 59 Mercator, 42
interrupted, 78 Mollweide, 39
Lambert conic, 63 orthographic, 46
Lambert equal-area, 74 polyconic,47
Mercator, 58 sinusoidal, 38
Mollweide, 66 stereographic, 43
orthographic, 71 Density, estimation of, for fractional areas, 239
oval,66 table for, 240
sinusoidal, 66 Density maps, 187
stereographic, 70 Design, of legend boxes, 136
Contours, 196 of maps, 120
accuracy of, 201 balance in, 133
characteristic shapes of, 20 1 variations of, 135
choice of interval for, 201 visual center for, 134
definition of, 198 clari ty and legi bili ty in, 123
Contrast, see Design color in, 126
Copy, designing of, for reproduction, 93 choice of, 131
line vs. halftone, 100 hue of, 127
Copy camera, 97 intensity of, 128
Copyrights, 118 contrast in, 124
Coquille Board, 91, 101, 198 of lines, 124
Craftint, 101 of patterns, 130
Crayon shading, see Shading for terrain maps of shapes, 125
Credit, giving of, for borrowed material, 118 of sizes, 124
Crow quill pen, 86 figure-ground relationship in, 135
Cruquius, 197 layout in, 133
Cubes as symbols, 169 methods of, 134
Curves, flexible, 82 lettering in, Bee Lettering
Cylindrical equal-area projection, 37 scale of visual significance in, 120
construction of, 59 value in, contrast of, 128
deformation on, 41 gray scale of, 129
importance of, 128
Dark Ages, 5 induction in, 130
Dasymetric lines, 190 use of, on qualitative maps, 184
Data, base, 8 visual outline in, 121
Datum plane, 198
of scales, 137
Davis, W. M., 214
of titles, 136
Definition, of conformality, 29, 39
of contours, 198 Determination of chord distance, 62
of equivalence, 30 Diagram, block, 214
of hachures, 203 physiographic, 214
of isolines, 172 reliability, 118
Deformation, in map projections, analysis of, 32 Diapositive, 96, 104
Tissot's indicatrix for, 32, 226 Dimensions of earth, 15
 Index 249
Direction on maps, 20; see a/.so Great circles; Equirectangular projection, 47
Rhumb line construction of, 59
Distance, measurement of, 19 deformation on, 48
Distribution maps, kinds of, 179, 187; see also Dot Equivalence, definition of, 30
maps importance of, 35
processing data for, 181- 183 Equivalent projections, 35
qualitative and quantitative, 183 Albers, 36
Dividers, 84 Bonne, 36
Dot maps, 163, 185 cylindrical, 37
density relationship on, 167 Eckert IV, 37, 40
locating dots on, 166, 185 homolosine, 48
size and value of dots on, 164 Lambert azimuthal, 37
Drafting, for reproduction, 93 Moll weide, 36
of boundaries, 114 use of, 35
of coastlines, 113
of hydrography, 116 Fair drawing, 138
of register marks, 102 Figure-ground relationship, 135
preprinted symbols for, 92 Flat color process, 101
relation of to cartography, 10 Flexible curves, 82
Drafting surfaces, kinds of, 86 Flow lines, 176
qualities of, 90 Form lines, 201
Drawing boards, 80 Format, 108, 135
Drawing equipment, 80 Formula, for average distance between spaced units,
flexible curves, 82 187
spline, 82 for Bonne projection, 65
tracing (or light-) table, 82 for caloulating densities of fractional a.reas, 189,
Drawing instruments, 83 239
compasses, 84, 85 for changing one coordinate system to another, 78
dividers, 84 for conic projection with two standard parallels,
pens, 86 61
ruling pens, 83 for cylindrical equal-area projection, 60
Drawing paper, 90 for determination of chord distance, 62, 64
Dufour map, 203, 204, 206 for length of degree of longitude, 18
for radius of globe of given area scale, 58
Earth, azimuths on, 20 for stereographic projection, 230
dimensions of, 15 for transformation of scale, 24
directions on, 20 Four-color process, 103
great circles on, 19 Fraction, representative, 23
grid on, 15, 17 Freehand lettering, directions for, 152
loxodromes on, 20 importance of, 143
measurement of areas on, 22
measurement of distances on, 19 Generalization in cartography, 11
shape 0(, 14 importance of, 116
Eckert, Max, 209 of boundaries, 117
Eckert IV projection, 37 of coastlines, 117
construction of, 68 of hydrography, 117
deformation on, 40 of terrain, 191,211
interrupted, 50 visual vs. intellectual, 117
table for, 69 Geodesy, 199
Emulsion of negatives, 98 Geodetic survey, 114, 199
Engraving, 96 Geographical names, 160
of lettering, 141, 143 Gnomonic projection, deformation on, 44
Enlargement (or reduction) in compilation, 110, 111 Goode, J. Paul, 48, 78
Environment, effect of, 011 color, 130 Graduated circles, 167
Equal-area, 30, 35 Graph, for choice of scale of .values, 133
Equipment, drawing, SO, 82 of dimension proportions, 109
250 Index
Graph, of frequency of occurrence, 174 Isolines, control points for, 174
of gray, 128 definition of, 172
of red, 128 intervals for, 173
of relation between dot size and dot density, 167 locating of, 174
of relation of enlargement to reduction, 139 Isometric lines, 172-174
of white/ black ratios in visual gray scale, 129 Isopleths, 172-174
Gray scale, 129 Italic lettering, 145, 147
Great circles, characteristics of, 19
Greek period in cartography, 3 Lakes, 115, 116
Lambert conic projection, construction of, 63
Hachure, definition of, 203 deformation on, 42
development of, 195 employment of, 43
effectiveness of, 203 table for, 64
oblique lighting of, 203 Lambert equal-area projection, construction of, 74
Halftone, cost of, 101 deformation on, 41
purpose of, 100 employment of, 37
ways of simulating, 101 tables for, 228, 229
Halftone method, 100 Landform map, 214
Harrison, Richard Edes, 76, 198, 207, 208, 211, 215 Landforms, representation of, see Terrain represen-
Hereford map, 4 tation
History, of cartography, Age of Discovery in, 5 Land-type map, 214
development of topographic map in, 5 Latitude, 15
Early Modem period in, 5 determination of, 16
Greek period in. 3 lengths of degrees of, 16, 224
growth of compiled maps in, 6 Law of deformation, 226
growth of scientific attitude in, 5 Layer tinting, 215
influence of world wars on, 6 Layout in map design, 133
modem period in, 6 methods of, 134
porto Ian charts in, 5 Legend boxes, design of, 136, 137
Ptolemy, Claudius, 3 Legibility, in map design, 123, 124
of lettering, 141, 144 of lettering, 146
of map projections, 26 Lehmann, 203
of terrain representation, 195 Lengths, of degrees of latitude, 16, 224
Homolatitude,39 of degrees of longitude, 18, 223
Homolosine projection, 48 Leroy lettering, 154
Hondius, 5, 141 scriber and template for, 154
Hue, 132; Bee also Color in cartography Leroy pens, 86, 166
Hydrography, compiling of, 115 Lettering, as a symbol, 141
drafting of, 116 by imprinter, 156
generalization of, 115 color of, and background of, 151
Hypsometry, 215; Bee also Contours ; Terrain repre- design of, 146
sentation effect of reduction on, 157
form of, 147
Imprinter, 156 freehand method of, 143, 145, 152, 153
Indexing, of reliability of coverage, 118 guide lines for, 152
of sources, 107 history of, 141, 144
Indicatrix, Tissot's, 32, 34, 226 importance of, 141
Induction (in color), 130 legibility of, 146
Inks,91 Leroy method of, 154
Instruments, drawing, 83-86 of titles and legends, 159
Intensity of color, 128 planning for, 143
International map, 47, 132 positioning of, 159
Interpolation, process of, 174 preprinted method of, 143, 157
Interrupted projections, 53 reverse method of, 151- 152
Interval, choice of, for contours, 201 size of, 147
for i80lines, 173 for projected maps, 148, 235-238
 Index 251
Lettering, size of, relative visibility of, 148, 150 Map reproduction, color method of, re,pster in, 102
spacing of, 153 continuous tone in, 101
stick-up method of, 143, 157 designing for, 93'
style of, 144 diapositives in, 96
Classic, Old Style, 144 engraving method of, 96
italic, 145, 147 letterpress method of, 96
Modern, 144 line vs. halftone in, 100
Sans Serif, 145 lithography method of, 91
'l:lquare 'l:leri.'i, 14'5 'l).e,&a\'\~~ \'1)., dO'll\)\e e"''P1)1)\wg o~, ~~
Text, 145 manipulation of, 103
Varigraph method of, 155 masking of, 99
Wrico method of, 156 processing of, 97
Letterpress, 96 screening on, 98
Light-table, 82 Ozalid method of, 96
Lines, as symbols, 162, 170; see also Contours; photograph method of, 95
Isolines photostat method of, 94
dasymetri c, 190 printing processes for, 96
effect of reduction on, 138 separation drawings for, 102
flow , 176 Map scale, 23
Lithography, 97 Maps, classification of, I, 8, 121
Lobeck, A. K., 212, 214, 215 copyrighting of, 118
Longitude, 17 design of, 120; see also Design
determinat ion of, 18 drafting of, 80
lengths of degrees of, 18, 2~3 lettering of, see Lettering
prime meridian of, 18 of density, 181
Loxodrome, 20, 31 of distribution, 179-190
Luminosity of color, 132 of dot distributions, 163
of relative relief, 216
Mackay, J . Ross, 166, 173, 115, 180 of slope, 216
Map proj ections, 25 of terrain units, 216
angular alteration in, 29 relation of airphotos to, 161
area alteration in, 30 Masking of n gatives, 99
c\assincation 01, '21,41 MerCl'\.ol' 'P'to)ec\'\o'l)., '2\), 4\'
conformality in, 29 construction of, 58
construction techniques for, 58 deformation on, 42
to scale, 57 direct ions on, 31 , 41
criteria for selection of, 49 table for , 59
deformation in, 29, 32 transverse form of, 54
direction alteration in, 31 Meridian, central, 57
distance alteration in, 31 Meridians, see Longitude
equivalence in, 30 Middle (Dark) Ages, 5
history of, 26 Miller, O. M., 48
interruption of, 18 Miller projection, 48
relation of earth grid to, 53 Millionth map, 41, 132
relation to format of, 108 Minimum error projectiQns, 46
reuse of, 109 Modern style of lettering, 144
shifting center of, 16 Mollweide projection, 34, 36
formulas for, 18 construction of, 66
Map reproduction, 93 deformation on, 39
Ben Day patterns in, 99 interrupted form of, 51
blue-line boards for, 102 oblique form of, 55, 78
blueprint process for, 95 table for, 68
classification of methods of, 94 Monsen-Chicago, Inc., 158
color method of, 101 Multi lettering angle, 152
flat color, 101
four-color, 103 Names, geographical, 160
252 Index
Negatives in map reproduction, Bee Map reproduc- Qualitative and quantitative distribution maps, 183
tion, negatives in Qualities of drafting surfaces, 90
Nomograph,182 Quill pens, 86

Old Style (Classic) lettering, 144 Radius, formula for, for globe of given area scale,
Opaquing negatives, 98 58
Orientation, of lettering, 159 of earth, 15
of maps, 21 Raisz, Erwin, 170, 213, 214, 217, 218
Orthographic projection, 46, 53 Reduction, effect of, on design, 138
construction oI, 71 on lettering, 147, 157
deformation on, 46 purpose of, 138
Orthomorphic, Bee Conformal projections Reduction (or enlargement) in compilation, 110, 111
Oval projections, construction of, 66 Register of maps, 102
Ozalid, 96 Relative relief, representation of, 216
Reliability of map data, 118
Pantograph, 110 coverage diagram for, 118
Pattern in design, 130 statement of, 119
Patterns, as symbols, 178 Relief maps, 215
preprinted form of, 92 Representation of terrain, see Terrain representa-
Payzant pens, 86, 87, 166 tion
Pelican-Graphos pens, 86, 89 Representative fraction, 23
Pens, Barch-Payzant, 86, 87, 166 Reproduction of maps, 93; see also Map reproduc- ,
crow quill, 86 tion
Leroy, 86, 87, 166 Rhumb lines, 43; see also Loxodrome
Pelican-Graphos, 86, 89 Rivers, boundaries along, 114
quill, 86 compiling of, 115
ruling, 83 drafting of, 116
Speedball, 86, 88 generalizing of, 115
stub,86 Rose, compass, 20
Wrico, 156 Ross Board, 91, 101, 198
Perspective terrain drawing, 210 Ruling pens, 83
Photography, 94
changing scale by, 110 Sans Serif style of lettering, 145
in map reproduction, see Map reproduction Scale of maps, 23, 106
Photostat, 94 changing of, 109
changing scale by, 110 determination of, 108
Physiographic diagram, 214 in terrain representation, 194, 197
Pie graph (pie chart) 168 Scales, for measuring, 85
Plane, datum, 198 graphic, design of, 137
Plane chart, 47, 48, 59 Scientific attitude, growth of, in cartography, I
Planimeter, polar, 22 in preparing distribution maps, 180
Plastics, 102 Scree.ning of negatives, 98
for drafting, 90 Sensitivity of eye to color, 131
Plastic shading, Bee Shading for terrain maps Shading for terrain maps, 197
Point symbols, 162 definition of, 203
Polar planimeter, 22 direction of illumination for, 206
Polar projections, 55 effect of lithography on, 206
Political boundaries, 114, 115 printing processes for, 206
Polyconic projection, deformation on, 47 use of topographic models for, 206
Portolani (charts), 5 Similar squares method of changing scale, 111
Prime meridian, 18 Simplification, see Generalization
Printing, Bee Lettering Sinusoidal projection, 36
Printing processes, see Map reproduction construction of, 66
Projections, see Map projections deformation on, 38
Ptolemy, projections of, 26 interrupted form of, 52
world map of, 3 Slope, representation of, 216
•
 Index 253
Smith, Guy-Harold, 214, 216 Ta.ble, for construction of projections, Lambert con-
Sources, acknowledgment of, 119 formal conic, 64
indexing of, 107 Lambert equal-area, 228, 229
reliability of, 118 Merca.tor, 59
Spectrum, 127 Mo\lwe\de, (l,S
Speedball pens, 86, 88 stereographic, 230-234
Spelling of geographical names, 160 for estimating densities of fractional areas, 240
Sphere, see Earth of areas of quadrilaterals of earth's surface,
Spheres as symbols, 169 225
Spline, 82 of dot diameters of pens, 166
Squa.re Serif style of lettering, 145 of earth dimensions, 15
Standard line on projections, 57 of English to metric measure, 20
Standardization, of bounda.ries, 114 of equivalent lettering sizes when viewed from
of symbols, 161 various distances, 150
Statistical maps, 179 of \ililds ~f mappable relationships, 181
Statistics, equatin.g of, 181 of lengths of degrees, of the meridian, 224
nomographs for computation of, 182 of the parallel, 223
processing of, 181-183 of lettering magnification, 235-238
Stereographic projection, 43 of Dunimum symbol siz~ when viewed from
circles on, 72 various distances, 124
'Wrultructi~1l (}{, 7() ~{ Il~t\lrl'.t tri~~Mmetric {Ullct\(}nI\, '2.19
deformation on, 43 of relative visibility of type sizes, 148
tables for, 70, 230--234 of squares, cubes, and roots, 220
Stick-up lettering, 143, 157 Tanab., K., 198, 209, 210
Stippling, 130 Terrain representation, 191
Stub pens, 86 by altitude tints, 215
Surface configuration, representation of, see Ter- by contours, 196, 198
rain representation by hD-chures, 195, 203
Survey, cadastral, 2 by shading, 197, 203
geodetic, 114, 199 by symbols, 191
topographic, 195 by terrain units, 216
Symbolism, relation of, to design, 123 history of, 195
Symbols, area, 162, 177 importance of, 191
on terrain maps, 215 importance of scale in, 194
for coastlines, 112 pictorial method of, 198, 210
for hydrography, 115 significance of aviation to, 193
for political bounda.ries, 115 Te>."t style ~{ lettering, 14.5
lines as, 162, 170 Three-dimensional symbols, 169
dasymetric, 190 Tints, see Color in cartography; Patterns; Value
flow, 176 Tissotr M. A., 32, 34, 226
kinds of, 171 Titles, design of, 136
isolines, 172-116 lettering of, 159
isometric, 172-176 TopogrtJ.phic maps, 195
isopleth, 172-176 development of, 5, 195
pie chart, 168 TopogrtJ.phic models, use of, for shaded relief maps
point form of, 162-170 206
dot, 163 Tracing cloth, 90
graduated circle, 167
Tracing paper, 90
graduated volume, 169
Trans-A.dhesive lettering, 158
preprinted, 92
Transformation, of azimuthal projections, 75
standardiza.tion of, 161
the map as a, 161 of sell-Ie, 24
Transverse proiections, 54
Table, for construction of projections, Albers equal-
area, 65 Value, 1'2.8; see also Design
Eckert IV, 69 Varigraph lettering instrument, 155
254 Index
Vinylite, 90, 102 Widths of lines maue by pens, 87, 89, 166
Visual center in design, 134 Work sheet, III
Visual outline in design, 121 preparation of, 139, 140
Visual significance, scale of, 120 Wrico lettering, 156, 157
Volume symbols, 169 Wrico pen, 166
Wright, John K., ll6, 172, 187,239
War, influence of, on cartography, 6
Wave length of color, 127 Zelinsky, W., 188
Wenschow, maps of, 194, 215 Zip-a-tone, 92, 101, 158
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