Irrigation Management

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT AND MICRO IRRIGATION
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1. DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION IN INDIA - WATER

RESOURCES, IRRIGATION POTENTIAL AND IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
OF INDIA AND TAMIL NADU
IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
Irrigation
Simply, irrigation can be stated as application of water to the soil for crop growth
and development. The application of water to plants is made naturally through rainfall
and artificially through irrigation.
Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the soil for the purpose
of crop growth or crop production in supplement to rainfall and ground water
contribution.
Management
Regulating, the activities based on the various resources for its efficient use and
better out put. i.e., allocation of all the resources for maximum benefit and to achieve the
objectives, without eroding the environment is called management. Otherwise it can be
stated as planning, executing, monitoring, evaluating and re-organizing the whole
activities to achieve the target.
Irrigation Management
Management of water based on the soil and crop environment to obtain better
yield by efficient use of water without any damage to the environment.
Management of water, soil, plants, irrigation structure, irrigation reservoirs,
environment, social setup and it’s inter liked relationship are studied in the irrigation
management.
For this we have to study
 The soil physical and chemical properties

 Biology of crop plants

 Quantity of water available

 Time of application of water
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 Method of application of water


 Climatological or meteorological influence on irrigation and

 Environment and its changes due to irrigation

Management of all the above said factors constitute Irrigation Agronomy:
Management of irrigation structures, conveyances, reservoirs constitute Irrigation
Engineering; and social setup, activities, standard of living, irrigation policies, irrigation
association and farmer’s participation, cost of irrigation etc., constitute Socio-economic
study.
Except Economics and Engineering all the other components are grouped under
Agronomy. Sociology has a major role in irrigation management in a large system. Hence
Engineering, Economics, Social science and Agronomy are the major faculties come
under Irrigation Management.
Irrigation management is a complex process of art and science involving
application of water from source to crop field. The source may be a river or a well or a
canal or a tank or a lake or a pond.
Maintaining the irrigation channels without leakage and weed infestation,
applying water to field by putting some local check structure like field inlet and
boundaries for the area to be irrigated etc., need some skill. These practices are the art
involving practices in irrigation management.
Time of irrigation and quantity of water to be applied (when to irrigate? and how
much to irrigate?) based on soil types, climatic parameters, crop, varieties, growth stages,
season, quality of water, uptake pattern of water by plants, etc., and method of
application (How best to irrigate) includes conveyance of water without seepage and
percolation losses and water movement in soil, are the process involving scientific
irrigation management.
Simply, it is a systematic approach of art and science involved in soil, plant and
water by proper management of the resources (soil, plant and water) to achieve the goal
of crop production.
Importance of Irrigation management
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Water is essential not only to meet agricultural needs but also for industrial
purposes, power generation, live stock maintenance, rural and domestic needs etc. But
the resource is limited and cannot be created as we require. Hence irrigation management
it very important:
 To the development of nation through proper management of water resources for
the purpose of crop production and other activities such as industrialization,
power generation etc., which in turn provides employment opportunities and good
living condition of the people.

 To store the regulate the water resources for further use or non-season use

 To allocate the water with proper proportion based on area and crop under
cultivation. (Balanced equity in distribution)

 To convey the water without much loss through percolation and seepage
(Efficiency in use)

 To apply sufficient quantity to field crops. (Optimization of use)

 To utilize the water considering cost-benefit (Economically viable management)

 To distribute the available water without any social problem (Judicial distribution)

 To meet the future requirement for other purposes like domestic use of individual
and to protect against famine (Resource conservation).

 To protect the environment from over use or misuse of water (Environment safe
use).
Impact of excess and insufficient irrigation water in crops
Avoid excess or insufficient water to the crops
Excess irrigation leads to wastage of large amount of water, leaching of plant
nutrients, destruction of beneficial microbes, increase of expenses on drainage,
accumulation of salt leading to salinity and alkalinity, water logging leading to
physiological stress and yield loss or crop failure.
Insufficient irrigation leads to reduction in quality of food grains, loss in crop
yield or crop failure, poor soil environment etc.
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Water becomes a limiting resource due to the multi-various demand from sectors
like agriculture, livestock, industries, power generation and increased urban and rural
domestic use. The increasing population increases the needs of industrial complexes and
urbanization to meet the basic requirement and also to provide employment opportunities.
So the demand for water is increasing day by day and hence, it is essential to study water
potential and its contribution to agriculture which is turn is going to feed the growing
population.
Sources of water
Rainfall is the ultimate source of all kind of water. Based on its sources of
availability it can be classified as surface water and subsurface water.
Surface water includes precipitation (including rainfall and dew) water available
from river, tank, pond; Lake Etc., Besides, snowfall could able to contribute some
quantity of water in heavy snowfall area like Jammu, Kashmir and Himalaya regin.
Subsurface water includes subsurface water contribution, underground water,
well water etc.
Rain fall
Seasons of rainfall can be classified s follows
1. Winter (Cold dry period - January – February
2. Summer (Hot weather period - March – May
3. Kharif (South-West monsoon) - June – September
4. Rabi (North-East monsoon) - October – December
South-west monsoon
It comprises the month June, July, August and September which contributes about
70% of rainfall to India except for extreme North of Jammu and Kashmir and extremes
South of Tamil Nadu. Hence the success of agriculture in India depends on timely onset,
adequate amount and even distribution of this South West Monsoon (SWM). This season
is also called as Kharif season.
North East monsoon
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It comprises the months of October, November and December. North East

Monsoon (NEM) contributed rainfall to South Eastern part of peninsular India Tamil
Nadu receives its 60% of rainfall from NEM (North East Monsoon). This season is also
called as Rabi season.
Winter
It comprises of the month of January and February. It contributes very little
rainfall.
Summer
Comprises of the months of March, April and May and contributes little summer
showers.
Characteristics of good rainfall
1. Quantity should be sufficient to replace the moisture depleted from the root zone.
2. Frequency should be so as to maintain the crop without any water stress before it
starts to wilt.
3. Intensity should be low enough to suit the soil absorption capacity.
Indian rainfall does not have the above good characteristics to maintain the crop
through rainfall alone.
Characteristic features of Indian rainfall
 Annual Average rainfall is 1190 mm

 There is wide variation in the quantity of rainfall received from place to place.
Highly erratic, undependable, variation in seasonal rainfall either in excess or
deficit are the nature of Indian rainfall. For example a place in Rajasthan receives
practically nil rainfall at the same time Chirapunji about 3000 mm rainfall.

 Rainfall is not uniformly distributed throughout the year. It is seasonal, major
quantity is in the South West Monsoon, (SWM alone contributing 70% of total
rainfall) i.e. in the month of June to September followed by North East Monsoon
(NEM) from October to December. It summer and winter the amount of rainfall is
very little.
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 With in the season also the distribution is not uniform. A sudden heavy downpour
followed by dry spell for a long period is common occurrence.

 Rainfall distribution over a large number of days is more effective than heavy
down pour in a short period, but it is in negative trend in India

 Late starting of seasonal monsoon

 Early withdrawal of monsoon and

 Liability to failure are the freakish behaviour of Indian rainfall. Timely and
uniform distribution of rainfall is important for better crop planning and to sustain
crop production.
IRRIGATION – HISTORY AND STATISTICS

Irrigation has been practiced since time immemorial, nobody knows when it was
started but evidences say that it is the foundation for all civilization since great
civilization were started in the river basins of Sind and Nile.
This civilization came to an end when the irrigation system failed to maintain
crop production.
There are some evidences that during the Vedic period (400 B.C) people used to
irrigate their crops with dug well water. Irrigation was gradually developed and extended
during the Hindus, Muslims and British periods.
The Grand Anaicat (KALLANAI) constructed across the river Cauvery is an
outstanding example for the irrigation work by a Chola king the great Karikala Cholan
during second century. The Veeranarayanan Tank and Gangai Konda Cholapuram tank
was constructed during 10th century in TN. Anantaraja Sagar in AP was constructed
during 13th century.
Early Mauryan king Samudragupta and Ashoka took great interest in the
construction of wells and tanks. Later Moghul kings or North India and Hindu kings of
South India focused their attention, in the establishment of canals, dams, tanks etc.
British Government initiated their work during 19th century in remodeling and
renovation of the existing irrigation system. The Upper Ganga canal, Krishna and
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Godaveri delta system, Mettur and Periyar dams are the great irrigation structures built by
the British rulers. After independence, Irrigation activities have been accelerated and
number of multipurpose river valley projects like Bhakrea-nangal in Punjab,
Tungabhadra in Andraprdesh, Damodar Valley in Madya Pradesh were established.
Irrigation Development during five year plans
In 1950 – 51 the gross irrigated area was 22.5 million ha. After completion of 1
five year plan the gross irrigated area was enlarged to 26.2 million ha. Further it was
gradually increased to 29, 35.5, 44.2, 53.5; 75 million has respectively over the II, III, IV,
V, VI & VII five years plans. The expected increase through VIII and IX five year plans
area 95 and 105 m ha respectively.
Classification of irrigation work or projects

The irrigation projects can be classified as 1. major 2. medium 3. minor based on
financial limits or expenditure involved in the scheme.
1. Major – more than 50 million Rupees : It covers cultural command area of more
than 10,000 hectares
2. Medium – 2.5 million to 50 million Rupees : It covers cultural command area of
2000 – 10,000 hectares
3. Minor – less than 2.5 million Rupees : It covers cultural command area of 2,000
hectares.
The minor irrigation work consists of irrigation tanks, canals and diversion work
for the welfare of small of farmers.
Indian has may perennial and seasonal rivers which flow from outside and within
the country. Among this some important rivers of different states are given below.
Important irrigation projects in India
State Project Name

A.P. Godavari delta system, Krishna delta system, Nagarjuna sagar
(Krishna)
Bihar Gandala
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Punjab Western Jamuna, Bhakranangal Sutlej, Beas

Gujarat Kakrapare – Tapti Narmada
M.P. Gandhi sagar (Chambal, Ranap setab, sagar
Maharastra Bhima Jayakwadi (Godavari)
Kerala Kalada, Mullai Periyar
Karnataka Ghataprabha, Malaprapha and Turga
Orissa Hirkand and mahanathi
U.P Upper ganga canal, Ramaganga
W.B Damodar Valley
Rajasthan Rajasthan Canal (Sutlej)
Tamil Nadu Mettur – Lower Bhavani Project
Parambikulam Alliyar Project
Periyar Vaigai, Cauvery delta
Tamiarabarani, Other river basins in TN is given in Map
India’s water budget

Total geographical area = 328M.ha.
Average annual rainfall = 1190mm
In million hectare metre = 1190 x 328 = 392 M ha m
Contribution from snowfall = 8 M ha m
Total = 400 m ha m.
The rainfall below 2.5 mm is not considered for water budgeting, since it will
immediately evaporate from surface soil without any contribution to surface water or
ground water.
When rainfall occurs, a portion of it immediately evaporates from the ground or
transpires from vegetation, a portion infiltrates into the soil and the rest flows over
surface as run off.
There are on an average 130 rainy days in a year in the country out of which the
rain during 75 days considered as effective rain. The remaining 55 days are very light and
shallow which evaporates immediately without any contribution to surface or ground
water recharge. Considering all these factors it is estimated that out of 400 million
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hectare meter of annual rainfall 70 million hectare meter is lost to atmosphere through
evaporation and transpiration, about 115 million hectare meter flows as surface run-off
and remaining 215 million hectare meter soaks or infiltrates into the soil profile
Surface run-off
Surface run off consists of direct run off from rainfall, melting of snowfall and
flow in streams generated from ground water. Total surface run-off has been estimated
by Irrigation Commission of India in 1972 as follows.
a) Total surface run off 180 M ha m
b) Rain fall contribution 115 M ha m
c) Contribution from outside the country through steams and rivers 20 M ha m
d) Contribution from regeneration from ground water in Stream and rivers 45 M ha m
Total 180 M ha m
Disposal of surface run off
The surface runoff is disposed in three ways

1. Stored in reservoirs
2. Disappears by means of percolation, seepage and evaporation
3. Goes to sea as waste
The waster stored in reservoirs is lost through evaporation and some amount
through seepage. The rest in utilized for various purposes mainly for irrigation and
drinking water.
Total surface run off = 180 M ha m

Stored in reservoir and tanks = 15 M ha m
Flow in the river = 165 M ha m
Utilization from the river by diversion tank and direct pumping = 15 M ha m
Water goes to sea as waste = 150 M ha m
On full development work expected = 45 M ha m
utilization Water flows to sea = 105 M ha m
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Land utilization pattern of India

Total geographical area = 328.00 M ha
Net area reported = 307.47 M ha
Area under forest = 65.90 M ha
Area under non agricultural use, barren and uncultivable waste = 100. 45 M ha
Net Area sown = 141.12 M ha
Net area irrigated = 31.20 M ha
Gross area sown = 164.00 M ha
Gross area irrigated = 80.50 M ha
Land utilization pattern in Tamil Nadu

Total geographical area = 13.00 M ha
Area under forest = 2.00 M ha
Non agricultural area = 1.40 M ha
Barren and uncultivated = 0.80 M ha
Pastures = 0.20 M ha
Tree = 0.20 M ha
Culturable waste = 0.50 M ha
Culturable fallow = 0.90 M ha
Other fallow = 0.50 M ha
Gross area under cultivation = 7.30 M ha
Net area sown = 6.30 M ha
Gross area irrigated = 3.50 M ha
Net area irrigated = 2.70 M ha
Tamil Nadu Ground Water Potential

Average rainfall = 850 mm
Ground water potential = 36872 Mm3
G. water utilization = 19,801 Mm3
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Unutilized = 46.3%
Percentage of area depends upon ground water in various parts of Tami Nadu
Salem = 83%
Dharmapuri = 65.3%
Coimbatore = 51.3%
Madurai = 45.1%
Trichy = 34.9%
Tirunelveli = 35.0%
Water Resources in India and Tamil Nadu
Distribution of irrigated area in ‘000 hectares
Canal Tanks Wells Other

India 12,776 4,123 12,034 2,601
Tamil Nadu 931 924 820 35
World Irrigation Statistics
Sl.No. Countries Area irrigated in million hectares

1 Australia 1.150
2 Botswana 0.002
3 Brazil 0.141
4 Burma 0.753
5 Canada 0.627
6 Ethiopia 0.030
7 France 2.600
8 India 37.640
9 Indonesia 3.797
10 Iran 4.000
11 Iraq 3.107
12 Israel 0.153
13 Japan 3.390
14 Pakistan 11.970
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15 USSR 9.900
16 USA 16.932
17 China 74.000
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2. ROLE OF WATER IN PLANT GROWTH – HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE -

WATER IN SOIL - PLANT - ATMOSPHERE CONTINUUM -
ABSORPTION OF WATER AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
IMPORTANCE OF WATER – THE LIQUID GOLD

Plants and any from of living organisms cannot live without water, since water is
the most important constituent about 80 to 90% of most plant cell.
Role of water in crop and crop production can be grouped as
A) Physiological importance
 
 The plant system itself contains about 90% of water
 
 Amount of water varies in different parts of plant as follows
 
Apical portion of root and shoot >90%
 Stem, leaves and fruits -70-90%

 Woods -50-60%
 Matured parts -15-20%
 Freshly harvested grains -15-20%

  activities. All metabolic or biochemical
It acts as base material for all metabolic
reactions in plant system need water.
 
 It plays an important role in respiration and transpiration
 
 It plays an important role in photosynthesis

 It activates germination and plays in important role in plant metabolism for
vegetative and reproductive growth
 
 It serves as a solvent in soil for plant nutrients
 
 It also acts as a carrier of plant nutrients from soil to plant system
 
 It maintains plant temperature through transpiration
 
 It helps to keep the plant erect by maintaining plant’s turgidity
 
It helps to transport metabolites from source to sink

B) Ecological Importance
 
It helps to maintain soil temperature
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 
 It helps to maintain salt balance
 
 It reduces salinity and alkalinity
 
 It influences weed growth
 
 It influences atmospheric weather
 
 It helps the beneficial microbes
 
 It influences the pest and diseases
 
 It supports human and animal life
 
 It helps for land preparation like ploughing, puddling, etc.,


It helps to increase the efficiency of cultural operations like weeding, fertilizer
application etc., by providing optimum condition.
The multifarious uses of good quality water for the purpose of irrigation,
industrial purposes, power generation, livestock use, domestic use for urban and rural
development, are increasing the demand for water. Due to increasing cost of irrigation
projects and limited supply of good quality water, it becomes high valuable commodity
and hence it is stated as Liquid Gold. Further, historical evidences indicate that all
civilization established on water base due to proper management and disappear due to
improper management of the same water base. All the superior varieties, organic manure,
inorganic fertilizer, efficient labour saving implements, better pest and disease
management techniques can be implemented only when sufficient water is applied to the
crop. The diversified value of water can be quoted as follows:
Water as a source of sustenance

Water as an instrument of agriculture
Water as a community good
Water as mean of transportation
Water as an industrial commodity
Water as a clean and pure resource
Water as a beauty
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Water as a destructive force to be controlled

Water as a fuel for urban development
Water as place for recreation and wild life habitat
As indicated by Sir.C.V.Raman water is the ELIXER of Life which makes

wonders in earth if it is used Properly, Efficiently, Economically, Environmentally,
Optimally, Equitably and Judicially.
Hydrological Cycle
Solid – liquid- gaseous form (refer any standard book)
State of water as solid – ice, its temperature – presence as ice, icebergs and Ice
Mountains, ice glaciers and their role on water availability
As water – ocean – extent of ocean – their role on water availability
Gaseous form – clouds and their formation – precipitation – forms of precipitation etc.
Water in Soil - plant - atmosphere continuum
Soil physical properties influencing irrigation
Soil is a three-phase system comprising of the solid phase made of mineral and
organic matter and various chemical compounds, the liquid phase called the soil moisture
and the gaseous phase called the soil air. The main component of the solid phase is the
soil particles, the size and shape of which give rise to pore spaces of different geometry.
These pore spaces are filled with water and air in varying proportions, depending on the
amount of moisture present. The presence of solid particles, liquid (soil solution) and gas
(soil air) constitute a complex polyphasic system. The volume composition of the three
main constituents in the soil system varies widely. A typical silt loam soil, for example,
contains about 50 per cent solids, 30 per cent water and 20 per cent air. In addition to the
three basic components, soil usually contains numerous living organisms such as
bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, insects and small animals which directly or indirectly
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affect soil structure and plant growth.The most important soil properties influencing
irrigation are its infiltration characteristics and water holding capacity. Other soil
properties such as soil texture, soil structure, capillary conductivity, soil profile
conditions, and depth of water table are also given consideration in the management of
irrigation water.
Water Relations of Soil
The mineral and organic compounds of soil from a solid (though not rigid) matrix,
the interstices of which consists of irregularly shaped pores with a geometry defined by
the boundaries of the matrix (Fig. 7.5). The pore space, in general, is filled partly with
soil air and liquid vapour and partly with the liquid phase of soil water. Soil moisture is
one of the most important ingredients of the soil. It is also one of its most dynamic
properties. Water affects intensely many physical and chemical reactions of the soil as
well as plant growth.
The properties of water can be explained by the structure of its molecule. Two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen combine to form a molelargely determined
by that of the oxygen ion. The two hydrogen ions take up practically no space. Water
molecules do not exist individually. The hydrogen in the water serves as a connecting
link from one molecule to the other.
Soil serves as the storage reservoir for water. Only the water stored in the root
zone of a crop can be utilized by it for its transpiration and buildup of plant tissues. When
ample water is in the root zone, plants can obtain their daily water requirements for
proper growth and development. As the plants continue to use water, the available supply
diminishes, and unless more water is added, the plants stop growing and finally die.
Before the stage is reached when crop growth is adversely affected, it is necessary to
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irrigate again. The amount of water to be applied to each irrigation, and the frequency of
irrigation are dependent on the properties of the soil and the crop to be irrigated.
Kinds of soil water: When is added to a dry soil either by rain or irrigation, it
is distributed around the soil particles where it is held by adhesive and cohesive forces;
it displaces air in the pore spaces and eventually fills the pores. When all the pores,
large and small, are filled, the soil is said to be saturated and is at its maximum
retentive capacity. The following re the three main classes of soil water:
(i) Hygroscopic water. Water held tightly to the surface of soil particles by
adsorption forces.
(ii) Capillary water. Water held by forces of surface tension and continuous films
around soil particles and in the capillary spaces.
(iii) Gravitational water. Water that moves freely in response to gravity and drains
out of the soil.
Adhesion is the attraction of solid surfaces for water molecules. Adhesion is
operative only at the solid-liquid interface and hence the film of water established by it is
very thin. Cohesion is the attraction of water molecules for each other. This force makes
possible a marked thickness of the
films of water established by h y d r
ationunt iltheyatt ain
microscopic size. As the film gets
thicker and thicker the forces of
gravity act and water flows
downward through the large pores.
Such water is loosely held. Thus,
when a soil is near saturation it is
easy to remove an increment of
water, but as moisture becomes less
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and less in the soil, the greater will be the force required to remove a unit amount of
moisture.
When a dry soil samples is exposed to water vapour, it will take up moisture. The
amount adsorbed depends on the nature and magnitude of the surface exposed the
temperature and the degree of humidity. The moisture thus adsorbed is the water of
hydration, water of adhesion, or commonly the hygroscopic water. When the air
saturation is 100 per cent the maximum amount of such moisture will be acquired.
The capillary water is held between tensions of about 31 atmospheres and one-
third atmosphere. Between 31 and 15 atmospheres, capillary adjustment is very sluggish.
Comparatively easy movement does not occur until the water film thickens and pressures
near one-third atmosphere are reached. As a result of its energy relations, the capillary
water is the only fluid water bearing solutes, that remains in the soil for any length of
time, if drainage is satisfactory. Thus, it functions physically and chemically as the soil
solution. The principal factors influencing the amount of capillary water in soils are the
structure, texture and organic matter. The finger the texture of the mineral soil particles,
the greater is likely its capillary capacity. Granular soil structure produces higher
capillary capacity. Presence of organic matter increases the capillary capacity.
Water held in the soil at tensions of one-third atmosphere or less will respond to
gravity and move downward, hence the name gravitational water. The water thus affected
is that present in the non-capillary (large) pores. Of the three forms of water, only
capillary and gravitational water are of interest to the irrigationists since hygroscopic
water is not available to plants.
Movement of water into soils: The movement of water from the surface into the
soil is called infiltration. The infiltration characteristics of the soil are one of the
dominant variables influencing irrigation. Infiltration rate is the soil characteristic
determining the maximum rate at which water can enter the soil under specific
conditions, including the presence of excess water. It has the dimensions of velocity.
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The actual rate at which water is entering the soil at any given time is termed the
Infiltration velocity.
The infiltration rate decreases during irrigation. The rate of decrease is rapid
initially and the infiltration rate tends to approach a constant value. The nearly constant
rate that develops after some time has elapsed from the start of irrigation is called the
basic infiltration rate.
Factors Affecting Infiltration Rate

The major factors affecting the infiltration of water into the soil are the initial
moisture content, condition of the soil surface, hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile,
texture, porosity, and degree of swelling of soil colloids and organic matter, vegetative
cover, duration of irrigation or rainfall and viscosity of water. The antecedent soil
moisture content has considerable influence on the initial rate and total amount of
infiltration, both decreasing as the soil moisture content rises. The infiltration rate of any
soil is limited by any restraint to the flow of water into and through the soil profile. The
soil layer with the lowest permeability, either at the surface or below it, usually
determines the infiltration rate. Infiltration rates are also affected by the porosity of the
soil which is changed by cultivation or compaction. Cultivation influences the infiltration
rate by increasing the porosity of the surface soil and breaking up the surface seals. The
effect of tillage on infiltration usually lasts only until the soil settles back to its former
condition of bulk density because of subsequent irrigations.
Infiltration rates are generally lower in soils of heavy texture than on soils of light
texture. The influence of water depth over soil on infiltration rate was investigated by
many workers. It has been established that in surface irrigation, increased depth increases
initial infiltration slightly but the head has negligible effect after prolonged irrigation.
Infiltration rates are also influenced by the vegetal cover. Infiltration rates on grassland is
substantially higher than bare uncultivated land. Additions of organic matter increase
infiltration rate substantially. The hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile often change
during infiltration, not only because of increasing moisture content, but also
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because of the puddling of the surface caused by reorientation of surface particles and
washing of finger materials into the soil. Viscosity of water influences infiltration. The
high rates of infiltration in the tropics under otherwise comparable soil conditions is due
to the low viscosity of warm water.
Soil Moisture Retention and Movement
The moisture content of a sample of soil is usually defined as the amount of water
lost when dried at 1050C, expressed either as the weight of water per unit weight of dry
soil or as the volume of water pr unit volume of bulk soil. Although useful, such
information is not a clear indication of the availability of water for plant growth. The
difference exists because the water retention characteristics may be different for different
soils.
The forces that keep soil and water together are based on the attraction between
the individual molecules, both between water and soil molecules (adhesion) and among
water molecules themselves (cohesion). In the wet range surface tension is the most
important force, while in the dry range adsorption is the main factor. Thus, the higher the
moisture content, the smaller is the attraction of the soil for water. The energy of water
tension in a soil depends on the specific surface as well as the structure of the soil and on
its solute content. When water is present in fine capillaries, the energy with which it is
attached is a function of the surface tension and capillary size but when it is present in
bigger pores, it is bound loosely to the soil and can be acted upon by gravity. When salts
dissolve in water, they decrease the free energy of water. Soil water, by virtue of the salts
dissolved in it has a lower free energy than pure water. Further, soil water that is bound to
solid particles as hygroscopic water is tightly held by the surface of contact and has a low
free energy by virtue of binding forces. Thus, there are two types of interactions which
decrease the free energy of water, namely, (i) due to the solubility of salts, (ii) due to the
interaction of water and solid surface. Both these add together in decreasing the
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energy of soil water. Thus, the retention of water in the soil and the tendency of water to
move in the soil are consequences of energy effects.
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3. SOIL WATER MOVEMENT - SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FLOW

AND VAPOUR MOVEMENT - SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS AND
THEIR IMPORTANCE IN IRRIGATION
Soil Moisture Tension

Soil moisture tension is a measure of the tenacity with which water is retained in
the soil and shows the force per unit area that must be exerted to remove water from a
soil. The tenacity is measured in terms of the potential energy of water in the soil
measured, usually with respect to free water. It is usually expressed in atmospheres, the
average air pressure at sea level. Other pressure units like cm of water or cm or mm of
mercury are also often used (1 atmosphere = 1036 cm of water or 76.39 cm of mercury).
It is also sometimes expressed in bars (1 bar = 106 dynes / cm2 = 1023 cm of water
column.
1
1 millibar = ----- bar).
1000
Soil moisture tension is brought about at the smaller dimensions by surface
tension (capillarity), and at the higher dimensions by adhesion. Buckingham (1907)
introduced the concept of ‘capillary potential’ to define the energy with which water is
held by soil. This term, however, does not apply over the entire moisture range. In a wet
soil, as long as there is a continuous column of water, it might be called ‘hydrostatic
potential’, in the intermediate range the term ‘capillary potential’ is appropriate. In the
dry range the term ‘hygroscopic potential’ would be suitable. However, the term ‘soil
moisture potential’, ‘soil moisture suction’ and ‘soil moisture tension’ are often used
synonymously to cover the entire range of moisture (Khonke, 1968).
pF of soils: Scholfield (1935) suggested the use of the logarithm of soil moisture tension
and gave the symbol pF of this logarithm which is an exponential expression of a free-
energy difference (based on the height of a. water column above free-water level in
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cm). The pF function, analogous to the acidity-alkalinity scale pH, is defined as the
logarithm to the base 10 of the numerical value of the negative pressure of the soil
moisture expressed in cm of water.
pF = log10 h in which
h = soil moisture tension in cm of water
If the osmotic tension is negligible, i.e., at low salt concentration, the pF of the
soil moisture may nearly equal the logarithm of the capillary tension expressed in cm of
water.
Soil Moisture Characteristics
Soil moisture tension is not necessarily an indication of the moisture content of

neither the soil nor the amount of water available for plant use at any particular tension.
These are dependent on the texture, structure and other characteristics of the soil and
must be determined separately for each soil. Generally sandy soils drain almost
completely at low tension, but fine textured clays still hold a considerable amount of
moisture even at such high tensions that plant growing in the soil may wilt. Moisture
extraction curves, also called moisture characteristic curves, which are plots of moisture
content versus moisture tension, show the amount of moisture a given soil holds at
various tensions. Knowledge of the amount of water held by the soil at various tensions is
required, in order to understand the amount of water that is available to plants, the water
that can be taken up by the soil before percolation starts, and the amount of water that
must be used for irrigation.
Soil moisture stress

Soil-moisture tension as discussed in the preceding paragraphs is based on pure
water. Salts in soil water increase the force that must be exerted to extract water and thus
affect the amount of water available to plants. The increase in tension caused by salts is
from osmotic pressure. If two solutions differing in concentration are separated by a
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membrane impermeable to the dissolved substance, such as a cell membrane in a plant

root, water moves from the solution of lower concentration to the one of higher
concentration. The force with which water moves across such a membrane is called
osmotic pressure and is measured in atmospheres.
Plant growth is a function of the soil moisture stress which is the sum of the soil
moisture tension and osmotic pressure of soil solution. In many irrigated soils, the soil
solution contains an appreciable amount of salts. The osmotic pressure developed by the
soil solution retards the uptake of water by plants. Plants growing in a soil in which the
soil-moisture tension is, say, I atmosphere apparently can extract enough moisture for
good growth. But if the osmotic pressure of the soil solution is, say, 10 atmospheres, the
total stress is 11 atmospheres and the plants cannot extract enough water for good
growth. Thus, for successful crop production in soils having appreciable salts, the
osmotic pressure of the soil solution must be maintained as low as possible by controlled
leaching and the soil moisture tension in the root zone is maintained in a range that will
provide adequate moisture to the crop.
Soil moisture constants

Soil moisture is always being subjected to pressure gradients and vapour pressure
differences that cause it to move. Thus, soil moisture cannot be said to be constant at any
pressure. However, it has been found experimentally that certain moisture contents
described below are of particular significance in agriculture and these are often called soil
moisture ‘constants’.
Saturation capacity. When all the pores of the soil are filled with water, the soil is
said to be under saturation capacity of maximum water holding capacity. The tension of
water at saturation capacity is almost zero and it is equal to free water surface.
Field capacity. The field capacity of soil is the moisture content after drainage of
gravitational water has become very slow and the moisture content has become relatively
stable. This situation usually exists one to three days after the soil has been thoroughly
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wetted by rain or irrigation. The terms field capacity, field-carrying capacity, normal
moisture capacity and capillary capacity are often used synonymously. At field capacity,
the large soil pores are field with air, the micro pores are filled with water and any further
drainage is slow. The field capacity is the upper limit of available moisture range in soil
moisture and plant relations. The soil moisture tension at field capacity varies from soil to
soil, but it generally ranges from 1/10 to 1/3 atmospheres.
Filed capacity is determined by ponding water on the soil surface in an area of

about 2 to 5 sq m and permitting it to drain for one to three days, with surface
evaporation prevented. Evaporation may be prevented by spreading a polythene sheet or
a thick straw mulch on the ground surface. One to three days after the soil is thoroughly
wetted, soil samples are collected with an auger from different soil depths at uniform
intervals throughout the wetted zone. The moisture content is determined by the
gravimetric method.
Moisture equivalent. Moisture equivalent is defined as the amount of water
retained by a sample of initially saturated soil material after being subjected to a
centrifugal force of 1000 times that of gravity for a definite period of time, usually half
an hour. To determine the moisture equivalent, a small sample of soil is whirled in a
centrifuge with a centrifugal force of 1000 times that of gravity. The moisture remaining
in the sample is determined. This moisture content when expressed as moisture
percentage on over dry basis, gives the value of the moisture equivalent. In medium
textured soils, the values of field capacity and moisture equivalent are nearly equal. In
sandy soils, the field capacity exceeds the moisture equivalent. In very clayey soils, the
field capacity is generally lower than the moisture equivalent.
Permanent wilting percentage: The permanent wilting percentage, also known as

permanent wilting point or wilting co-efficient, is the soil moisture content at which
plants can no longer obtain enough moisture to meet transpiration requirements; and
remain wilted unless water is added to the soil. At the permanent wilting point the films
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of water around the soil particles are held so tightly that roots in contact with the soil
cannot remove the water at a sufficiently rapid rate to prevent wilting of the plant leaves.
It is a soil characteristic, as all plants whose root systems thoroughly permeates the soil
will wilt at nearly the same soil moisture content when grown in a particular soil in a
humid atmosphere.
The moisture tension of a soil at the permanent wilting point ranges from 7 to 32
atmospheres, depending on soil texture, on the kind and condition of the plants, on the
amount of soluble salts in the soil solution, and to some extent on the climatic
environment. Since this point is reached when a change in tension produces little change
in moisture content, there is little difference in moisture percentage regardless of the
tension taken as the permanent wilting point. Therefore, 15 atmospheres is the pressure
commonly used for this point.
The wilting range is the range in soil-moisture content through which plants
undergo progressive degrees of permanent or irreversible wilting, from wilting of the
oldest leaves to complete wilting of all leaves. At the permanent wilting point, which is
the top of this range, plant growth ceases. Small amounts of water can be removed from
the soil by plants after growth ceases, but apparently the water is absorbed only slowly
and is enough only to maintain life until more water is available. The moisture content at
which the wilting is complete and the plants die is called the ultimate wilting. Although
the difference in the amount of water in the soil between the two points may be small,
there may be a big difference in tension. At the ultimate wilting point soil-moisture
tension may be as high as 60 atmospheres.
The most common method of determining the permanent wilting percentage is to
grow indicator plants in containers, usually in small cans, holding about 600 grams of
soil. Sunflower plant is commonly used as the indicator plant. The plants are allowed to
wilt and are then placed in a chamber with an approximately saturated atmosphere to test
them for permanent wilting. The residual soil moisture content in the container is then
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calculated which is the permanent wilting percentage. The determination of moisture

content at 15 atmosphere tension which is the usually assumed value of permanent
wilting point can be done by the pressure membrane apparatus (Richard, 1947).
Available water. Soil moisture between field capacity and permanent wilting
point is referred to as readily available moisture. It is the moisture available for plant use.
In general, fine-textured soils have a wide range of water between field capacity and
permanent wilting point than coarse textured soils. In contrast, sandy soils with their
larger proportion of non-capillary pore space release most of their water within a narrow
range of potential because of the predominance of large pores. Illustrates the three kinds
of soil water and the difference in available water between typical sandy loam and silt
loam soils. Tablebelow present the range of available water holding capacities of
different soil textural groups. For irrigation system design, the total available water is
calculated for a soil depth based on the root system of a mature plant of the crop to be
grown.
Range of available water holding capacity of soils
Soil type Per cent moisture, based on dry weight Depth of available water per
of soil until of soil
Field capacity Permanent wilting cm per meter depth of soil
percentage
Find sane 3-5 1-3 2-4
Sandy loam 5-15 3-8 4-11
Silt loam 12-18 6-10 6-13
Clay loam 15-30 7-16 10-18
Clay 25-40 12-20 16-30
Movement of water within soils

The movement of water within the soil controls not only the rate of infiltration but
also the rate of supply of moisture to plant roots and the rate of underground flow to
springs and streams and recharge of ground water. Water in the liquid phase flows
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through the water filled pore space under the influence of gravity. In the films
surrounding soil particles (under unsaturated conditions), it moves under the influence of
surface tension forces. Water also diffuses as vapour through the air-filled pore spaces
along gradients of decreasing vapour pressure. In all cases, the movement is along
gradients of decreasing water potential.
Terminology
Water intake. The movement of irrigation water from the soil surface into and
through the soil is called water intake. It is the expression of several factors, including
infiltration and percolation.
Percolation. Percolation is the downward movement of water through saturated or

nearly saturated soil in response to the force of gravity. Percolation occurs when water is
under pressure or when the tension is smaller than about ½ atmosphere. Percolation rate
is synonymous with infiltration rate with the qualitative provision of saturated or near
saturated conditions.
Interflow. Interflow is the lateral seepage of water in a relatively pervious soil
above a less pervious layer. Such water usually reappears on the surface of the soil at a
lower elevation.
Seepage. Seepage is the infiltration (vertically) downward and lateral movements
of water into soil or substrata from a source of supply such as a reservoir or irrigation
canal. Such water may reappear at the surface as wet spots or seeps or may percolate to
join the ground water or may join the subsurface flow to springs or streams. Seepage rate
depends on the wetted perimeter of the reservoir or the canal and the capacity of the soil
to conduct water both vertically and laterally.
Permeability (1) Qualitative. It is the characteristic of a pervious medium relating
to the readiness with which it transmits fluids.
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(2) Quantitative. The specific property governing the rate or readiness with which
a porous medium transmits fluids under standard conditions. According to this definition,
equations used for expressing flow, which take into account the properties of the fluid,
should give the same soil permeability value for all fluids which do not alter the medium.
The term intrinsic permeability is used as a permeability factor independent of the
fluid. It must, however, be remembered that the factors which tend to change the
permeability of the soil matrix to water will influence this value and prevent its use
unless they can be measured or evaluated separately.
Hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity is the proportionality factor k in
Darcy’s law (v=ki, in which v is the effective flow velocity and i is the hydraulic
gradient). It is, therefore, the effective flow velocity at unit hydraulic gradient and has the
dimensions of velocity (LT-1). The values of k depend on the properties of the fluid with
the porous medium, such as swelling of a soil. A soil that has high porosity and coarse
open texture has a high hydraulic conductivity value. For two soils of the same ‘total’
porosity, the soil with small pores has lower conductivity than the soil with large pores
because of the resistance to flow in small pores. A soil with pores of many sizes conducts
water faster if the large pores form a continuous path through the profile. In fine-textured
soils, hydraulic conductivity depends almost entirely on structural pores. In some soils,
particles are cemented together to form nearly impermeable layers commonly called
hardpans. In other soils, very finely divided or colloidal material expands on absorbing
water to form an impervious gelatinous mass that restricts the movement of water.
Hydraulic head. Hydraulic head is the elevation with respect to a standard datum
at which water stands in a riser pipe or manometer connected to the point in question in
the soil. This will include elevation head, pressure head, and also the velocity head, if the
terminal opening of the sensing element is pointed upstream. For non-turbulent flow of
water in soil the velocity head is negligible. In unsaturated soil a porous cup must be used
for establishing hydraulic contact between the soil water and water in a manometer.
Hydraulic head has the dimensions of length (L).
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Hydraulic gradient Hydraulic gradient is the rate of change of piezometric or

hydraulic head with distance. Hydraulic gradient of ground water records the head
consumed by friction in the flow in unit distance since in ground water flow the velocity
heads are generally negligible.
Hydraulic equilibrium of water in soil It is the condition for zero flow rate of
liquid or film water in the soil. This condition is satisfied when the pressure gradient
force is just equal and opposite to the gravity force.
Movement of water under saturated conditions
Poiseuille’s law forms the basis for a number of different equations which have
been developed for determining the hydraulic conductivity of the soil for knowledge of
its pore-size distribution. Pore size is of outstanding significance, as its fourth power is
proportional to the rate of saturated flow. This indicates that saturated flow under
otherwise identical conditions decreases as the pore size decreases. Generally the rate of
flow in soils of various textures is in the following sequence.
Sand > loam > clay
Moisture movement under unsaturated conditions
As drainage proceeds in a soil and the larger pores are emptied of water the
contribution of the hydraulic head or the gravitational component to total potential
becomes progressively less important and the contribution of the matric potential ψ m
becomes more important. The effect of pressure is generally negligible because of the
continuous nature of the air space. The solute potential (osmotic potential) ψ s does not
affect the potential gradient unless there is unusual concentration of slat at some point in
the soil. The negligible effect of solute potential is due to the fact that both solutes and
water are moving. Thus, in moisture moment under unsaturated conditions, the potential
ψ (Equation 7.28) is the sum of the matric potential ψ m and, to some extent the
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gravitational potential ψg. In horizontal movement, only ψ m applies. Under conditions of

downward movement, capillary and gravitational potentials act together. In upward
capillary movement ψm and ψg oppose one another. For unsaturated flow (Equation 7.28)
may be rewritten as:
∆ (ψ m + ψg)
v= - k ---------------
∆I
The direction of I is the path of greatest change in (ψm + ψg).
Under unsaturated conditions Darcy’s law (Equation 7.28) is still applied but with
some modifications and qualifications. It is applicable to unsaturated flow if k is regarded
as a function of water content, i.e. k (0) in which 0 is the soil moisture content. As the soil
moisture content and soil moisture potential decreases, the hydraulic conductivity
decreases very rapidly, so that ψsoil is – 15 bars, k is only 10-3 of the value at saturation.
According to Philip (1957 a), the rapid decrease in conductivity occurs because the larger
pores are emptied first, which greatly decreases the cross-section available for liquid
flow. When the continuity of the films is broken, liquid flow no longer occurs.
In unsaturated soil moisture movement, also called capillary movement, k

(Equation 7.28) is often termed as capillary conductivity, though the term hydraulic
conductivity is also frequently used. The unsaturated conductivity is a function of soil
moisture content as well as number, size and continuity of soil pores. At moisture
contents below field capacity, the capillary conductivity is so low that capillary
movement is of little or no significance in relation to plant growth. Many investigations
have shown that capillary rise from a free water table can be an important source of
moisture for plants only when free water is within 60 or 90 cm of the root zone.
Movement of unsaturated flow ceases in sand at a lower tension than in finer

textured soils, as the water films lose continuity sooner between the larger particles. The
wetter the soil, the greater is the conductivity for water. In the ‘moist range’, the range of
unsaturated flow in soils of various textures is in the following order:
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Sand < loam < clay

It may be noticed that this is the reverse of the order encountered in saturated
flow. However, in the ‘wet range’ the unsaturated conductivity occurs in the same or
similar order as saturated conductivity.
Water vapour movement
Movement of soil water in unsaturated soils involves both liquid and vapour
phases. Although vapour transfer is insignificant in high soil water contents, it increases
as void space increases. At a soil moisture potential of about-15 pars, the continuity of
the liquid films is broken and water moves only in the form of vapour. Diffusion of water
vapour is caused by a vapour pressure gradient as the driving force. The vapour pressure
of soil moisture increases with the increase in soil moisture content and temperature, it
decreases with the increase in soluble salt content.
Water vapour movement is significant only in the ‘moist range’. In the ‘wet
range’ vapour movement is negligible because there are few continuous open pores. In
the ‘dry range’ water movement exists, but there is so little water in the soil that the rate
of movement is very small.
Water vapour movement goes on within the soil and also between soil and
atmosphere, for example, evaporation, condensation and adsorption. The rate of diffusion
of water vapour through the soil is proportional to the square of the effective porosity,
regardless of pore sizes. The finger the soil pores, the higher is the moisture tension under
which maximum water vapour movement occurs. In a coarse textured soil pores become
free of liquid water at relatively low tensions and when the soil dries out there is little
moisture left for vapour transfer. But a fine textured soil retains substantial amounts of
moisture even at high tensions, thus permitting vapour transfer. It is interesting to note
that maximum water vapour movement in soils vapour movement is of greatest
importance for the growth and survival of plants.
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04.SOIL MOISTURE MEASUREMENT
Soil moisture is estimated both by direct and indirect method. Direct

methods involves the determination of moisture in the soil while indirect methods
estimate amount of water through the properties of water I the soil. In direst
methods moisture is estimated thermo- gravimetrically either through oven –
drying or by volumetric method.
Oven drying method

Soil sample is collected in a moisture can and wet weight of the sample is
recorded. The soil sample is dried in hot air oven at 105 oC until constant weight
is obtained and dry weight of the sample is recorded.
Moisture content (on weight basis) = Wet weight-Dry weight X 100
Dry weight
Volumetric method
Soil sample is taken with a core sample or with a tube auger whose
volume is known. The amount of water present in the soil sample is estimated by
drying in the oven. The volumetric moisture content can also be estimated from
the moisture content estimated on dry weight basis.
The most common instrument used for estimating soil moisture by indirect
methods is; tensiometer, gypsum block, neutron probe, pressure plate and
pressure membrane apparatus.
Tensiometer
Tensiometer is a sealed, airtight, water-filled tube (barrel) with a porous tip
on one end and a vacuum gauge on the other, as shown in Figure 1. A
tensiometer measures soil water suction (negative pressure), which is usually
expressed as tension. This suction is equivalent to the force or energy that a
plant must exert to extract water from the soil. The instrument must be installed
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properly so that the porous tip is in good contact with the soil, ensuring that the
soil-water suction is in equilibrium with the water suction in the tip. The suction
force in the porous tip is transmitted through the water column inside the tube
and displayed as a tension reading on the vacuum gauge. Soil-water tension is
commonly expressed in units of bars or centibars. One bar is equal to 100
centibars (cb).
The suction at the tip is transmitted to the vacuum gauge because of the
cohesive forces between adjacent
water molecules. As the suction
approaches approximately 0.8 bar
(80 cb), the cohesive forces are
exceeded by the suction and the
water molecules separate. When
this occurs, air can enter the tube
through the porus tip and the
tensiometer no longer functions
correctly. This condition is referred
to as breaking tension.
Tensiometers work in the range
from 0 to 0.8 bar. The suction scale
onthevac
u u m gauge
of most c o m
m e r c i a l
tensiometers
reads from 0
to 100 cb.
Tensiometers are quite affordable for scheduling irrigation.
The cost ranges from $25 to $50 each, depending on length of the
barrel, which ranges from 6 to 72 inches. The only other equipment
required is a small hand-held vacuum pump used for calibration
and periodic servicing. Tensiometers are easy to use but may give
faulty readings if they are not serviced regularly.
Tensiometers are best suited for use in soils that release
most of their plant-available water (PAW) at soil-water suctions
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between 0 and 80 cb. Soil textures in this category are those that consist of sand, loamy
sand, sandy loam, and the coarser-textured range of loam and sandy clay loam. Many
clayey and silty soils still retain over 50 percent of their plant-available water at suctions
greater than 80 cb, which is outside the working range of a tensiometer . Tensiometers
are not recommended for clayey and silty soils unless irrigation is to be scheduled
before 50 percent depletion of the plant-available water, which is the normal practice for
some vegetable crops such as tomatoes.
Gypsum block or Electrical resistance blocks

Electrical resistance blocks consist of two electrodes enclosed in a block
of porous material, as shown in Figure 2. The block is often made of gypsum,
although fiberglass or nylon is sometimes used. Electrical resistance blocks are
often referred to as gypsum blocks and sometimes just moisture blocks. The
electrodes are connected to insulated lead wires that extend upward to the soil
surface.
Resistance blocks work on the principle that water conducts electricity.
When properly installed, the water suction of the porous block is in equilibrium
with the soil-water suction of the surrounding soil. As the soil moisture changes,
the water content of the porous block also changes. The electrical resistance
between the two electrodes increases as the water content of the porous block
decreases. The block's resistance can be related to the water content of the soil
by a calibration curve.
To make a soil-
water reading, the lead
wires are connected to
a resistance meter
containing a voltage s o
urce.Themeter
normally reads from 0
to 100 or 0 to 200. High
readings on the scale
(corresponding to low
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electrical resistance) indicate high levels of soil-water, whereas low meter

readings indicate low levels.
Because of the pore size of the material used in most electrical resistance
blocks, particularly those made of gypsum, the water content and thus the
electrical resistance of the block does not change dramatically at suctions less
than 0.5 bar (50 cb). Therefore, resistance blocks are best suited for use in fine-
textured soils such as silts and clays that retain at least 50 percent of their plant-
available water at suctions greater than 0.5 bar. Electrical resistance blocks are
not reliable for determining when to irrigate sandy soils where over 50 percent of
the plant-available water is usually depleted at suctions less than 0.5 bar.
Neutron moisture meter

Soil moisture can be estimated quickly and continuously with neutron
moisture meter without disturbing the soil. Another advantage is that soil
moisture can be estimated from large volume of soil. This meter scans the soil
about 15 cm diameters around the neutron probe in wet soil and 50 cm in dry
soil. It consists of a probe and a scalar or rate meter. This contains a fast neutron
source which may be a mixture of radium and beryllium or americium and
beryllium. Access tubes are aluminum tubes of
50-100 cm length and are placed in the field
when the moisture has to be estimated. Neutron
probe is lowered in to access tube to a desired
depth. Fast neutrons are released from the probe
which scatters in to soil. When the neutrons
encounter nuclei of hydrogen atoms of water,
their speed is reduced. The scalar or the rate
meter counts of slow neutrons which are directly
proportional to water molecule. Moisture content
of the soil can be known from the calibration
curve with count of slow neutrons.
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Pressure membrane and pressure plate Apparatus

Pressure membrane and pressure plate apparatus is generally used to
estimate field capacity, permanent wilting point and moisture content at different
pressure. The apparatus consists of an air tight metallic chamber in which porous
ceramic pressure plate is placed. The pressure plate and soil samples and
saturated and are placed in the metallic chamber. The required pressure of 0.33
or 15 bar is applied through a compressor. The water from the outlet till
equilibrium against applied pressure is achieved. After that, the soil samples are
taken out and oven- dried for determining the moisture content.
Phene Cell
The Phene cell works on the principle that a soil conducts heat in relation
to its water content. By measuring the heat conducted from a heat source and
calibrating the conductance versus water content for a specific soil, the Phene
cell can be used reliably to determine soil-water content. Because the Phene cell
is placed at the desired soil depth, a separate cell is needed for each depth at
each location to be monitored.For irrigating small acreages, the total cost of
using the Phene cell is less than that of the neutron probe. For large acreages,
the neutron probe may be more cost effective.
Time Domain Reflectometer

The time domain reflectometer (TDR) is a new device developed to
measure soil-water content. Two parallel rods or stiff wires are inserted into the
soil to the depth at which the average water content is desired. The rods are
connected to an instrument that sends an electromagnetic pulse (or wave) of
energy along the rods. The rate at which the wave of energy is conducted into
the soil and reflected back to the soil surface is directly related to the average
water content of the soil. One instrument can be used for hundreds of pairs of
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rods. This device, just becoming commercially available, is easy to use and
reliable.
Selecting the Right Device
When cost, ease of use, and reliability are considered, tensiometers and
electrical resistance blocks are usually the most practical devices for measuring
soil-water in North Carolina. For best results, tensiometers and electrical
resistance blocks must be properly installed, maintained, and calibrated for the
primary soil types in each field. Installation Focedures for tensiometers and
resistance blocks are described in the next section. The gravimetric method can
be used to calibrate tensiometers and electrical resistance blocks on the farm.
Preparing and Installing Measuring Devices
Tensiometers
Before a tensiometer is installed, the porous tip should be soaked in water
overnight. The tube should then be filled with boiled (air-free) water, and the
gauge and tip should be tested using a small, hand-held vacuum pump (available
from tensiometer manufacturers). The vacuum pump should also be equipped
with a vacuum gauge. It is used to create a vacuum in the tensiometer.
After the porous tip of the tensiometer is saturated, attach the vacuum pump to
the top of the tensiometer with the cap removed. Use the pump to evacuate air from the
tensiometer barrel. The vacuum gauge reading on the pump and on the tensiometer
should be the same. Furthermore, this reading should remain constant for several
seconds, indicating that air is not leaking through the porous tip.
If tension cannot be maintained, the tip or barrel has probably been damaged or
cracked. The most common cause of failure is a crack in the porous tip resulting from
rough handling. A cracked tip allows air to enter the barrel so that tension forces in the
soil are not correctly transmitted to the gauge. Tips, seals and gauges can be replaced
by the tensiometer manufacturer.
After the vacuum pump test has been completed, the rubber seal in the cap
should be tested. Fully assemble the tensiometer and place it on a table or surface so
that the porous tip is exposed to the air. Water will begin evaporating from the tip. Within
a few minutes, the tension reading on the gauge should begin to increase. If it does not,
the rubber stopper in the cap is not providing a good seal and should be replaced.
Otherwise, the tensiometer is ready for installation. It should be transported to the field
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with the tip submersed in a container of water or wrapped in a moist cloth so that tension
is not broken before installation.
A probe slightly smaller than the diameter of the porous tip (for example, a steel
rod, broom handle, or tube) is used to make a hole in the soil for the tensiometer. The
depth of the hole should be about 1/4 to 1 inch less than the actual depth for the porous
tip (Figure 3). Pour 1/4
cup of water into the
hole to moisten the
soil at the bottom.
Insert the tensiometer
and gently push it
down to the desired
depth, usually one-half
the effective root zone
depth. To ensure good
contact between t h e
soilandthe
porous tip, push the t i
pintothe
undisturbed soil just below the depth created by the probe. After the probe has been
installed, the soil and porous tip usually reach equilibrium within 24 hours, and the
instrument is then ready to use.
The tensiometer should be installed to one-half the effective root depth. The
porous tip must be in good contact with the adjacent soil.
Field experiences with tensiometers have been mixed. When properly installed
and maintained, tensiometers are reliable. Unsatisfactory results are usually caused by
inadequate maintenance. Sandy soils, which are best suited for tensiometers, have low
levels of plant-available water. In coarse, sandy soils the water content may decrease
from field capacity to less than 20 percent of the plant-available water within three days.
At this depletion rate, tension can exceed 80 cb within three days, breaking the water
column (tension). The soil may then appear dry and the crop may show visible signs of
stress. Because tension was broken and the tensiometer is no longer functioning
correctly, however, the gauge shows a low tension (high soil moisture). Thus the irrigator
concludes that the tensiometer is unreliable. Tensiometers should be read every day
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(sometimes twice a day in very sandy soils) until you obtain a feel for how fast the soil
dries after rainfall or irrigation.
Whenever tension is broken, the tensiometer must be serviced. This includes
refilling the instrument with boiled water and checking it with the vacuum pump. Adding a
little food coloring to the boiled water makes it easier to see whether water is still present
in the tensiometer. Air bubbles in the water column tend to collect at the top of the barrel
and appear clear compared to the colored water. The water column should always be
free of air bubbles, and water should always be stored in the reservoir. It may be
necessary to add water to the reservoir during the season even if tension is not broken.
Electrical Resistance Blocks
Like tensiometers, electrical resistance blocks should be soaked overnight
before they are installed in the field. A soil probe should be used to make a hole
to the desired installation depth. The hole should be slightly larger than the
moisture block so the block slips in easily. After placing the resistance block in
the hole, backfill the hole with a thick soil slurry using soil from the installation
depth. Since fine-textured soils do not dry as rapidly as sandy soils, resistance
blocks do not need to be read as frequently as tensiometers. Normally, three to
four readings per week are adequate.
The electrical resistance of soil-water is affected by substances dissolved in the
water. The exchange of water between the soil and the block over the course of the
irrigation season may gradually alter the electrical resistance of the block and eventually
alter the calibration. This is not a serious problem in North Carolina soils unless highly
saline water is used for irrigation. Since electrical resistance blocks are inexpensive,
however, new calibrated blocks should be installed at the beginning of each growing
season.
Positioning Soil-Water Measuring Devices
If tensiometers or electrical resistance blocks are used, at least one device
should be located in each of the major soil types in the irrigated field. For most
soils irrigated in North Carolina, the effective root depth is about 12 inches. The
soil-water measuring device should therefore be installed to a depth of 6 inches.
In soils with a dramatic textural change within 12 inches of the soil surface, such
as a loamy sand surface texture overlying a sandy clay loam, one device should
be installed in the center of the effective root zone portion of each layer.
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Soil-water measuring devices should be installed in the plant row. Install them as soon
as possible after planting so that roots will grow around them and water extraction will
resemble natural field conditions. Flag each device so that it can be easily found in the
growing crop. Mark the end of each row containing a device.
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LEC. 05. MOISTURE EXTRACTION PATTERN OF CROPS- SOIL MOISTURE
STRESS - PLANT WATER STRESS -EFFECTS ON CROP GROWTH
Water as a Plant Component

The factors influencing the water relations of plants, and thus their growth and
yield responses, may be grouped into the following
I. Soil factors – soil moisture content, texture, structure, density, salinity,
fertility, aeration, temperature and drainage.
II. Plant factors – type of crop, density and depth of rooting, rate of root growth,
aerodynamic roughness of the crop, drought tolerance and varietal effects.
III. Weather factors – sunshine, temperature, humidity, wind and rainfall.
IV. Miscellaneous factors – soil volume and plant spacing, soil fertility, and crop
and soil management
The metabolic activity of cells and plants is closely related to their water content.
Growth of plants is controlled by the rates of cell division and enlargement and by the
supply of organic and inorganic compounds required for the synthesis of new protoplasm
and cell walls. A decreasing water content is accompanied by a loss of cell turgor* and
wilting, cessation of cell enlargement, closure of stomata reduction of photosynthesis and
interference with many basic metabolic processes. Eventually, continued dehydration
causes disorganization of the protoplasm and death of most organisms. The relation of
water content to physiological processes is shown strikingly in seeds, where respiration
and other physiological activities increase manifold as the water content increases. In
photosynthesis, water is as important a reagent as carbondioixde. An essential function of
water in plants is as the solvent in which gases, minerals, and other solutes enter plant
cells and move from cell to cell and tissue to tissue within the plant. The permeability of
most cell walls and membranes to water results in a continuous liquid phase extending
throughout the plant in which translocation of solutes occurs. Water is a reactant or
reagent in many physiological processes including photosynthesis and hydrolytic
processes such as the hydrolysis of starch to sugar. Water is essential to maintain
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sufficient turgidity for growth of cells and maintenance of the form and position of leaves
and new shoots.
The total quantity of water required for the essential physiological functions of the
plant is usually less than five per cent of all the water absorbed. Most of the water
entering the plant is lost in transpiration, directly contributing little to its growth.
However, failure to replace the water lost by transpiration results in the loss of turgidity,
cessation of growth, and eventual death of the plant from dehydration.
The following are the main areas of water-plant relationship: (1) water absorption,
(2) water conduction and translocation, and (3) water loss or transpiration.
In determining the importance of water in crop productivity we have to

understand clearly all the three processes – absorption, translocation and transpiration.
We will have to analyse the effect of these processes on plant growth and crop yield in
order to recognize the steps which are needed to regulate and modify the cropping
systems with a view to obtain the maximum water use efficiency.
Amount of water in plants: The amounts of water varies in different plant parts.
The apical portions of the root and stem contain 90 per cent or more water. Leaves and
young fruits are other organs which are rich in water. When the organs mature, their
water content decreases. The woods of large trees may contain about 50-60 per cent
moisture whereas the stems of wheat, barley and sorghum contain about 60-70 per cent
water which at harvest time may decline to 5-10 per cent. Freshly harvested grains of
most crops contain 10-15 pr cent of water. Indeed, it is the moisture content of these
grains which determines their storage life, viability and germinability.
Absorption of water in soil-plant-atmosphere system. The root system is
extremely variable in different crop plants. The variability exists in rooting depth, root
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length and horizontal distribution of roots. These are further influenced by environmental
factors and the genetic constitution. Nevertheless, both the properties of soil and the roots
determine the water uptake by roots. The roots of cereals, apparently, occupy more
surface area of the soil than other crops. For example, it has been shown that cereal roots
extend to 200-4000 cm/cm2 of soil surface area as against 15-200 cm/cm2 for non-
graminaceous plants.
It is desirable to consider water absorption in the total soil-plant-atmosphere

system instead of the roots alone. In this system, one can partition the system in such a
manner so that the involvement of different plant parts is taken into account. The flow
rate of water in this system is given by the following equation:
Ψsoil – Ψroot surface Ψ root surface – Ψxylem
Flow rate = --------------------- = ------------------------
rsoil rroot
Ψxylem – Ψleaf Ψ leaf – Ψair
= --------------------- = ------------------------
rxylam rleaf + rrleaf
in which, Ψ is the water potential at various sites of the system and r is the corresponding
resistance.
Water absorption by roots is dependent on the supply of water at the root surface.
The two main phenomena concerned with this are the movement of water to the root
surface and the growth of roots into the soil mass. As the soil dries out from a saturated
state, the rate of water movement in the soil decreases rapidly. The water movement in
the soil drier than field capacity controls the distance in the soil from which roots can
extract water. Thus, under the conditions where the water extracted by roots is not
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frequently replaced by rain or irrigation, it is important that the root system must expand
continuously or else have already occupied a large enough volume of soil to provide the
plant with sufficient water to replace the transpiration losses. Hence, all the factors which
affect root growth or the occupation by roots of a large enough soil volume, will also
affect the absorption of water by plants.
The actual entry of water into the roots is affected by the extent of the absorbing
zone of the roots, the permeability of the root cortex to water movement and the water
potential at the root surface. The movement of water through the root and conducting
elements of the laves xylem to the leaves is initiated and largely controlled by the
transpiration from the leaves in response to the water potential gradient extending from
the soil water, through the plant to the atmosphere. The water moves from the xylem
strands of the leaf across the mesophyll tissue and through the cell walls bordering the
sub-stomatal cavities where the liquid vapourizes and diffuses out of the leaves through
the stomatal openings. Transpiration, though an energy-controlled process, is modified by
the soil, plant and atmospheric factors which govern the potential gradients in the various
parts of the water path to the leaf surface.
Moisture stress and plant response

As mentioned previously, plant-water relations consist of a group of interrelated
and interdependent processes. Thus, the internal water balance or degree of turgidity of a
plant depends on the relative rates of water absorption and water loss, and is affected by
the complex of atmospheric, soil and plant factors that modify the rates of absorption and
transpiration.
Water moves in response to a potential gradient. When the plant roots are in
equilibrium with the soil water potential, and the soil water potential gradients are near
zero, a base level of leaf turgor or plant water potential is reached. Under the conditions
of low evaporation demand during the night and early morning (prior to sunrise) the
values of water potential are often at or near this level. An increase in the rate of
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transpiration, coincident with the increase in evaporation, during the day, causes a
decrease in the turgor pressure of the upper leaves and the development of water potential
gradients through the plant from the evaporating surface of the leaves to the absorbing
surface of the roots. Conditions are often such that the rate of water loss exceeds the rate
of water absorption, causing an internal water deficit to develop in the plant. It is this
internal water deficit, through its influence on many of the physiological processes in the
plant that is directly responsible for the growth and yield of a crop under the prevailing
conditions.
The yield of a crop is the integrated result of a number of physiological processes.

Water stress can after photosynthesis and respiration. It can also affect growth and
reproduction. Reduction in leaf area, cell size and inter-cellular volume are common
under water stress. Dehydration of protoplasm may be responsible for decreasing several
physiological processes. Water stress produces important changes in carbohydrate and
nitrogen metabolism of plants. Water stress at certain critical stages of plant growth
causes more injury than at other stages. For example, irrigation at the crown root
initiation stage has been shown to be essential for increased yield of wheat crop.
Moisture extraction pattern
The moisture extraction pattern reveals about how the moisture is extracted
and how much quantity is extracted at different depth level in the root zone. The
moisture extraction patter shows the relative amount of moisture extracted from
different depths within the crop root zone.
The moisture extraction pattern of plant growing in a uniform soil without a

restrictive layer and with adequate supply of available soil moisture throughout the zone
is shown in figure.
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It is seen from the figure that about 40% of the total moisture is extracted form the
first quarter of the root zone, 30% form second quarter, 20% from the third quarter and
10% from last further quarter.
This indicates that in most of the crops the effective root zone will be available
in the 1st quarter and it does not mean that the last quarter will not need any water.
Hence soil moisture measurements at different depths in the root zone has to be taken.
a) To estimate the soil moisture status and

b) To work out the irrigation quantity to be applied
Rooting characteristics and moisture extraction pattern
The root system is extremely variable in different crop plants.
The variability exists in rooting depth, root length and horizontal distribution of
roots. These are further influenced by environmental factors and the genetic constitution.
The roots of cereals apparently occupy more surface area of the soil then other
crops. For example, it has been proved that cereals’ roots extend to 200-400 cm m2 of
soil surface area as against 15-200 cm m2 for most graminaceous plants.
The amount of soil moisture that is available to the plant is determined by the
moisture characteristics of the soil depth and the density of the roots. The moisture
characteristics of soil like FC and PWP cannot be altered so easily and greater
possibilities lie in changing the rooting characteristics of plants system to go deeper
and denser and more proliferation to tap water from deeper layers of soil as well as
from the larger surface area.
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Plants vary genetically in their rooting characteristics (Figure) Vegetable crops

like onion, potato, carrot etc., have very sparse rooting system and unable to use all the
soil water in the root.
Rice, Grasses, sorghum, maize, sugarcane have very fibrous dense root system
which can extract much water from soil. Millets, groundnut, grams are moderately deep
rooted.
Maize, sorghum, lucerne, cotton and perennial plants have deep root system and
can utilize effectively the moisture stored in root zone as well as in the unexploited
deeper zones. Crops which have dense and deep root system like cotton, sorghum, red
gram tolerate high reduction of soil water content. Shallow rooted crops like rice, potato,
tomato tolerate low level of soil water reduction. Moderately deep rooted crops like
millets, groundnut, grams tolerate medium level of soil water reduction.
The root growth of the crop plants is affected by
1. Genetic nature
2. High water table
3. Shallow nature of soil and permeability of soil layer
4. Soil fertility
5. Salt status of soil
Effective root zone depth
It is depth in which active root proliferation occurs and where maximum water
absorption is taking place. It is not necessary that entire root depth should be effective.
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6. CROP WATER REQUIREMENT - POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

(PET) AND CONSUMPTIVE USE- FACTORS AFFECTING CROP
WATER REQUIREMENT - CRITICAL STAGES – WATER
REQUIREMENT OF DIFFERENT CROPS
Crop water Requirement
Crop water requirement is the water required by the plants for its survival,
growth, development and to produce economic parts. This requirement is applied either
naturally by precipitation or artificially by irrigation. Hence the crop water requirement
includes all losses like:
a) Transpiration loss through leaves (T)

b) Evaporation loss through soil surface in cropped area (E)
c) Amount of weather used by plants (WP) for its metabolic activities which is
estimated as less than 1% of the total water absorption. These three
components cannot be separated so easily. Hence the ET loss is taken as crop
water use or crop water consumptive use.
d) Other application losses are conveyance loss, percolation loss, runoff
loss, etc., (WL).
e) The water required for special purposes (WSP) like puddling operation,
ploughing operation, land preparation, leaching, requirement, for the purpose
of weeding, for dissolving fertilizer and chemical, etc.
Hence the water requirement is symbolically represented as:
WR=T+E+WP+WL+WSP
(The other application losses and special purposes are mostly indented for wet
land cultivation. Hence for irrigated dry land crop the ET loss alone is accounted for crop
water requirement).
The estimations of the water requirement of crop are one of the basic needs for
crop planning on the farm and for the planning of any irrigation project.
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Water requirement may be defined as the quantity of water required by a crop

or diversified pattern of crop in a given period of time for its normal growth under field
conditions at a place.
Water requirement includes the losses due to ET or CU and losses during the
application of irrigation water and the quantity of water required for special purposes or
operations such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching etc., Hence it may be
formulated as follows
WR = ET or Cu + application loss + water for special needs.
It can also be stated based on “Demand” and “supply source” as follows
WR=IR+ER+S
Where,
IR - Irrigation requirement
ER - Effective rainfall
S - Contribution from ground water table.
Hence the idea about crop water requirement is essential for farm planning with
respect to total quantity of water needed and its efficient use for various cropping
schemes of the farm or project area. This crop water requirement is also needed to decide
the stream size and design the canal capacity.
The combined loss of evaporation and transpiration from a cropped field is termed
as evapotranspiration which is otherwise known as consumptive use and denoted as ET
and this is a part of water requirement.
CU=E+T+WP
Therefore,
WR=CU+WL+WSP
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The crop water requirement can also be defined as water required meeting the
evapotranspiration demand of the crop and special needs in case of wet land crop and
which also includes other application losses both in the case of wet land and garden land
crops. This is also known as crop water demand.
The crop water requirement varies from place to place, from crop to crop and
depends on agro-ecological variation and crop characters. The following features which
mainly influence the crop water requirement are:
1) Crop factors
a) Variety
b) Growth stages
c) Duration
d) Plant population
e) Crop growing season
2) Soil factors
a) Structure
b) Texture
c) Depth
d) Topography
e) Soil chemical composition
3) Climatic factors
a) Temperature
b) Sunshine hours
c) Relative humidity
d) Wind velocity
e) Rainfall
4) Agronomic management factors
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a) Irrigation methods used

b) Frequency of irrigation and its efficiency
c) Tillage and other cultural operations like weeding, mulching etc / intercropping
etc
Based on al these factors, average crop water requirement for various crops
have been worked out and given below for tropical conditions.
Irrigation requirement
The field irrigation requirement of crops refers to water requirement of crops
exclusive of effective rainfall and contribution from soil profile and it may be given
as follows
IR - WR–(ER+S)
IR - Irrigation requirement
WR - Water requirement
ER - Effective rainfall
S -Soil moisture contribution
Irrigation requirement depends upon the
a) Irrigation need of individual crop based on area of crop

b) Losses in the farm water distribution system etc.
All the quantities are usually expressed in terms of water depth per unit of land
area (ha/cm) or unit of depth (cm).
Net irrigation requirement

It is the actual quantity of water required in terms of depth to bring the soil
to field capacity level to meet the ET demand of the crop.
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It is the water applied by irrigation alone in terms of depth to bring the field to
field capacity level. To work out the net irrigation requirement, ground water
contribution and other gains in soil moisture are to be excluded. It is the amount of
irrigation water required to bring the soil moisture level in the effective root zone to
field capacity, which in turn meet the ET effective root zone to field capacity, which in
turn meet the ET demand of the crop. It is the difference between the F.C and the soil
moisture content in the root zone before starting irrigation.
n Mfci - Mbi
d=∑ --------------- x Ai x Di
i=i 100
d = Net irrigation water to be applied (cm)
Mfci = FC in ith layer (%)

Mbi = Moisture content before irrigation in ith layer (%)
Ai = Bulk density (g/cc)
Di = depth (cm)
n = number of soil layer
Gross irrigation requirement

The total quantity of water used for irrigation is termed gross irrigation
requirement. It includes net irrigation requirement and losses in water application and
other losses. The gross irrigation requirement can be determined for a field, for a farm,
for an outlet command area, and for an irrigation project, depending on the need by
considering the approximate losses at various stages of crop.
Net irrigation requirement

Gross irrigation = -------------------------------- x 100
Field efficiency of system
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Irrigation frequency
Irrigation frequency is the interval between two consecutive irrigations during
crop periods. Irrigation frequency is the number of days between irrigation during crop
periods without rainfall. It depends upon the rate of uptake of water by plants and soil
moisture supply capacity to plant and soil moisture available in the root zone. Hence it is
a function of crop, soil and climate. Normally, irrigation should be given at about 50 per
cent and not over 60 per cent depletion of the available moisture from the effective root
zone in which most of the roots are concentrated.
In designing irrigation system the irrigation frequency to be used, is the time

(days) between two irrigation in the period of highest consumptive use of crop growth,
i.e. peak consumptive use of crop.
Design frequency (days)
F C – moisture content of the root zone prior to starting irrigation

= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Peak period consumptive use rate of crop
Irrigation period
Irrigation period is the number of days that can be allowed for applying one
irrigation to a given design area during peak consumptive use period of the crop
Irrigation period
Net amount of moisture in soil at start of irrigation (FC-PWP)

= --------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Peak period consumptive use of the crop
Critical stages for irrigation:
The stage at which the water stress causes severe yield reduction is also known as
critical stage of water requirement. It is also known as moisture sensitive period.
Moisture stress due to restricted supply of water during the moisture sensitive period or
critical stage will irrevocably reduce the yield. Provision of adequate water and fertilizer
at other growth stage will not even help in recovering the yield loss due to stress at
critical periods.
It general the mid season stage is most sensitive to water shortage because the
shortage during this period will be reflected significantly on yield. For most of the crops
the least sensitive stages are ripening and harvesting except for vegetables like Lettuce,
Cabbage etc., which need water upto harvesting.
Under scarce condition, in an irrigation project or in a farm, if mono cropping is
followed with staggered sowing or planting, it is better to schedule irrigation to crop
which has reached mid season stage since it is the most critical stage.
The sensitive stages vary from crop to crop as given below.
Sensitive stage of different crops cereals and millets
Crop - Critical stages / Sensitive stages

Rice - Panicle initiation critical staps. heading and flowering
Sorghum - Flowering and grain formation
Maize - Just prior to tasseling and grain filling
Cumbu - Heading and flowering
Ragi - Primordial initiation and flowering
Wheat - Crown root initiation, tillering and booting
Oil seeds
Groundnut - Flowering peg initiation and penetration and pod development
Sesame - Blooming to maturity
Sunflower - Two weeks before and after flowering
Soybean - Blooming and seed formation
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Safflower - From rosette to flowering

Castor - Full growing period
Cash crop
Cotton - Flowering and Boll formation
Sugarcane - Maximum vegetative stage
Tobacco - Immediately after transplanting
Vegetables
Onion - Bulb formation to maturity
Tomato - Flowering and fruit setting
Chillies - Flowering
Cabbage - Head formation to maturity
Legumes
Alfalfa - Immediately after cutting for hay crop and flowering for seed crop
Beans - Flowering and pod setting
Peas - Flowering and pod formation
Others
Coconut - Nursery stage root enlargement
Potato - Tuber initiation and maturity
Banana - Throughout the growth
Citrus - Flowering, fruit setting and enlargement
Mango - Flowering
Coffee - Flowering and fruit development
At critical stages, favourable water level should be ensured through timely

irrigations
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7. Water requirement for different crops: Irrigation schedules for

field crops
Rice
Total water requirement is 1100-1250
The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm and total water is ranges
from 1100 to 1250 mm depending upon the agro climatic situation. Of the total water
required for the crop, 3% or 40 mm is used for the nursery, 16% or 200 mm for the land
preparation i.e. puddling and 81% or 1000 mm for field irrigation of the crop.
The growth of rice plant in relation to water management can be divided into four
periods viz.,. Seedling, vegetative, reproductive and ripening. Less water is consumed
during seedling stage. At the time of transplanting, shallow depth of 2 cm is adequate and
maintained upto 7 days and there after 5 cm of submergence is necessary to facilitate
development of new roots. The same water level is required for tiller production during
the vegetative phase. At the beginning of the maximum tillering stage the entire water in
the field can be drained and left as such for one or two days which is termed as mid
season drainage. This mid season drainage may improve the respiratory functions of the
roots, stimulate vigorous growth of roots and checks the development of non-effective
tillers. Any stress during the vegetative phase may affect the root growth and reduce the
leaf area.
During flowering phase 5 cm submergence should be maintained because it is a
critical stage of water requirement. Stress during this phase will impair all yield
components and cause severe reduction in yield. Excess water than 5 cm is also not
necessary especially at booting stage which may lead to delay in heading.
Water requirement during ripening phase is less and water is not necessary after
yellow ripening. Water can be gradually drained from the field 15-21 days ahead of
harvest of crop. Whenever 5 cm submergence is recommended the irrigation management
may be done by irrigating to 5 cm submergence at saturation or one or two
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days after the disappearance of ponded water. This will result in 30% saving of irrigation
water compared to the continuous submergence.
Groundnut
Total water requirement 500-550 mm
Evapotranspiration is low during the first 35 days after sowing and last 35 days
before harvest and reaches a peak requirement between peg penetration and pod
development stages. After the sowing irrigation the second irrigation can be scheduled 25
days after sowing i.e. 4 or 6 days after first hand hoeing and thereafter irrigation interval
of 15 days is maintained upto peak flowering. During the critical stages the interval may
be 7 or 10 days depending upon the soil and climate. During maturity period the interval
is 15 days.
Finger millet
Total water requirement: 350 mm
Finger millet is a drought tolerant crop. Pre-planting irrigation at 7 or 8 cm is
given. Third day after transplantation life irrigation with small quantity of water is
sufficient for uniform establishment. Water is then withheld for 10-15 days after the
establishment of seedling for healthy and vigorous growth. Subsequently three irrigations
are essential at primordial initiation, flowering and grain filling stages.
Sugarcane
Total water requirement: 1800-2200 mm
Formative phase (120 days from planting) is the critical period for water demand.
To ensure uniform emergence and optimum number of tillers per unit area lesser quantity
of water at more frequencies is preferable. The response for applied water is more during
this critical phase during which the crop needs higher quantity of water comparing, the
other two phases. Water requirement, number of irrigations etc., are higher during this
period. As there is no secondary thickening of stem, elongation of stem as sink for
storage of sugar it is desirable to maintain optimum level of moisture during grand
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growth period. Response for water is less in this stage and this will be still less in the
ripening stage. During the ripening phase as harvest time approaches soil moisture
content should be allowed to decrease gradually so that growth of cane is checked and
sucrose content is increased.
Maize
Total water requirement: 500 – 600 mm
The water requirement of maize is higher but it is very efficient in water use.
Growth stages of maize crop are sowing, four leaf stage, knee high, grand growth,
tasseling, silking early dough and late dough stages. Crop uniformly requires water in all
these stages. Of this, tasseling, silking and early dough stages are critical periods.
Cotton
Total water requirement: 550 – 600 mm
Cotton is sensitive to soil moisture conditions. Little water is used by plant with
early part of the season and more water is lost through evaporation than transpiration. As
the plant grows, the use of water increases from 3 mm / day reaching a peak of 10 mm a
day when the plant is loaded with flowers and boll. Water used during the emergence and
early plant growth is only 10% of the total requirement. Ample moisture during flowering
and boll development stages is essential. In the early stage as well as at the end the crop
requires less water. water requirement remains high till the boll development stage. If
excess water is given in the stages other than critical stages it encourages the vegetative
growth because it is a indeterminate plant thereby boll setting may be decreased.
Irrigation is continued until the first boll of the last flush opens, and then irrigation is
stopped.
Sorghum
Total water requirement: 350-500 mm
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The critical periods of water requirement are booting, flowering and dough stages.
The crop will be irrigated immediately after sowing. Next irritation is given 15 days
sowing to encourage development of a strong secondary root system. irrigation prior to
heading and ten days after heading are essential for successful crop production.
Pulses
Total water requirement – 200-450 mm
Mostly the pulse are grown under rainfed condition. Some pulse crops like
Redgram, Blackgram, Greengram are grown in summer season as irrigated crop which
need 3 to 4 irrigation at critical stags like germination, flowering and pod formation.
Water requirement of crops
S.No. Corps Duration in days Water requirement No. of irrigations

(mm)
1. Rice 135 1250 18
2. Groundnut 105 550 10
3. Sorghum 100 350 6
4. Maize 110 500 8
5. Sugarcane 365 2000 24
6. Ragi 100 350 6
7. Cotton 165 550 11
8. Pulses 65 350 4
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8. WATER BUDGETING AND ITS IMPORTANCE -
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING - APPROACHES
Water budgeting:
Allocation of the water receipt including anticipated within the crop period and its
detailed account of expenditure for efficient and profitable farm management is called as
water budgeting.
Water budgeting may be for an irrigation system planned by irrigation
engineers; may be for a canal or for an area (block) or may be for a farm according to
the need and plan by responsible persons who plan the irrigation efficiency.
Importance of water budgeting:

 
Efficient utilization of available recourse (water) for bringing more area under
irrigation.
 
 To increase the productivity of a region / farm.
 
 To increase cropping intensity of a region / farm
 
 To tide over some dry-spells
 
 To reduce excess irrigation and losses caused thereby
 
To avoid run off losses
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is defined as frequency with which water is to be applied
based on needs of the crop and nature of the soil.
Irrigation scheduling is nothing but number of irrigations and their frequency
required to meet the crop water requirement.
Irrigation scheduling may be defined as scientific management techniques of

allocating irrigation water based on the individual crop water requirement (ETc) under
different soil and climatic condition, with an aim to achieve maximum crop
production per unit of water applied over a unit area in unit time.
Based on the above definition, the concept made is.
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“If we provide irrigation facility the agricultural production and productivity will
go up automatically”
Irrigation scheduling is a decision making process repeated many times in each
year involving when to irrigate and how much of water to apply? Both criteria influence
the quantity and quality of the crop. It indicates how much of irrigation water to be used
and how often it has to be given.
Effect of application of right amount and excess amount of water
Excess irrigation is harmful because

a) It wastes water below root zone
b) It results in loss of fertilizer nutrients
c) It causes water stagnation and salinity
d) It causes poor aeration
e) Ultimately it damages the crops
However, Irrigation scheduling has its own meaning and importance according to
the nature of the work.
For irrigation Engineers
Irrigation scheduling is important to cover more area with available quantity of

water or to satisfy the whole command from head to tail reach in the canal or river
system.
For soil scientists
It is important that the field should not be over irrigated or under irrigated as both
will spoil the chemical and physical equilibrium of the soil.
For Agronomists
It is very much important to get higher yield per unit quantity of water in normal
situations and to protect the crop to get as much as possible yield under drought situation
by means on supplying water in optimum ratio and minimizing all field losses.
Importance of irrigation scheduling
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How much and how often water has to be given depends on the irrigation
requirement of the crop.
Irrigation requirement (IR) = Crop water requirement (CWR) – Effective rainfall
(ERF) It can be expressed either in mm/day/ or mm/month
If the crop water requirement of a particular crop is 6 mm per day, it means every
day we have to give 6 mm of water to the crop. Practically it is not possible since it is
time consuming and laborious. Hence, it is necessary to schedule the water supply by
means of some time intervals and quantity. For example the water requirement of 6 mm/
day can be scheduled as 24 mm/for every 4 days or 30 mm/for every 5 days or 36 mm/for
every 6 days depending upon the soil type and climatic conditions prevailing in that
particular place. While doing so we must be very cautions that the interval should not
allow the crop to suffer for want of water.
Practical considerations in irrigation scheduling
Before scheduling irrigation in a farm or field or a command, the following

criteria should be taken care for efficient scheduling
1. Crop factors
a) Sensitiveness to water shortage
b) Critical stages of the crop
c) Rooting depth
d) Economic value of the crop
2. Water delivery system

a) Canal irrigation or tank irrigation (It is a public distribution system where
scheduling is arranged based on the decision made by public based on the
resource availability).
b) Well irrigation (individual decision is final)
3. Types of soil
a) Sandy – needs short frequency of irrigation and less quantity of water
b) Clay – needs long frequency of irrigation and more quantity of water
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4. Salinity hazard
To maintain favorable salt balance, excess water application may be required
rather than ET requirement of the crop to leach the excess salt through deep percolation
5. Irrigation methods
a) Basin method allows more infiltration through more wetting surface which in turn
needs more water and long interval in irrigation frequency
b) Furrow method allows less infiltration due to less wetting surface which needs
less water and short interval in irrigation frequency.
c) Sprinkler method needs less water and more frequency
d) Drip method needs less water and more frequency
6. Irrigation interval
The extension of irrigation interval does not always save water. The interval has
to be optimized based on the agroclimatic situation.
7. Minimum spreadable depth

We cannot reduce the depth based on the water requirement of the crop alone. The
depth should be fixed based on the soil type, rooting nature of the crop and irrigation
method followed. The minimum depth should be so as to achieve uniformity of
application and to get uniform distribution over the entire field.
Theoretical approaches of irrigation scheduling
I Direct approach
a) Depth interval and yield approach
b) Soil moisture deficit and optimum moisture regime approach
c) Sensitive crop approach
d) Plant observation method
II Indirect or predictive approach

a) Critical stage or Phenological stage approach
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b) Meteorological or climatological approach
III Mathematical approach

a) Estimation method approach
b) Simple calculation method
IV system as a whole approach

a) Rotational water supply schedule
I. Direct approach
A) Depth interval and yield approach

In this method, different depths of irrigation water at different time intervals fixed
arbitrarily are tried without considering the soil and weather characters.
The irrigation treatment which gives the maximum yield with minimum depth and
extended interval is chosen as the best irrigation schedule. Earlier workers have adopted
this practice to work out the duty of water for different crops in many irrigation projects.
It is the rough irrigation schedule. Hence may irrigation projects which have adopted this
practice have failed to achieve the full efficiency?
Disadvantages
 Rainfall is not taken into account

 Ground water contribution is not taken into account

 Soil parameters are not taken for calculating irrigation requirement and hence this
approach is not in use.

B) Soil moisture deficit and optimum moisture regime approach
This approach considers soil moisture content in the root zone of the crop for
fixing the schedule. When the soil moisture reaches a pre fixed value, may be 40% of
Available Soil Moisture (ASM) or 50% ASM or 60% ASM, irrigation is given. The
degree of depletion is measured through percentage of availability by using gravimetric,
tensiometer, resistance block, neutron probe, etc.,
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Disadvantages
 
 Soil moisture alone is taken into account
 
 Hence it cannot be taken for all type of soil in particular region
 
 It varies from soil to soil
C) Sensitive crop approach

The crops which are grown for their fresh leaves or fruits are more sensitive to
water shortage than the crops which are grown for their dry seeds or fruits. Based on their
sensitivity the crops can be indexed as below.
Sensitivity
Low Low to Medium Medium to high High

Cassava Alfalfa Beans Banana
Millets Cotton Citrus Cabbage
Redgram Maize Soybean Fresh Green
Groundnut Wheat Vegetables
Rice
Sugarcane
Tomato
D) Plant observation method

Normally in field condition farmers use to adopt this practice for scheduling
irrigation. The day to day changes in plant physical character like colour of the plant,
erect nature of plant leaves, wilting symptoms, etc., are closely and carefully observed on
the whole and not for individual plant and then time of irrigation is fixed according to the
crop symptoms. It needs more skill and experience about the crop as well as local
circumstances like field condition, the rainy days of that tract etc.,
Disadvantage
 
No accuracy in finding the crop water need
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
Sometimes sensitive symptoms are evident only after reaching almost the wilting
 point. So yield loss will occur.
i) Indicator plant technique
As we have seen already some crops like sunflower, tomato are highly sensitive to
water stress which will show stress symptom earlier than other stress tolerating crops.
Hence, to know the stress symptoms earlier such sensitive crops are planted in random in
the field and based on the stress symptoms noticed in such plants, scheduling of irrigation
can be made. This technique is called indicator plant technique.
ii) Micro plot technique or indicator plot technique
In this method a one cubic foot micro plot is made of with coarse textured soil to
have more infiltration less water holding capacity and more evaporation than the actual
main field. Normally the field soil is mixed with sand in 1:2 ratio and filled in the micro
plots made in the field. The seed of the same crop and variety is grown in micro plot with
all similar cultural practices as that of the main crop. The crops in micro plot show early
stress symptoms than that of main field. Based on this scheduling of irrigation can be
made.
II Predictive approach of indirect approach

A) Critical stage or phonological stage approach
The growth period of an annual crop can be divided into four growth stages
Initial stage : from sowing to 10% ground cover
Crop development stage : 10 to 70% ground cover
Mid season stage : flowering to grain setting stage
Late season stage : ripening and harvesting stage
B) Meteorological approach
The basic principles employed with this approach are estimation of daily potential
evapo-transpiration rates. Hence it requires knowledge on
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a) Short term evapo-transpiration rates at various stages of plant development

b) Soil water retention characteristics
c) Permissible soil water deficit in respect to evaporative demand
d) Effective rooting depth of the crop grown
The irrigation scheduling is based on the cumulative pan evaporation and
irrigation depth.
Irrigation at ratio of irrigation water (IW) and cumulative pan evaporation (CPE).
IW /CPE = depth of water to be irrigated

Cumulative pan evaporation for particular period
For example, for ten days cumulative pan evaporation at the rate of 10 mm per
day equal to 100 mm (CPE). Irrigation depth to be given is 50 mm. Therefore IW/CPE
ratio is
50 mm (depth)
IW/CPE ------------------ = 0.5
100 mm (CPE)
Like this many ratio have to be tried and find the best yield performing rabi which
can be adopted for scheduling irrigation.
The irrigation depth (IW) for different crops are fixed based on the soil and
climatic condition. The ratio of IW / CPE which gives relatively best yield is fixed for
each crop by experiment with different rations.
The irrigation depth (IW) divided by the ratio (R) will give the cumulative pan
evaporation value at which irrigation is to be made.
For example the irrigation depth (IW) needed is 50 mm and the ratio (R) to be
tried is 0.5.
Therefore the cumulative pan evaporation value needed to irrigated the field is
IW / R 50 / 0.5 = 100 mm
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If the 100 mm of CPE is attained in 10 days (pan evaporation @ 10 mm per day),

once in 10 days irrigation is to be given.
Advantages
Gives best correlation compared to other formulae where climatic parameters and
soil parameters (depth) are considered.
Disadvantages
This approach is subject to marked influence by the selecting pan site.
For example
USWB class A open pan evaporimeter reading from June to December amounted to
130 cm when pan is sited on grass field, 150 cm when pan is sited on dry land with fetch
of grass, 176 cm when pan is sited on dry land without fetch of grass
Pan readings generally over estimated ET during early stage and maturity stage
III Mathematical approach
A) Estimation method approach
It is nothing but scientific prediction mainly based on he climate and soil type.
Calculated crop water need and estimated root depth are taken into account in this.
a. Soil type
Soil type are classified as follows
Sandy / shallow - Low depth of water and more frequency
Loamy soil - Moderate depth water and less frequency
Clay soil - More depth of water and less frequency
b. Climate
Climates are classified based on reference ET as follows:
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Reference ET
4 – 5 mm/day – Low
6 – 7 mm/day – Medium
8 – 9 mm/day – High
Reference ET (mm/day) for different climatic zones
Mean daily temp

Climatic zone 150C Low 15 – 250C Medium > 250C High
Desert/arid 4-6 7-8 9-10
Semiarid 4-5 6-7 8-9
Sub humid 3-4 5-6 7-8
Humid 1-2 3-4 5-6
The above table is based on the crop water needs during peak period. It is also
assumed that there is no rainfall or little occurs during the growing season. Based on this
method estimated irrigation schedule is given below for major field crops.
Estimated irrigation schedule for major field crops in peak periods
Intervals in days
S andy L oamy C lay
Climate 1 2 3* Depth 1 2 3* Depth 1 2 3* Depth
Banana 5 3 2 25 7 5 4 40 10 7 5 55
Cotton 9 6 5 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70
Sorghum 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70
G.nut 6 4 3 25 7 5 4 35 11 8 6 50
Maize 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70
Peas 6 4 3 30 8 6 4 40 10 7 5 50
Soybean 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70
Sugarcane 8 6 4 40 10 7 5 55 13 9 7 70
Sunflower 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70
Wheat 8 6 4 40 11 8 6 55 14 10 7 70
Tomato 6 4 3 30 8 6 4 40 10 7 5 50
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1* - Low temperature of 150C 2* - medium temperature of

15-250C
3*- high temperature of >250C
Adjustment in this method for Non peak
periods a) In early growth stages
The irrigation could be adjusted with little water and same frequency. But same
water and less frequency are not advisable.
b) In late growth stage
Less frequency with same amount of water is advisable in this period.

c) In rainy days
The table schedule is to be adjusted when there is contribution from rainfall
during crop growth period. This can be adjusted by giving longer interval (high
frequency) with little water.
d) For irrigation practice and soil characteristics
For example, if a maize crop is grown on a clayey soil in a moderately warm
climate, according to the table the intervals is 10 days and the depth is 70 mm per
application. But based on the irrigation method practiced and soil type, the soil is unable
to hold 70mm of water per application. The soil could hold only 50 mm/application. In
this situation instead of giving 70 mm for every 10 days, it is possible to give 63 mm for
every 9 days or 56 mm for every 8 days or 49 mm for every 7 days or 42 mm for every 6
days. The 49 mm for every 7 days is the approximate interval for local situation. Hence
this method of intervals for irrigation can be adopted.
B) Simple Calculation Method
It is based on the estimated depth of irrigation application and calculated
irrigation need of the crop over growing season. Hence the influence of climate especially
temperature and rainfall is taken for consideration. Hence, it is more accurate than that of
the estimated method.
It involves four steps
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a) Estimate the net and gross irrigation depth (d) in mm.

b) Calculate the irrigation water need (mm) over total growing season
c) Calculate the number of irrigation over total growing season
d) Calculate the irrigation interval
Estimation net and gross irrigation
The net irrigation depth is calculated based on the irrigation depth. This may vary
with local irrigation method and practice and soil type. If local data are not available the
table given below can be used which will be approximate for most of the field crops. The
root depth can be measured locally and adjusted.
Approximate net irrigation depth (mm)
Rooting depth
Soil type Shallow Medium Deep
Sandy 15 30 40
Loamy 20 40 60
Clay 30 50 70
Root depth of different field crops are Given below
Shallow 30 – 60 cm
Rice, rabi, onion, potato, pineapple, cabbage.
Medium 50 – 100 cm
Banana, bean, coconut, groundnut, peas, soybean, sunflower, tobacco, tomato,
cumbu, pulses
Deep 90-150 cm
Citrus, grapes, wheat, cotton, maize, wheat, sorghum, soybean
We know very well that all the water applied in the field cannot be used by the
plants. There is some water loss through deep percolation, run off etc., To include this
unavoidable water loss the field application efficiency (eaf) can be used. The gross
irrigation depth includes the water loss through deep percolation and run off.
100 x net irrigation depth

Gross irrigation (d) = --------------------------------
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Field application efficiency
100 x n.d (cm)

= ------------------
eaf (%)
If reliable data for field application efficiency are not available the efficiency rate
given below can be used which are more approximate.
For surface method = 60%
Sprinkler method = 75%
Drip method = 90%
According to the table, the depth is 40 mm for tomato grown on a loamy soil. If
furrow irrigation is used, field application efficiency is 60% and therefore gross irrigation
depth is
100 x 40
Gross irrigation depth d = -------------- = 67 mm
60
b) Calculation of irrigation water need for total growing season
Tomato crop is planted in February 7th and harvested in June

30th Water needs mm/month
February March April May June Total

67 110 166 195 180 718
The water need is calculated based of ET value of the crop during that period
c) Calculate the number of irrigation over total growing period
Total water need

Number of irrigation = ---------------------
Depth
718
= ----- = 18
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40
Duration (days)
d). Irrigation interval = ----------------------------
Number of irrigation
143
= ----- = 7.94 =
8.0 18
Conclusion
Irrigation schedule for tomato

Net d = 40 mm
Gross d = 65 mm
Interval = 8 days
Water requirement for peak season
April May June Total

166 195 180 541
Depth (d) = 40 mm
WR = 541
Number of irrigation = -------------
d = 40
= 13.5 approximately 14 irrigations
Duration 91 days
Irrigation interval = -----------------------= ---------= 6.5 days = 7.0
No. of irrigation 14
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Water requirement for early growth period
February March Total

67 110 117
177
No. of irrigation = ----
40
= 4.4
Approximately = 4 irrigation
52
Irrigation interval = ---- = 13 days interval
4
This interval is too long and the rooting depth is also very shallow during this
period. Hence adjustment can be made by reducing the irrigation depth as follows
i.e., instead of 40 mm depth 30 mm depth can be tried
177 52 days
------ = 5.9 = 6 = ----------- = 8.67 = 9.0
30 6
9 days is irrigation interval can be adopted.
IV. System as a whole approach

A) Rotational water supply
R.W.S is one of the techniques in irrigation water distribution management. It

aims at equi-distribution of irrigation water irrespective of location of the land in the
command area by enforcing irrigation time schedules.
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Each 10 ha block is divided into 3 to 4 sub units (irrigation groups) According to

the availability of irrigation water, stabilized field channels and group-wise irrigation
requirement, time schedules are evolved. The irrigation will be done strictly in
accordance with the group-wise time schedules by the block committees. Within the
group, the time is to be shared by the farmers themselves.
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09. WATER USE EFFICIENCY (WUE) & INDICES
An efficient irrigation system implies effective transfer of water from the source
to the filed with minimum possible loss. The objective of the efficiency concept is to
identify the nature of water loss and to decide the type of improvements in the system.
Evaluation of performance in terms of efficiency is prerequisite for proper use of
irrigation water.
1. Irrigation Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of water output to the water input, i.e., the ratio or
percentage of the irrigation water consumed by the crop of an irrigated farm, field or
project to the water delivered from the source.
Wc
Ei = --------- x 100
Wr
where,
Ei = irrigation efficiency (%)
Wc = irrigation water consumed by crop during its growth period in an irrigation
project.
Wr = water delivered from canals during the growth period of crops.
In most irrigation projects, the irrigation efficiency ranges between 12 to 34 %.
2. Water Conveyance Efficiency
It is a measure of efficiency of water conveyance system from canal network to

watercourses and field channels. It is the ratio of water delivered infields at the outlet
head to that diverted into the canal system from the river or reservoir. Water losses occur
in conveyance from the point of diversion till it reaches the farmer's fields which can be
evaluated by water conveyance efficiency, as under:
Wt
Ec = ------- x 100
Wf
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where,
Ec = water conveyance efficiency, per cent
Wf= water delivered to the farm by conveyance system (at field supply channel)
Wt = water introduced into the conveyance system from the point of diversion
Water conveyance efficiency is generally low; about 21% losses occur in earthen
watercourses only.
3. Water Application Efficiency
It is a measure of efficiency of water application in the field. It is the ratio of

volume of water that is stored in the root zone of crops and ultimately consumed by
transpiration or evaporation or both to the volume of water actually delivered at the field.
Alternatively, it may be defined as the percentage of water applied that can be accounted
for as increase in soil moisture in soils as occupied by the principal rooting system of the
crop. It is also termed as farm efficiency as it takes into account water lost in application
at the farm. We have
Ws
Ea = -------- x 100
Wf
where,
Ea = water application efficiency, per cent
Ws = irrigation water stored in the root zone of farm soil
Wf = irrigation water delivered to the farm (at field supply channel)
In general, water application efficiency decreases as the amount of water during each
irrigation increases. Water losses due to inefficient application of water in the field vary
from 28 to 50 %.
Common sources of loss of irrigation water during application are represented thus:
Rf = surface runoff from the farm
Df = deep percolation below the farm root zone soil
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Neglecting evaporation losses during application, we have

Wf = Ws + Df + Rf
(Df + Rf)
Ec= Wf - ---------------------- x 100
Wf
4. Water Use Efficiency

Having conveyed water to the point of use and having applied it, the next
efficiency concept of concern is the efficiency of water use. It is expressed in kg/ha cm.
The proportion of water delivered and beneficially used on the project can be calculated
using the following formula
Wu
Eu = -------- x 100
Wd
where,
Eu = water use efficiency, per cent
Wu = water beneficially used
Wd = water delivered
Water use efficiency is also defined as (i) crop water use efficiency and (ii) field water
efficiency.
(a) Crop Water Use Efficiency: It is the ratio of yield of crop (Y) to the amount of
water depleted by crop in evapotranspiration (ET).
Y
CWUE = ----
ET
where,
CWUE= Crop water use efficiency
Y = Crop yield
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ET = Evapotranspiration
CWUE is otherwise called consumptive water use efficiency. It is the ratio of crop
yield (Y) to the sum of the amount of water taken up and used for crop growth (G),
evaporated directly from the soil surface (E) and transpired through foliage (T) or
consumptive use (Cu)
Y
CWUE = ---------------------
G+E+T
where,
(G+E+T) = Cu
In other words ET is Cu since water used for crop growth is negligible.
Y
CWUE = ------
CU
It is expressed in kg/ha/mm or kg/ha/cm.
(b) Field Water Use Efficiency:

It is the ratio of yield of crop (Y) to the total amount of water used in the field.
Y
FWUE = -----
WR
where,
FWUE = field water use efficiency
WR = water requirement
This is the ratio of crop yield to the amount of water used in the field (WR)
including growth (G), direct evaporation from the soil surface (E), transpiration (T) and
deep percolation loss (D).
Y
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FWUE = --------------------
G+E+T+D
G+E+T+D =WR
It is expressed in kg/ha/mm (or) kg/ha/cm
Deep percolation is important for rice crop. For other crops seepage is important.
Of the two indices defined, the crop water use efficiency is more of research value
whereas the field water use efficiency has grater practical importance for planners and
farmers.
5. Water Storage Efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of the water stored in the root depth by irrigation to the
water needed in the root depth to bring it to the field capacity. Also termed as water
storage factor.
Ws
Es = ---------- x 100
Ww
where,
Es = water storage efficiency, per cent
Ws = water stored in the root zone during the irrigation
Ww = water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation, i.e., field capacity
available
moisture.
6. Water Distribution Efficiency

Expression for distribution efficiency to evaluate the extent to which the water is
uniformly distributed is as follows:
(1-d)
Ed = -------------x 100
D
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(1 - Average deviation)
= --------------------------------------X 100
Average depth applied
where,
Ed = water distribution efficiency, per cent
d = average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depth
stored during irrigation
D = average depth of water stored along the run during irrigation
A water distribution efficiency of 80% means that 10% of water was applied in
excess and consequently 10% was deficient in comparison to the average depth of
application.
7. Consumptive Use Efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of consumptive water use by the crop of irrigated farm or
project and the irrigation water stored in the root zone of the soil on the farm or the
project area. After irrigation water is stored in the soil, it may not be available for use by
the crop because water may evaporate from the ground surface or continuously move
downward beyond the root zone as it may happen in wide furrow spacing. The loss of
water by deep penetration and by surface evaporation following irrigation is evaluated
from the following expression:
Wcu
Ecu = ----------- x 100
Wd
where,
Ecu = consumptive use efficiency, per cent
Wcu = normal consumptive use of water
Wd = net amount of water depleted from root zone soil
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Consumptive use efficiency is useful in explaining the difference in crop response

from different methods of irrigation.
Exercise
1. Work out the irrigation efficiency from the following data.
Water conveyance and delivery loss = 40%
Deep percolation and surface runoff in farms = 30%
Water stored in soil lost by evaporation = 20%
2. A borewell fitted with 7.5 HP motor discharges water at the rate of 12 lit/sec. Water
received at the main field. Channel was measured as 8.5 lit/sec. Workout the
conveyance efficiency.
3. Work out the water use efficiency for the following crops using the data given in the
table.
Crop Yield (kg/ha) ET (mm) WR (mm)

Rice 6,200 500 1,200
Groundnut 800 320 500
Sugarcane 110,000 1,260 2,050
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10. AGRONOMIC PRACTICES FOR USE OF PROBLEM WATER - SALINE,
EFFLUENT, SEWAGE WATER
Quality of irrigation water

Whatever may be the source of irrigation water viz., river, canal, tank, open well
or tube well, some soluble salts are always dissolved in it. The main soluble constituent
in water are Ca, Mg, Na and K as cations and chloride, sulphate bicarbonate and
carbonate as anions. However ions of other elements such as lithium, silicon, bromine,
iodine, copper, cobalt, fluorine, boron, titanium, vanadium, barium, arsenic, antimony,
beryllium, chromium, manganese, lead, selenium phosphate and organic matter are also
present. Among the soluble constituents, calcium, sodium, sulphate, bicarbonate and
boron are important in determining the quality of irrigation water and its suitability for
irrigation purposes. However other factors such as soil texture, permeability, drainage,
type of crop etc., are equally important in determining the suitability of irrigation water.
The following are the most common problems that result from using poor quality water.
1. Salinity
If the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high, the salts will
accumulate in the crop root zone and affect the crop growth and yield. Excess salt
condition reduces uptake of water due to high concentration of soil solution.
2. Permeability
Some specific salts reduce the rate of infiltration in to the soil profile
3. Toxicity
When certain constituents of water are taken up by plans which accumulates in
large quantities and results in plant toxicity and reduces yield.
4. Miscellaneous
Excessive Nitrogen in irrigation water causes excessive vegetative growth and
leads to lodging and delayed crop maturity. White deposits on fruits or leaves may occur
due to sprinkler irrigation with high bicarbonate water.
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Classification of irrigation water quality
Quality of EC (m.mhos / pH Na (%) Cl (me/l) SAR

water cm)
Excellent 0.5 6.5 – 7.5 30 2.5 1.0
Good 0.5 – 1.5 7.5 – 8.0 30–60 2.5 – 5.0 1.0 – 2.0
Fair 1.5 – 3.0 8.0 – 8.5 60–75 5.0 – 7.5 2.0 – 4.0
Poor 3.0 – 5.0 8.5 – 9.0 75–90 7.5 – 10. 4.0 – 8.0
Very poor 5.0 – 6.0 9.0 – 10. 80–90 10.0 – 12.5 8.0 – 15.0
Unsuitable >6.0 > 10 >90 >12.5 >15
(SAR – Sodium Adsorption ratio)
Factors affecting suitability of waters for irrigation

The suitability of particular water for irrigation is governed by the following
factors.
1. Chemical composition of water (TSS, pH; CO3, HCO3, Cl, So4, Ca, Mg, Na, and
B)
2. Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity (EC)
3. Concentration of sodium ions, in proportion to calcium and magnesium or
sodicity (SAR);
4. Trace element boron may be toxic to plant growth, if present in limits beyond
permissible
5. The effect of salt on crop growth is of osmotic nature. If excessive quantities of
soluble salts accumulate in the root zone the crop has extra difficult in extracting
enough water from salty solution, thereby affecting the yields adversely.
6. Besides this, total salinity depends of the extent to which exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) of soil increase as a result of adsorption of sodium from water.
This increase depends on sodium percentage.
7. Soil characteristics like structure, texture, organic matter, nature of clay minerals,
topography etc.
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8. Plant characteristics like tolerance of plant varies with different stages of growth.
The germinating and seedling stages are usually the most sensitive to salinity.
9. Climatic factors can modify plant response to salinity. Tolerance to saline water
irrigation is often greater in winter than in the summer. Rainfall is the most
significant factor for the leaching of salts from the plant root zone. Temperature
also plays a vital role.
10. Management practices also play great role. Wherever saline water is used for
irrigation, adoption of management practices which allow minimum salt
accumulation in the root zone of the soil is necessary.
The primary parameters that have to be considered to ensure effective irrigation

management for salt control are the water requirement of crop and quality of irrigation
water. Correct irrigation should restore any soil water deficit, to control salt levels.
Points to be considered for the management and use of poor quality water
1. Application of greater amounts of organic matter such as FYM, compost etc., to

the soil to improve permeability and structure.
2. Increasing the proportion of calcium, through addition of gypsum (CaSO 4) to the
irrigation water in the channel, by keeping pebbles mixed pure gypsum bundles in
the irrigation tank.
3. Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper proportions so that both
the sources of water are effectively used to maximum advantage.
4. Periodical application of organic matter and raising as well as incorporation of
green manure crops in the soil.
5. Irrigating the land with small quantities of water at frequent intervals instead of
large quantity at a time.
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6. Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than the normally

required and preferably ammonium sulphate for nitrogen, super phosphate and Di
Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) for phosphorus application
7. Drainage facilities must be improved
8. Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar beet, paddy, groundnut,
sorghum, corn, sunflower, chillies, tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans,
amaranthus and lucerne.
Use of poor quality water

Besides the salinity and alkalinity hazard of water, some industrial effluents and
sewage water are also problem water that can be reused by proper treatment. The
complex growth of industries and urbanization (Urban development) leads to massive
increase in waste water in the form of sewage and effluent. Waste water supplies not only
nutrient but also some toxic elements such as total solids of chloride, carbonate,
bicarbonate, sulphate, sodium chromium, calcium magnesium, etc., in high concentration.
Besides this the effluent or waste water creates BOD (Bio chemical Oxygen Demand)
These waste water when used for irrigation leads to surface and sub surface source of
pollution due to horizontal and vertical seepage.
Projected waste-water Utilization
It is estimated that 287,000 million m3 of waste water can be reusable during

2000 A.D. Hence this waste water can be properly treated as follows
 Dilute with good quality water in the ratio of 50:50 or 75:25

 Alternate irrigation with waste water and good quality water

 Treat the effluent water through fill and draw tanks, lime tank, equalization tank,
settling tank, sludge removal tank, aerobic and anaerobic treatment tanks etc.,
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11. WATER MANAGEMENT FOR PROBLEM SOILS
When rocks and minerals under go weathering process large quantities of soluble
salts are formed. In humid regions these salts are washed down to the ground water and
to the sea. But in arid and semi arid regions they accumulate in the soil. Excessive
irrigation and poor water management are the two chief causes of water logging and salt
accumulation. An accumulation of salts in soil leads to unfavourable soil water-air
relationship and effect the crop production.
The following are the main causes which leads to development of salty soils
(salinity or alkalinity)
1. Arid climate
About 25% of earth surface is arid in which salt accumulation is a common
problem. In India about 25 million hectare is salt affected with different degree of
degradation.
2. High subsoil water table
When the water table is with in capillary range, the water containing soluble salts
rises to surface. When the water evaporates the salts are deposited as encrustation. It is
estimated that in Punjab annually about 50,000 acres becomes saline because of raising
water table.
3. Poor drainage
Due to poor drainage accumulation of water leads to water logging condition
which leads to salt accumulation.
4. Quality of irrigation water
Irrigation water containing more than permissible quantities of soluble salts with
sodium carbonate and bicarbonates make the soil salty.
5. Inundation with sea water
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In coastal area, periodical inundation of land by sea water during high tides makes
soil salty. Besides deep bore wells are also the reason for saline soils.
6. Nature of parent rock minerals
The saline nature of parent rock minerals leads to salt accumulation
7. Seepage form canals

The continuous seepage leads to salt accumulation.
Classification of problem soils

The soil problems can also be divided into
a) Chemical b) Physical
Soil Chemical Problem

The salt affected soils can be classified based on their ESP, pH and EC as follows
ESP (%) EC mhos/cm pH

Saline < 15 >4 < 8.5
Saline alkali > 15 >4 > 8.5
Alkali/sodic > 15 <4 > 8.5
Reclamation of Saline soil
Leaching or flushing with good quality of water provided there will not be water
logged condition i.e. good drainage system should be there to flush water.
Reclamation of Alkali soil
By converting exchangeable sodium into soluble salts by adding the following

amendments.
1. Calcium chloride
2. Calcium sulphate (Gypsum)
3. Sulphuric acid
4. Ferrous sulphate
5. Aluminum sulphate
Reclamation of Saline alkali soil
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The reclamation of these soils is similar to that of alkali soils. First step is to
remove the exchangeable sodium and then the excess salts and sodium are to be
leached out.
Commonly salt affected soils are referred as problem soils as indicated above.
Further, based on pH value it can also be grouped as acid soils where the pH value is less
than 7.
Management practices for chemical problems of soil

Reclamation of saline and alkali soils are not complete unless proper remedial
measures are under taken to restore the soil fertility and structure of the soil. The
following are the important management practices to overcome there problems.
 The saline soil can be easily improved with leaching of salts by using of god
quality water and by providing good drainage systems.

 Application of gypsum would improve the permeability of soil by making good
soil aggregates
In acidic soils, lime application should be adequate and excessive
leachingshould be avoided
 Salt resistant or saline resistant species should be selected for cultivation

 Application of amendments viz gypsum and press mud is found to suppress the
sodium and chromium content in plant and soil.

 Growing resistant crops like ragi cotton, barley and rice can be advocated.

 Growing green manure crops like sunnhemp, daincha and kolinji can be
advocated.

 Growing resistant varieties like CoC 771 in sugarcane Co 43 in rice may be made.

 Adoption of drip irrigation for possible crop is also recommended to over come
soil physical and chemical problems.

 Liberal application of FYM

 Application of green manure
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 Excess phosphorous and application


 Proper drainage to keep the soil without adverse effect to plant systems.
Soil physical problems
Very coarse, very clayey texture, shallow depth and encrustation in soil surface
are the possible physical problems. Too frequent irrigation in clayey soils with very high
water retention results in poor drainage, water logging and crop damage. Excess
irrigation or heavy rain create hardening of soil surface in red latritic soils with high Fe
and Al hydroxides and low organic matter. This leads to poor germination, restriction of
shoot and development and slow entry of water into the soil profile.
Water management practices for physical problem of soil

 
 In light soils shallow depth of water with more frequency should be adopted.


To increase the infiltration rate of clay type soil, breeding of soil by mixing with
coarse textured soil or tank silt at the rate of 50 tones per hectare is advocated.

 cake, etc., at the rate
Organic wastes like crop residue, farm waste, coir pith, filter
 of 20 tones per hectare once in every year can be applied.

Poorly drained clay soils can be improved by providing tile drains and trenches
 intermittently.

To make the soil more permeable and to overcome poor drainage, addition of

organic wastes or sandy soil at the rate of 20 tones per ha or 50 tones per ha
 respectively is advocated.

 and water
Tank silt or heavy soil application is the only way to increase soil depth
 holding capacity. Besides growth shallow rooted crop is advisable.

The encrustation problem could be alleviated by incorporating organic matter and
adding montmorilonite clay containing silt.
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12. Water Management Technology Options for Non-Rice Crops

Special irrigation techniques for non-rice crops:
Paired row technique:
• It is a method in which accommodating crop rows on both sides of furrow

by increasing ridge spacing, thereby a common furrow is used fro
irrigation of two rows .
• This method of
irrigation has been
experimented for
crops like greengram,
blackgram, groundnut
and sunflower. The
results showed that
there was saving of
about 20 % irrigation water and 15 % increase in crop yields
• In Coimbatore district, the paired row system of planting for cotton crop
saved 29 % of irrigation water with almost the same yield as that of
conventional furrow system. The water use efficiency was found to be
31.1 kg/ha-cm.
Alternate furrow system:
In sugarcane alternate furrow saves 34.1 % irrigation water compared to all

furrow irrigation
sandy clay loam soils of Coimbatore.
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• Growing chillies under alternate furrow irrigation with 10 t/ha of coir pith
application saves 30.8 % irrigation water over all furrow irrigation.
• Growing groundnut in ridges and furrows under well irrigated conditions
saves 24-27 % of irrigation water compared to check basin
• Alternate furrow irrigation to brinjal saves 24 % of water than normal
farmers practice.
• Alternate furrow irrigation for PKM1 tomato crop saves 34 % of irrigation
water compared to all furrow irrigation and 55 5 over check basin. There
is no significant variation in yields between the two methods
Growing turmeric under improved irrigation practice of using 5 cm depth of water
plus application of coir pith 10 tons/ha as mulch saves.
Growing turmeric under improved irrigation practice of using 5 cm depth of water

plus application of coir pith 10 tons/ha as mulch saves water upto 44 % over
normal farmers practice (ridges and furrows).
Gradual widening technique

Irrigating banana at 1.0 IW/CPE ration (once in 7 days) from 0-7 months and 1.2
IW/CPE ratio (once in 5 days) from 7-14 months recorded higher mean yield of
32.7 t/ha with an increased fruit yield of 2.1 t/ha compared to basin irrigation at
1.0 IW/CPE ratio throughout the crop growth period, besides higher WUE and
saving of 140 mm of water. By gradual widening of ring basins from 30x60,
45x90 and 60x120 cm for 0-50, 51-100 and 101-150 days respectively followed.
By basin method there was a saving of 25.4 % of water and increased WUE of
25.9 % over check basin
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Surge irrigation technique

A relatively new concept in surface
irrigation application method viz.,
surge irrigation has been introduced a
ndevaluatedforfielduse.
Extensive experimental trails covering
a wide range of long furrow
specifications, inflow discharges,
cycle ratios and number of surges
with different test.
Salient Features
• Easy operation and efficient manipulation of surge flow rates in

accordance with the design surge cycle timing parameters and irrigation
requirements.
• Deep percolation losses along furrows hardly exceed 5 % compared to
more than 25 % in continuous flow systems.
• Nearly 1.5 times increase in the irrigable area per unit time
• Helps achieve high degree of irrigation efficiencies and water use
efficiencies (14 kg/ha/mm of water) with maize.
• Saving in water (40 to 60 %), time and labour (30 to 45 man-hours per ha
compared to more than 60 man-hours per ha in continuous flow systems
Sorghum- Farmer's practice
• Flat bed system – irrigation based on prevailing weather and eye

judgment
Technology options
• Furrow irrigation once in 15-16 days during first 20 days of sowing and six
irrigations with an interval of 6 days during the rest of the crop period
• Raton sorghum six irrigation viz., at rationing, 4-5 leaf stage, milking,
soft dough and hard dough
• Surge irrigation is feasible in long furrow (>100 m) in level lands
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Pearl millet- Farmer's practice
• Beds and channel irrigation

Technology options
• Irrigating with IW / CPE ratio of 0.75 at 4 cm depth was found to be

optimum
Finger millet- Farmer's practice
• Flat bed system irrigation based on prevailing weather and eye judgment
Technology options
• Irrigating with IW / CPE ratio of 0.75 at 4 cm depth of water

Maize - Farmer's practice
• Flat bed system- irrigation based on prevailing weather and eye judgment
Technology options
• Irrigating the field at 10 days interval

Pulses- Farmer's practice
• Beds and channels and excess irrigation

Technology options
• Blackgram and greengram irrigation at critical stage i.e. one at sowing,

second at flowering and third at pod formation with 4 cm depth.
• Irrigation once in 18 days was optimum
• Soybean, irrigation at 80 mm, CPE once in 11-12 days interval
Groundnut -Farmer's practice
• Beds and channel-irrigation based on prevailing weather and eye

judgement
Technology options
• Irrigation at sowing and establishment stages and 25 DAS

•
• Irrigation once in 7-9 days found to be optimum
Gingelly - Farmer's practice
• Flat bed system and copious irrigation
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Technology options
• Irrigation at Flowering stage and capsule formation

Sunflower- Farmer's practice
• Flat bed system

Technology options
• Irrigation at IW / CPE ratio of 0.75 with 20:30:20 Kg of NPK / ha

• Surge irrigation under long furrow in level lands
Coconut - Farmer's practice
• Check basin and copious irrigation

Technology options
• Irrigation through drip system @ 100 litres of water / tree / day

• For stress management the palm basins to be opened to a radius of
1.8m with receipt of late showers and mulching can be done
• Husk mulching can be done to absorb rain water and making available to
palm
Application of green manure and FYM in the basin
• Spreading dried coconut leaves and other organic residues

• Addition of tank silt to the basin increase the water retaining capacity
• Under drought situation lower senescent leaves may be removed
• Pitcher irrigation can be followed where a little water is available
Cotton - Farmer's practice
• Beds and channels

Technology options
• Sowing of seeds in ridges and furrows

• Irrigation at IW / CPE ratio of 0.75
• Mulching with sugarcane trash @ 5t / ha
• Spraying of Folicot or paraffin wax 10gm or kaolin 50gm in a litre of water
• Sprinkler irrigation is feasible
• Drip irrigation can be adopted
Banana - Farmer's practice
• Trench and mounds method of irrigation
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Technology options
• Irrigation at 0.75-0.9 IW /CPE

ratio
• Chain basin method could
be adopted
• Basins are formed around the
suckers and the basins are
connected through channels
• Drip irrigation with high density
planting, Fertigations are
preferred in favourable
locations (well irrigated lands)
• Gradual widening of furrows
with stage of crops.
Acid lime -Farmer's practice
• Basin irrigation
Technology options
• Irrigation through drippers at 75 per cent of water supplied through basins

• Drip irrigation is preferred
Tomato- Farmer's practice
• Beds and channels

Technology options
• Furrow irrigation may be recommended

• Drip irrigation especially with micro sprinklers may also be
recommended for hybrids
• Irrigation at IW / CPE ratio of 1.00 during fruit formation And ripening
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• Sprinkler irrigation in tomato with 1760m3 gave significantly higher water

use efficiency than any other irrigation method
Sugarcane - Farmer's practice
• Excess irrigation through ridges and furrows

Technology options
• Irrigation at IW / PE ratio of 0.9

• Mulching with sugarcane trash in garden land situation reduce evaporation
loss
• Foliar application of kaolin @ 12.5 Kg in 750 litres of water per hectare
reduce the transpiration loss
• Removal of old dried leaves in 5-7months old crop
• Alternate or skip furrow irrigation can be followed
• Irrigate the field based on sheath moisture percentage
• In deep trench system of planting 30cm deep trenches are opened at
80cm apart, sets are planted in trenches
• Drip irrigation with fertigation is highly suitable
• Surge irrigation may be adopted in long fields in light textured soils
The problems of several non-system tank irrigation system
through detailed studies
• Encroachment, siltation, soaking of supply channels resulting in poorer /

no-inflow of water, pollution of tank water by tannery and dying factory
influence (Coimbatore, Erode, Salem Districts)
• Tank chains almost disappear and their hydrologically interlinking, any
improvement could revive the tank will have benefit of exploiting full tank
irrigation through appropriate or selective moderanisation benefit
• Owing to vagaries of man only 50-60 % of supply is realized a crop
diversification strategy with non-rice crops is suggested
• De-silting for reviving the original capacity, tank fore shore, plantation to
arrest the silt flow, feasibility of connecting small different tanks into the
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percolation pond for ground water recharge, rehabilitation of tank structure

and inward channels are the solutions eminated from the tank system
researches
• On-farm development structures has to be strengthened the any tank
command areas for equitable water distribution from head to tail end along
with farmers participation
• Other technology options for poor quality water
• Conjuctive use of relatively fresh surface water and poor quality ground
water with proper proportions are recommended
• Growing of salt tolerant crops in the saline water, irrigation belt along with
proper drainage facility
• Community bore wells during the period of erratic water supply in canal
command areas enhanced the crop water availability and there by their
yields and net returns.
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13. COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT- CONTINGENT CROP PLAN IN

MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS OF TAMIL NADU - DRAINAGE
– IMPORTANCE AND METHODS
Command Area Development

Due to ill distribution, erratic and uncertain nature of rainfall over the year and
variations is year to year cause management difficulties in predicting the quantity and
scheduling irrigation in command areas. Irrigated agriculture plays a vital role in our food
production and therefore a well regulated irrigation system is highly essential to reduce
the loss of water and to increase irrigation efficiencies.
To achieve this maximum possible irrigation efficiencies, there are two

approaches viz.,
1. Modernization of conveyance system down below the reservoirs upto government

controlled outlet. This work involves mainly the construction and maintenance of
head sluices, main canals, branch canals, and distributaries (Modernization of
Supplier’s Side or System Level Development Works)
2. Modernization below the government controlled outlets upto the drains.
(Modernization of user’s side or Farm level development works) This works are
otherwise known as On-Farm Development works (OFD).
Conveyance and distribution system

Reservoir
Main canal
Branch canal
Minor
Distributory
Sluice / outlet
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Field channel
Distribution boxes
Turnout
Checks
On-Farm Development Works (OFD)
On-Farm Development works include lining of field irrigation channels and
infrastructural facilities like bed regulators, diversion and distribution boxes, turnouts and
drop structures to regulate and convey the irrigation water from government controlled
outlets to individual land holdings.
This type of work mainly aims to reduce conveyance and application losses, to
minimize water logging condition and to conserve water
Thus the OFD works are more helpful in achieving the objective of the
modernization of irrigation systems.
But their execution involves lot of problems due to the following reasons
 The OFD works are to be executed in the farmers fields

 The number of farmers involved are more

 The influence of Socio-economic constraints
In Tamil Nadu, the OFD works are undertaken by the State Agricultural
Engineering Department
The OFD Strategy

The 10 ha. block outlets are the last government outlets having regulating shutter
arrangements only at the sluices of branch canals. Each sluice serves 1 to 12 blocks
through the lined distributory. The OFD works are planned duly considering the entire
command area under each sluice and the irrigation problems and conflicts in each block
are analysed so as to design the preventive and curative measures. The common problems
prevailing in command area and the appropriate OFD measures proposed are furnished
below in nutshell.
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Problems
a) Absence of adequate field channel network causing wastage of irrigation in field
to field irrigation.
b) Interfering with the distributory (carrying water down to other 10 ha blocks) by
adjoining head reach farmers in each block.
c) Leakage and lateral seepage of water from earthen channels. Running at the edge
of higher level lands causing “water logging” in the adjoining low lying fields.
d) Difficulties in irrigating the higher level fields through earthen channels at zero
gradient.
e) In the locations the water need to be diverted in different wastage of land and
water.
f) Earthen channels with erosive slopes
g) Structural deficiencies essential structures such as channel crossing, small culverts
road crossings, with siphon arrangements etc., are to be constructed wherever
necessary.
OFT measures to overcome the problems
a) Provision of proper earthen field channel net work to have earthen canal from the
source upto each holding
b) Provision of higher level field channels (mostly lined) parallel to the distributory
in the upper part of each block for feeding to the adjoining lands without the
necessity for interfering with the distributory. By this arrangement the share of
lower blocks is fully allowed without any enchroachement.
c) This problem is solved by lining such portion of the earthen channels.
d) Such earthen channels are lined at zero gradient
e) Construction of diversion boxes with leading channels in all the required
directions.
f) Bed dams are constructed to stabilize the slope and drop structures are constructed
at the point of sudden drop in bed levels.
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g) Essential structures such as channel crossing, small culverts, road crossing, with
siphon arrangements, etc. are constructed wherever necessary.
The above details are furnished just to show only some of the problems and
relevant OFD measures. But the OFD works are carried out with the “systems approach”
to provide engineering solutions for the problems in the command area with the objective
of improving the irrigation water use efficiency.
Irrigation management under limited water supply

As any scarce resource needs management for its optimal utility. The irrigation
water also needs management to obtain optimum crop production with the available
water resources. Water management is practiced in two stages. (viz)
1. Water distribution management and

2. Water utilization management. The later is the crop water management at field
level.
Rotational Water Supply (RWS)

RWS is one of the techniques is irrigation water distribution management. It aims
at equi-distribution of irrigation water irrespective of location of the land in the command
area by enforcing irrigation time schedules.
Each 10 ha. block is divided into 3 to 4 sub units (irrigation groups) According to
the availability of irrigation water, stabilized field channels and group-wise irrigation
requirement, time schedules are evolved. The irrigation will be done strictly in
accordance with the group-wise time schedules by the block committee. Within the
group, the time is to be shared by the farmers within the group by themselves.
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14 WATER LOGGING AND FIELD DRAINAGE
For optimum growth and yield of field crops, proper balance between soil air
and soil moisture is quite essential. Except rice many of the cultivated plants cannot
withstand excess water in the soil. The ideal condition is that moisture and air occupy the
pore spaces in equal proportions. When the soil contains excess water than that can be
accommodated in the pore spaces it is said the field is water logged.
Causes of water logging
1. Excessive use of water when the water is available in abundance or cheaply due to
the belief that more water contributes better yield.
2. Improper selection of irrigation methods
3. Percolation and seepage from lands canals and reservoir located at nearby
elevated places
4. Improper lay out and lack of outlets
5. Presence of impervious layer with profile impeding percolation
6. Upward rise of water from shallow ground water table or aquifer.
Effects of water logging

Direct effects
Replacement of soil air which is the main source of oxygen for the roots as
well as soil microbes.
Due to high amount of CO2 in soil air high CO2 concentration under water
logged condition will kill plant roots.
Sometimes superficial root system or air space in root system will develop.
Due to poor aeration intake of water and nutrient will be reduced.
Indirect effects
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Nutrients are made un-available due to leaching

Toxic elements will be formed under anaerobic condition
Composition of organic matter under anaerobic condition results in production

of organic acids like butyric acid which is toxic to plants.
Reduces the availability of N, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn,
mb, Reduces soil temperature
Reduces the activity of beneficial microbes
Destruct soil structure
Difficult for cultural operations
Incidence of pest, disease and weeds
Changes for some elements in water logged condition
Elements Normal form Reduced form water logged soil

Carbon Carbon di oxide Methane (H4) complex aldehyde
Nitrogen Nitrate No3 Nitrogen (N) and NH2 amides, ammonia
Sulphur Sulphate So4 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
Drainage
It is the process of removal of excess water as free or gravitational water from
the surface and the sub surface of farm lands with a view to avoid water logging and
creates favourable soil conditions for optimum plant growth.
Need for drainage

It is generally assumed that in arid region drainage is not necessary and water
logging is not a problem. Even in arid region due to over irrigation and seepage from
reservoirs canals etc., drainage becomes necessary.
Irrigation and drainage are complementary practices in arid region to have
optimum soil water balance.
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In humid region drainage is of greater necessity mainly due to heavy

precipitation.
Drainage is required under the following condition
a) High water table
b) Water ponding on the surface for longer periods
c) Excessive soil moisture content above F.C, not draining easily as in clay soil
d) Areas of salinity and alkalinity where annual evaporation exceeds rainfall and
capillary rise of ground water occurs
e) Humid region with continuous of intermittent heavy rainfall
f) Flat land with fine texture soil
g) Low lying flat areas surrounded by hills
Characteristics of good drainage system
1. It should be permanent
2. It must have adequate capacity to drain the area completely
3. There should be minimum interference with cultural operated
4. There should be minimum loss of cultivable area
5. It should intercept or collect water and remove it quickly within shorter period
Methods of drainage
There are two methods

1. Surface method
2. Sub surface method
Surface drainage
This is designed primarily to remove excess water from the surface of soil
profile. This can be done by developing slope in the land so that excess water drains by
gravity.
It is suitable for
(i) Slowly permeable clay and shallow soil
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(ii) Regions of high intensity rainfall

(iii) To fields where adequate out lets are not available
(iv) The land with less than 1.5% slope
It can be made by
a) Land smoothing
b) Making field ditches
The surface drainage can be further classified as
a) Life drainage
b) Gravity drainage
c) Field surface drainage
d) Ditch drainage
Lift drainage
To drain from low lying area or areas having water due to embankment, life
drainage is used. Water to be drained is lifted normally by opened devices unscoops or by
pumping or by mechanical means. This method is costly, cumbersome and time
consuming but effective and efficient to drain standing water over the soil surface.
Gravity drainage
Water is allowed to drain from the areas under higher elevation to lower
reaches through the regulated gravity flow through the out let of various types. This
system is practiced in wet land rice with gentle to moderate slope.
This method is less costly, easy and effective however the area to be drained
should be leveled smooth and slightly elevated from the drainage source.
Field surface drainage
The excess water received from the rain or irrigation is drained through this
method. The irrigated basins or furrows are connected with the drainage under lower
elevation which is connected to the main out let and to the farm pond used for water
harvesting. If the slope of the land is sufficient to drain excess water from the individual
plot, this drain water may be collected and stored locally in reservoir for recycling for life
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saving irrigation. This drainage method is cheap and effective but there is possibility of
soil erosion and distribution of weed seeds along the flow of drainage water.
Ditch drainage
Ditches of different dimension are constructed at distances to drain the excess
water accumulated on the surface and inside the soil upto the depth of ditch. Such ditches
may be interceptors or relief drains. This method is adopted in nurseries, seed beds and
rainfed crops. This is an effective and efficient method but requires smoothening of
surface and construction of ditches. This involves cost and wastage of
crop lands. Shifting of soil, restriction for the movement of farm machineries
reconstruction and renovation of ditches during the crop duration and harvesting of crops
and the problems in this method. In flat land, bed or parallel field ditches may be
constructed. The collector ditches should be across the field ditches.
Advantages Disadvantages
Low initial cost Low efficiency
Easy for inspection Loss of cultivable land
Effective in low Interference to cultural operation
Permeability area High maintenance cost
Sub surface drainage system
Sub surface drains are under ground artificial channels through which excess
water may flow to a suitable outlet. The purpose is to lower the ground water level below
the root zone of the crop. The movement of water into sub surface drains is influenced by
1. The hydraulic conductivity of soil

2. Depth of drain below ground surface
3. The horizontal distance between individual drains
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Underground drainage is mostly needed to the

Medium textured soil
High value crop
High soil productivity
The are four types of sub surface drainage
1. Tile drainage
2. Mole drainage
3. Vertical drainage
4. Well Drainage / or Drainage wells
Advantage of sub surface
1. There is no loss of cultivable land
2. No interference for field operation
3. Maintenance cost is less
4. Effectively drains sub soil and creates better soil environments
Disadvantage
1. Initial cost is high
2. It requires constant attention
3. It is effective for soils having low permeability
1. Title drainage
This consist of continuous line of tiles laid at a specific depth and grade so that
the excess water enters through the tiles and flow out by gravity. Laterals collect water
from soil and drain into sub main and then to main and finally to the out let. Tile drains
are made with clay and concrete, Tiles should be strong enough to withstand the pressure
and also resistant to erosive action of chemicals in soil water.
2. Mole drainage
Mole drains are unlined circular earthen channels formed within the soil by a
mole plough. The mole plough has a long blade like shank to which a cylindical bullet
nosed plug is attached known as mole. As the plough is drawn through the soil the mole
forms the cavity to a set depth. Mole drainage is not effective in the loose soil since the
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channels produced by the mole will collapse. This is also not suitable for heavy plastic
soil where mole seals the soil to the movement of water.
3. Vertical drainage
Vertical drainage is the disposal of drainage water through well into porous
layers of earth. Such a layer must be capable of taking large volume of water rapidly.
Such layers are found in river bed.
4. Drainage wells
The wells are used for the drainage of agricultural lands especially in irrigated
areas.
Systems of drainage
There are five systems of drainage
1. Random 2. Herringbone 3. Grid iron 4. Interceptor

1. Random
This is used where the wet area are scattered and isolated from each other. The
lines are laid more or less at random to drain these wet areas. The main is located in the
largest natural depression while the submains and laterals extend to the individual wet
areas.
2. Herring bone
In this system the main are in a narrow depression and the laterals enter the
main from both side at an angle of 450 like the bones of a fish.
3. Gridiron
The gridiron is similar to herringbone but the laterals enter the main only from
one side at right angles. It is adopted in flat regularly shaped fields. This is an efficient
drainage system.
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4. Interceptor
Ditches of different dimension are constructed at distance to drain the excess
water accumulated on the surface and inside the soil upto the depth of ditch. Such ditches
may be interceptors or relief drains. This method is adopted in nurseries, seed beds and
rainfed crops. This is an effective and efficient method but requires smoothening of
surface and construction of ditches. This involves cost and wastage of
crop lands. Shifting of soil, restriction for the movement of farm machineries
reconstruction and renovation of ditches during the crop duration and harvesting of crops
are the problems in this method. In flat land, bed or parallel field ditches may be
constructed. The collector ditches should be across the field ditches.
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DRIP IRRIGATION AND FERTIGATION
DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
Drip irrigation refers to application of water in small quantity at the rate of mostly less
than 12 lph as drops to the zone of the plants through a network of plastic pipes fitted with
emitters. Drip irrigation in its present form has become compatible with plastics that are
durable and easily moulded into a variety and complexity of shapes required for pipe and
emitters.
MERITS
1. Increased water use efficiency
2. Better crop yield
3. Uniform and better quality of the produce
4. Efficient and economic use or fertiliser through fertigation
5. Less weed growth
6. Minimum damage to the soil structure
7. Avoidance of leaf burn due to saline soil
8. Usage in undulating areas and slow permeable soil
9. Low energy requirement (i.e.) labour saving
10. High uniformity suitable for automization
DEMERITS
1. Clogging of drippers
2. Chemical precipitation
3. Salt accumulation at wetting front
COMPONENTS AND ITS SELECTION FOR A TYPICAL DRIP IRRIGATION
LAYOUT
HEAD EQUIPMENTS
a. Water source - Subsurface tank
b. Pump - Suction, monoblock pump, delivery non return valve,
gate valve
c. Filter station - Sand filter, screen filter, manifold and pressure
gauge
d. Fertiliser application - Fertiliser tank and ventury assembly
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DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
e. Conveyance line - Main line, sub main, gromet take off assembly,
laterals, minor tubes and end caps.
f. Drippers - Pressure corresponding drippers (moulded/threaded
type)
g, Valves - Non-return valve (NRV), Ball valves, Air release
valve (ARV), flush valves
h. Water meter - If necessary
i. Water source
a. WATER SOURCE SUBSURFACE TANK
To minimise the energy requirement and also to get a uniform or constant level of
water owing to the accumulation of bore wells in one pat1 of the irrigation regime; keeping
in the effective hydraulic DIS design, it is necessary to construct a subsurface tank in an
elevation point at the centre. The capacity of the tank is calculated from the water
requirement of the crop, dripper capacity, type of soil etc.
b. PUMP
Pump/Overhead Tank: It is required to provide sufficient pressure in the system.
Centrifugal pumps are generally used for low pressure trickle systems. Overhead tanks can
be used for small areas or orchard crops with comparatively lesser water requirements.
1. Filters: The hazard of blocking or clogging necessitates the use of filters for efficient and
trouble free operation of the microirrigation system. The different types of filters used in
microirrigation system are described below.
Fig. 1.1 Components of Microirrigation System
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a) Gravel or Media Filter: Media filters consist of fine gravel or coarse quartz sand, of
selected sizes (usually 1.5 – 4 mm in diameter) free of calcium carbonate placed in a
cylindrical tank. These filters are effective in removing light suspended materials, such as
algae and other organic materials, fine sand and silt particles. This type of filtration is
essential for primary filtration of irrigation water from open water reservoirs, canals or
reservoirs in which algae may develop. Water is introduced at the top, while a layer of coarse
gravel is put near the outlet bottom. Reversing the direction of flow and opening the water
drainage valve cleans the filter. Pressure gauges are placed at the inlet and at the outlet ends
of the filter to measure the head loss across the filter. If the head loss exceeds more than 30
kPa, filter needs back washing. Fig. 1.2 shows different types of media filters.
Fig. 1.2 Different types of Media filters

b) Screen Filters: Screen filters are always installed for final filtration as an additional
safeguard against clogging. While majority of impurities are filtered by sand filter,
minute sand particles and other small impurities pass through it. The screen filter,
containing screen strainer, which filters physical impurities and allows only clean
water to enter into the micro irrigation system (Fig. 1.3). The screens are usually
cylindrical and made of non-corrosive metal or plastic material. These are available in
a wide variety of types and flow rate capacities with screen sizes ranging from 20
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mesh to 200 mesh. The aperture size of the screen opening should be between one
seventh and one tenth of the orifice size of emission devices used.
Fig.1.3 Screen filter showing steel wire mesh strainers

c) Centrifugal Filters: Centrifugal filters are effective in filtering sand, fine gravel and
other high density materials from well or river water. Water is introduced tangentially
at the top of a cone and creates a circular motion resulting in a centrifugal force,
which throws the heavy suspended particles against the walls. The separated particles
are collected in the narrow collecting vessel at the bottom. Fig.1.4 shows different
types hydro cyclone/centrifugal filters.
Fig.1.4 Hydro cyclone filter

d) Disk Filters: Disk filter (Fig. 1.5) contains stacks of grooved, ring shaped disks that
capture debris and are very effective in the filtration of organic material and algae.
During the filtration mode, the disks are pressed together. There is an angle in the
alignment of two adjacent disks, resulting in cavities of varying size and partly
turbulent flow. The sizes of the groove determine the filtration grade. Disk filters are
available in a wide size range (25-400 microns). Back flushing can clean disk filters.
However they require back flushing pressure as high as 2 to 3 kg/cm2.
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Fig.1.5 Disk filter showing stacks of discs

4.Pressure relief valves, regulators or bye pass arrangement: These valves may be
installed at any point where possibility exists for excessively high pressures, either static or
surge pressures to occur. A bye pass arrangement is simplest and cost effective means to
avoid problems of high pressures instead of using costly pressure relief valves.
5. Check valves or non-return valves: These valves are used to prevent unwanted flow
reversal. They are used to prevent damaging back flow from the system to avoid return
flow of chemicals and fertilizers from the system into the water source itself to avoid
contamination of water source.
Distribution Network:
It mainly constitutes main line, submains line and laterals with drippers and other
accessories.
1. Mainline
The mainline transports water within the field and distribute to submains. Mainline is
made of rigid PVC and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). Pipelines of 65 mm diameter
and above with a pressure rating 4 to 6 kg/cm2 are used for main pipes.
2. Submains
Submains distribute water evenly to a number of
lateral lines. For sub main pipes, rigid PVC, HDPE or LDPE
(Low Density Polyethylene) of diameter ranging from 32
mm to 75 mm having pressure rating of 2.5 kg/cm2 are used.
3. Laterals
Laterals distribute the water uniformly along their
length by means of drippers or emitters. These are normally
manufactured from LDPE and LLDPE. Generally pipes having 10, 12 and 16 mm internal
diameter with wall thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm are used as laterals.
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4. Emitters / Drippers
They function as energy dissipaters, reducing the inlet pressure head (0.5 to 1.5
atmospheres) to zero atmospheres at the outlet. The commonly used drippers are online
pressure compensating or online non-pressure compensating, in-line dripper, adjustable
discharge type drippers, vortex type drippers and micro tubing of 1 to 4 mm diameter. These
are manufactured from Poly- propylene or LLDPE.
A) Online Pressure Compensating drippers:
A pressure compensating type dripper supplies water uniformly on long rows and on
uneven slopes. These are manufactured with high quality flexible rubber diaphragm or disc
inside the emitter that it changes shape according to operating pressure and delivers uniform
discharge. These are most suitable on slopes and difficult topographic terrains.
B) Online Non-Pressure Compensating drippers:
In such type of drippers discharge tends to vary with operating pressure. They have
simple thread type, labyrinth type, zigzag path, vortex type flow path or have float type
arrangement to dissipate energy. However they are cheap and available in affordable price.
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C) In-Line Drippers or Inline tubes:
These are fixed along with the line, i.e., the pipe is cut and dripper is fixed in between
the cut ends, such that it makes a continuous row after fixing the dripper. They have
generally a simple thread type or labyrinth type flow path. Such types of drippers are suitable
for row crops.
Inline tubes are available which include inline tube with cylindrical dripper, inline
tubes with patch drippers, or porous tapes or biwall tubes. They are provided with
independent pressure compensating water discharge mechanism and extremely wide water
passage to prevent clogging.
Other accessories are take-out/starter, rubber grommet, end plug, joints, tees, manifolds etc.
INSTALLATION, OPERATION OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM

The installation of the drip system be divided into 3 stages.
1. Fitting of head equipments
2. Connecting mains and sub mains
3. Laying of lateral with drippers.
3.1. INSTALLATION OF HEAD EQUIPMENTS
The following points should be considered for fixing the position of filter station.
1. Minimum use of fitting such as elbows and bends to be made
2. Whether the pump delivery can be connected to the sand / screen filter
3. Sand / screen filter can easily be connected to mainline
4. Arrangement of back-wash to be made as per the farmer's suitability
5. Arrangement of by-pass water to be made
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6. Sufficient space to be provided for the easy operation of filter valves

7. Hard surface or cement concrete foundation to be made for sand filter so that it will not
collapse due to vibration and load. For screen filter, provide strong support by using GI
fittings to avoid its vibrations due to load
8. Use hold-tight over the threads of GI fittings and apply proper mixture of M-seal over the
joints uniformly to avoid leakage
9. Fix the pressure gauges in inlet and outlet of the filter
10. Avoid direct linking of oil pump delivery and filter. Instead connect the filter to the pump
delivery using flanges or even the hose pipe can be used for this
3.2. CONNECTING MAINS AND SUB MAINS
1. It should be laid at a depth of more than 30 - 45 cm so as to avoid damages during
intercultivation
2. Remove mud, if any, in the pipes before fitting. These pipes can be fitted using solvent
cement with the help of brush
3. A gunmetal gate valve / PP Ball valve is provided at the start of sub main with PVC
MTA fittings for connecting the valve in the PVC sub main
4. Provide flush valve at the end of main and sub main such that it faces towards slope
5. Apply uniform pressure vertically over the drill while drilling in the sub main so that the
hole will be smooth and round.
6. Fix the rubber grommets in the holes made in the sub main in such a way that the groove
in it goes inside the pipe
7. Fix the take-off position such that its arrow or the chamber faces towards the gate valve
of the sub main for the easy flow of water. See that the take-off is fixed tightly in the
grommet. The loose fitting of take-off indicates the breakage of grommet
8. Get the sub main flushed so that the PVC piece / mud fallen in the sub main while
making drill will get flushed. Otherwise this scrap will block the drippers through
polytube
3.3. LAYING OF LATERALS AND DRIPPERS
1. Pass water through the poly tube and get it flushed so that it gets bulged and makes easy
for punching
2. Punch the lateral sideway from the yellow strip
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3. The dripper position should be fixed according to design, soil and water report and water
level in peak summer
4. If two drippers are to be provided such that all the drippers come in a straight line
5. Do not fix drippers unless a complete lateral line is punched. Otherwise the placement of
drippers will be changed if moved
6. Punching should be done from the sub main
7. While fixing the dripper, push it inside the lateral and pull it slightly
8. Close the end of lateral by fitting end cap
4. STANDARD PROCEDURE FOR ASSESSING DIS PERFORMANCE
1. Check installation according to approved design layout
2. Start the pump
3. Flush the filters
4. Allow the drip system to be loaded with water for 10 min.
5. Note the pressure from the pressure gauge at the inlet and outlet of sand and screen filters
6. Record the dripper discharge as per the format
7. The discharge and pressure readings have to be taken in the below mentioned locations
a. First, Middle and Last Dripper of a lateral
b. For laterals at beginning, ¼, ½, ¾ and end of sub main
8. Laterals on anyone side of the sub main can be selected in case of plain land or
alternative laterals on either side in case of slight slope in the direction along the lateral
9. Measure the volume of water collected for 36 seconds
10. Measure the pressure at start and end of laterals
11. If the Emission Uniformity is less than 85 % then the issue has to be taken up with the
Drip Irrigation System Designer
12. Modifications have to be taken accordingly
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FERTIGATION
FERTILISER APPLICATOR
This is the process of applying fertilisers through the irrigation system. The soil is
negatively charged at high pH and PO4ˉ will be precipitated with Ca+ and absorbed with
clay. Availability of P is very low as time proceeds due to this precipitation. Fertigation is
problematic at high pH because the availability of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, etc.) is less due to
the precipitation. Hence iron chelates (Sequestrene -138) are applied which prevents Fe from
precipitation. Also zinc chelates are good to prevent Zn precipitation.
ADVANTAGES
1. Eliminates manual application
2. Quick and convenient
3. Uniformity in application
4. High efficiency and saving of fertiliser upto 30 - 40%
5. Less fel1ilizer leaching
6. Better penetration of P and K in the layers
7. Co-ordination of nutrition requirement with crop stage or development
8. Possibility of dosage control.
9. Others like herbicides, pesticides, acid, etc can also he applied
LIMITATIONS
1. Toxicity to field workers
2. Chance of backflow into water source, for that NRV and vacuum valve has to be installed
3. Insoluble fel1ilisers are not suitable (super phosphate)
4. Corrosive effect of fertiliser
5. Phosphate may get precipitated in the pipe line and dripper due to pH reaction
6. High cost
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FERTILISATION
NITROGEN FERTILISATION
Fertiliser sources
Nitrogen (N) being one of the major plant nutrients, is often supplied in order to
obtain optimum crop production. Nitrogen availability is usually limited in the soil compared
with other plant nutrients because its various forms can be leached, volatilised, denitrified or
fixed in the organic fraction of the soil.
WATER QUALITY INTERACTIONS WITH ‘N’
Although water quality must be considered when N is applied through a trickle
irrigation system, it is less of a problem than other nutrients such as phosphorus. The
injections of anhydrous ammonia or aqua ammonia into irrigation water will bring about an
increase of pH that may be conducive to the precipitation of calcium, magnesium and
phosphorus, or the formation of complex magnesium ammonium phosphates, which are
insoluble. This can be especially serious if bicarbonate is also present in the irrigation water.
Nitrogen injected in the form of ammonium phosphate can cause serious clogging of
the irrigation system. If calcium and magnesium are present in the irrigation water, the
phosphate can form complex precipitates.
One of the favoured forms of N for use in this system is urea, because it is a highly
soluble nitrogen fertiliser that does not react with water to form ions unless the enzyme
urease is present. The enzyme, however, is often found in water containing large amounts of
algae or other microorganisms. Since urease is not removed by filtration, its presence could
cause hydrolysis of nitrogen in urea to the ammonium ion.
PHOSPHORUS FERTILISATION
Generally, injection of phosphorus (P) fertiliser through a trickle irrigation system has
not been recommended. Most P fertilisers have created chemical or physical precipitation
problems and subsequent clogging of the trickle irrigation system. Further, the fixation rate
of P by soils is high and subsequent movement from its point of placement is limited.
WATER QUALITY INTERACTION WITH P
The possibility of precipitation of insoluble phosphate is extremely high in calcium
and magnesium. The result is the .clogging of emitters or trickle lines with calcium and/or
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magnesium phosphates. However, if precautions are taken phosphoric or sulphuric acid can
be added to a trickle irrigation system to prevent such problems.
POTASSIUM FERTILIZATION
No adverse chemical reactions are expected with the COl1unon potassium (K)
fertilisers when they are added alone to water. However reduced solubility and/or fertiliser
incompatibility is possible when different fertiliser types are mixed. An example is a mixture
of calcium nitrate and potassium sulphate, which will yield insoluble calcium sulphate.
PLAN AND FERTLIZER SCHEDULE
The actual plan and fertilization schedule of drip irrigated crops depends on site
specific conditions such as cultural practices, soil type, crop, nutrients required, amount of
water to be applied, fertiliser injector and system design. Finally, a correct rate and
concentration of application is desired and the same should be selected to avoid over
fertigation. For perennial crops with wide spacing where the fertiliser is applied manually, it
may result in a very high application rate and thus, higher concentration which may damage
the plant. It will also upset the nutrient balance, change the pH' and may create toxicity.
Fertiliser application through drip irrigation may be applied through the desired or
half the strength concentration. Most crop needs may be met at a concentration of 100 mg /l
in the irrigated water.
Other accessories are take-out/starter, rubber grommet, end plug, joints, tees,
manifolds etc.
Fertilizers Suitable for Fertigation

N-P2O5-K2O Solubility
Name Chemical form Content (%) (g/l at 200C) Remarks
Ammonium NH4NO3 34-0-0 1830 Incompatible with
Nitrate acids
Ammonium (NH4)2SO4 21-0-0 760 Clogging with hard
Sulfate water
Urea CO(NH2)2 46-0-0 1100
Diammonium (NH4)2HP2O5 18-46-0 575 Contains
Phosphate phosphorous at
high solubility
Potassium KCl 0-0-60 347 Chloride toxic for
Chloride some crops,
Cheapest K source
Potassium Nitrate KNO3 13-0-44 316 Expensive, high
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Nitrate
Potassium Sulfate K2SO4 0-0-50 110 Excellent source of
sulfur, clogging
with hard water.
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 0-52-0 457 Incompatible with
Calcium
Equipment and Methods for Fertilizer Injection: Injection of fertilizer and other
agrochemicals such as herbicides and pesticides into the drip irrigation system is done by i)
By-pass pressure tank ii) Venturi system and iii) Direct injection system.
(i) By-pass pressure tank:
This method employs a tank into which
the dry or liquid fertilizers kept. The tank is
connected to the main irrigation line by means of
a by-pass so that some of the irrigation water
flows through the tank and dilutes the fertilizer
solution. This by-pass flow is brought about by a
pressure gradient between the entrance and exit
of the tank, created by a permanent constriction in the line or by a control
valve.
(ii) Venturi Injector:
A constriction in the main water flow pipe increases the water
flow velocity thereby causing a pressure differential (vacuum) which is
sufficient to suck fertilizer solution from an open reservoir into the water
stream. The rate of injection can be regulated by means of valves. This is
a simple and relatively inexpensive method of fertilizer application.
(iii) Direct injection system:
With this method a pump is used to inject fertilizer solution into the irrigation line.
The type of pump used is dependent on the power source. The pump may be driven by an
internal combustion engine, an electric motor or hydraulic pressure. The electric pump can be
automatically controlled and is thus the most convenient to use. However its use is limited by
the availability of electrical power. The use of a hydraulic pump, driven by the water pressure
of the irrigation system, avoids this limitation. The injection rate of fertilizer solution is
proportional to the flow of water in the system. A high degree of control over the injection
rate is possible, no serious head loss occurs and operating cost is low. Another advantage of
using hydraulic pump for fertigation is that if the flow of water stops in the irrigation system,
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fertilizer injection also automatically stops. This is the most perfect equipment for accurate
fertigation.
Two injection points should be provided, one before and one after the filter for
fertigation. This arrangement helps in by-passing the filter if filtering is not required and thus
avoids corrosion damage to the valves, filters and filter-screens or to the sand media of sand
filters.
The capacity of the injection system depends on the concentration, rate and frequency
of application of fertilizer solution.
MAINTENANCE OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
The maintenance of drip irrigation system is very essential for its successful functioning.
SAND FILTER
Backwash the sand filter to remove the silt and other dirt accumulated. Figure 1
shows the sand filter in normal filtration mode and in Figure 2 shows the Backwash mode.
Backwash allows the water to come out through the lid instead of backwash valve.
Stir the sand in the filter bed upto filter candle without damaging them. Whatever dirt is
accumulated deep inside the sand bed, will get free and goes out with the water through the
lid.
a) Backflush sand filter every day before starting the system and possibly before stopping
irrigation
b) Do not allow pressure difference across the sand filter more than 0.30 ksc
c) Backflush at a pressure of 0.5 ksc to avoid loss of sand till clean water comes
SCREEN FILTER
Refer Figure 3. Open the flushing valve on the filter lid so that the dirt and silt will be
flushed out. Open the filter and take out the filter element. Clean it in flowing water. Take
out the rubber seals and clean them from both sides. Care should be taken while replacing the
rubber seals, otherwise they might get out.
a. Clean screen tilter everyday
b. Do not allow pressure difference across filter more than 0.2 ksc
c. Open the drain valve to remove impurities before cleaning
d. Use thin water jet / nylon brush to clean the filter element
e. Do not use stones to rub the screen surface
f. Check for any mechanical damage
g. Never use the system without filter element inside filter
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DAILY MAINTENANCE
a. Clean the sand and screen filters for 5 minutes before starting the system
b. Ensure all drippers are working properly without any leakage
c. Before stopping irrigation, backwash the sand filter for about 5 minutes
WEEKLY MAINTENANCE
a. Clean the sand filter by hand
b. Flush the sub main by opening the flush valve for 5 minutes
c. Flush laterals 5 numbers at a time for 5 minutes
MONTHLY MAINTENANCE
a. Treat the system with chlorine / acid.
Note: The frequency of chemical treatment depends on the degree of problem at the site.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Clogging or plugging of drippers may be due to precipitation and accumulation of
certain dissolved salts like carbonates, bicarbonates, Iron, Calcium and Manganese salts. The
clogging is also due to the presence of microorganisms and the related Iron and Sulphur
slimes due to algae and bacteria.
The clogging is usually avoided / cleared by chemical treatment of water. Chemical
treatments commonly used in drip irrigation systems include addition of chloride and/or acid
to the water supply.
ACID TREATMENT
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) is injected into drip systems at the rate suggested. The acid
treatment is performed till a pH of 4 is observed and the system is shut down for 24 hours.
Next day the system is flushed by opening the flush valve and lateral ends.
CHLORINE TREATMENT
Chlorine treatment in the form of bleaching powder is performed to inhibit the growth
of organisms like algae, bacteria. The bleaching powder is dissolved in water and this
solution is injected into the system for about 30 minutes. Then the system is shut off for 24
hours. After 24 hours the lateral ends and flush valves are opened to flush out the water with
impurities. Bleaching powder can directly added into the water source at a rate of 2 mg / litre
or through ventury assembly.
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Sand Filter: Filtration Mode

Sand Filter: Backwash Mode
Flushing of the Screen Filter Cleaning of Screen Filter Rubber Caps
Flushing of Sub-mains
Flushing of Lateral
Fig. 1.8 Maintenance of Microirrigation Components
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APPLICATION OF FERTILISER AND OTHER AGRO CHEMICALS

The drip irrigation method offers an opportunity for precise application of water
soluble fertilisers and other nutrients to the soils at appropriate time with the desired
concentration. The development of root system is extensive in a restricted volume of soil
when cultivation is done with drip irrigation and application of fertiliser or any other
chemical through drip can efficiently place plant nutrients in the zone of highest root
concentration. At the same time, fertiliser application presents nutrient deficiencies that
can develop because of the limited soil volumes, explored by roots.
CRITERIA FOR APPLYING FERTILISERS THROUGH DRIP IRRIGATION

SYSTEM
All chemicals applied through irrigation systems must meet the following criteria.
They must (i) avoid corrosion, softening of plastic pipe tubing, or clogging of any
component of the system (ii) be safe for field use (iii) increase or at least not decrease
crop yield (iv) be soluble or emulsifiable in water and (v) not react adversely to salts or
other chemicals in the irrigation water. In addition, the chemicals or fertiliser must be
distributed uniformly throughout the field. Achieving such uniformity of distribution
requires efficient mixing, uniform water application, knowledge of the flow,
characteristics of water and fertilisers in the distribution lines.
To avoid clogging, chemicals applied through drip irrigation system must meet
certain requirements. The chemicals must be completely soluble. If more than one
material is used in preparing a concentrated stock solution for subsequent injection into
the drip lines the chemicals must not react with each other to form a precipitate. The
chemicals must also be compatible with the salts contained in the irrigation water.
EQUIPMENT AND METHOD FOR FERTILISER INJECTION

Fertilisers can be injected into drip irrigation systems selecting appropriate
equipment from a wide assortment of available pumps, valve, tanks, venturies, meters
and aspirators.
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The injection points should be provided, one before and one after the filter. This
arrangement can be used to bypass the filter if filtering is not required, and thus avoid
corrosion damage to the valves, filters, and filter screens or to the sand media of sand
filters. Furthermore, the discharge line from the fertiliser tank should have a filter, and
similarly, the injection hoses line should be equipped with an in line hose filter or screen.
The intake or suction side of tile injector should be equipped with a filter or strainer.
Injection points must be installed so that injected fertilisers are properly mixed before the
flow divides in several directions.
The size of capacity of the injection system depends on the concentration, rate
and frequency of application. Naturally, less fertiliser solution and more frequent
application require smaller, less costly units. Fertiliser application rates and application
times vary considerably depending on crop and emitter spacing.
10. DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM TROUBLESHOOTING
SI.No. Problems Causes Remedies
1. Leakage of water at the Damaged joints Correct damages

joint between sub main
and lateral
2. Leakage in the poly tube Damage of poly tube by Block the holes by Goof
farming activities/rat plug.
Use poly joiners at cuts.
3. Water not flowing upto Holes in laterals. Cuts in Close the holes and cuts.
lateral end laterals. . Remove the bends.
Bents in laterals.
4. Out coming of white More salinity in water. Remove the end stop.
mixture on removing the Uncleaned lateral Clean the laterals
end plug fortnightly
5. Under flow or over flow Clogging of drippers. Clean the sand and
from laterals Unclosed end plug screen filters.
Close the end cap
6. Oily gum material comes More algae or ferrous Clean the laterals with
out on opening the lateral material in water water or give chemical
end treatment
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7. Oily gum material comes More algae or ferrous Clean the laterals with
out on opening the lateral material in water water or give chemical
end treatment
8. More pressure drop in Accumulation of dirt in Clean filters every week.

filters ers Back wash the filters for
every 5 minutes daily.
9. Pressure gauge not Rain water entry inside. Provide plastic cover
working Corrosion in gauge and fix pointer properly.
pointer damage
10. Drop in pressure Leakage in main Arrest the leakage and
opened outlet. Low close outlet. Lower the
water level in well. pump with reference to
well water level
11 More pressure at the No bypass in the Provide bypass before
entry of sand filter pipeline/bypass not filter and regulate
opened. Displacement of pressure. Place filter
filter element. Less element properly. Fill
quantity of sand in required quantity of sand
filters
12. Accumulation of sand Displacement of filter Place filter element
and debris in screen filter element. Less quantity properly. Fill required
of sand in filters quantity of sand
13. Ventury not working Excess pressure on Bypass extra water to
during chemical filters Improper fitting reduce pressure Repair
treatment and fertigation of ventury assembly the ventury assembly.
14. Leakage of water from Damaged air release Replace the damaged
air release valve. valve ring. ring.
COST OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM:
The cost of drip system depends on the type of crop, spacing, water requirements,
proximity to water source etc. An attempt was made to prepare estimate of cost for
installing drip irrigation system for all important crops by considering the cost of
component supplied by the manufacturer for farmers having holdings of one acre. The
cost estimation of drip system for Coconut, Amla, Banana, Tomato, Bhendi and Chilli
crops are worked out and are as given below. The life of the system is about 6 to 10
years.
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COST OF MATERIALS OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
12 mm Lateral Pipe - Rs. 3.75/m

16 mm Lateral Pipe - Rs. 5.80/m
2” Pipe - Rs. 186.00/ 6 m
1 ¼” Pipe - Rs. 112.00/ 6 m
12 mm start, washer and end cap - Rs. 4.50/ 1 set
16 mm start, washer and end cap - Rs. 6.80/ 1 set
Emitter 4 lph, 8 lph, 16 lph - Rs. 2.80 each
(open type)
12 mm connector - Rs. 1.00 each
16 mm connector - Rs. 1.50 each
Dummy - Rs. 0.30 each
2” Venturi with accessories - Rs. 2000 each
1 ¼” Ball valve - Rs. 120 each
2” Ball valve - Rs. 180 each
2 ½” Ball valve - Rs. 250 each
5 HP motor pump set - Rs. 10000 each
Screen Filter – 2” size - Rs. 2500 each
Erection charges:
Coconut - Rs. 3 per tree
Banana - Rs. 0.5 per tree
Vegetables (lump sum) - Rs. 1000 per acre
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SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
Introduction
In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to
fall on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the
flow of water under pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually
obtained by pumping. With careful selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and
sprinkler spacing the amount of irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can
be applied nearly uniform at the rate to suit the infiltration rate of soil.
Advantages of sprinkler irrigation
 Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance loss

 Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay

 Suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area is very high.
It is most suitable for oil seeds and other cereal and vegetable crops
 Water saving

 Closer control of water application convenient for giving light and frequent
irrigation and higher water application efficiency
 Increase in yield

 Mobility of system

 May also be used for undulating area

 Saves land as no bunds etc. are required

 Influences greater conducive micro-climate

 Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated

 Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals

 Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment laden water
Crop response to sprinkler

The trials conducted in different parts of the country revealed water saving due to
sprinkler system varies from 16 to 70 % over the traditional method with yield increase
from 3 to 57 % in different crops and agro climatic conditions. (Table .1)
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Response of different crops to sprinkler irrigation

Crops Water Saving, % Yield increase, %
Bajra 56 19
Barley 56 16
Bhindi 28 23
Cabbage 40 3
Cauliflower 35 12
Chillies 33 24
Cotton 36 50
Cowpea 19 3
Fenugreek 29 35
Garlic 28 6
Gram 69 57
Groundnut 20 40
Jowar 55 34
Lucerne 16 27
Maize 41 36
Onion 33 23
Potato 46 4
Sunflower 33 20
Wheat 35 24
Source : INCID (1998) adapted from Table 6.5
General classification of different types of sprinkler systems

Sprinkler systems are classified into the following two major types on the basis of
the arrangement for spraying irrigation water.
1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.

2. Perforated pipe system.
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1) Rotating head:
Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the
length of the lateral pipe and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the ground surface. They
may also be mounted on posts above the crop height and rotated through 90 0, to irrigate
a rectangular strip. In rotating type sprinklers, the most common device to rotate the
sprinkler heads is with a small hammer activated by the thrust of water striking against a
vane connected to it.
Side roll
Fig .1 Example of a few rotating type sprinkler irrigation

systems 2) Perforated pipe system:
This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles along their length through which water is
sprayed under pressure. This system is usually designed for relatively low pressure (1
kg/cm2). The application rate ranges from 1.25 to 5 cm per hour for various pressure and
spacing.
Based on the portability, sprinkler systems are classified into the following types:
(i) Portable system : A portable system has portable main lines, laterals and
pumping plant
Fig .2 Fully portable sprinkler irrigation system
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(ii) Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a portable system
except that the location of water source and pumping plant is fixed.
(iii) Semi permanent system: A semi permanent system has portable lateral lines,
permanent main lines and sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping
plant.
(iv) Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their
movement. The laterals are positions in the field early in the crop season and
remain for the season.
(v) Permanent system: A fully permanent system consists of permanently laid
mains, sub mains and laterals and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
Components of sprinkler irrigation system

The components of portable sprinkler system are shown through fig .3. A
sprinkler system usually consists of the following components
(i) A pump unit
(ii) Tubings- main/submains and laterals
(iii) Couplers
(iv) Sprinker head
(v) Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs and risers.
Fig .3 Component of a portable sprinkler irrigation system
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(i) Pumping Unit: Sprinkler irrigation systems distribute water by spraying it over the
fields. The water is pumped under pressure to the fields. The pressure forces the water
through sprinklers or through perforations or nozzles in pipelines and then forms a spray.
A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be used for operating sprinkler irrigation
for individual fields. Centrifugal pump is used when the distance from the pump inlet to
the water surface is less than eight meters. For pumping water from deep wells or more
than eight meters, a turbine pump is suggested. The driving unit may be either an electric
motor or an internal combustion engine.
(ii) Tubings: Mains/submains and laterals: The tubings consist of mainline, submanins
and laterals. Main line conveys water from the source and distributes it to the submains.
The submains convey water to the laterals which in turn supply water to the sprinklers.
Aluminum or PVC pipes are generally used for portable systems, while steel pipes are
usually used for center-pivot laterals. Asbestos, cement, PVC and wrapped steel are
usually used for buried laterals and main lines.
(iii) Couplers: Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and uncoupling quickly and
easily. Essentially a coupler should provide
(a) a reuse and flexible connection
(b) not leak at the joint
(c) be simple and easy to couple and uncouple
(d) be light, non-corrosive, durable.
(iv) Sprinkler Head: Sprinkler head distribute water
uniformly over the field without runoff or excessive loss due
to deep percolation. Different types of sprinklers are
available. They are either rotating or fixed type. The rotating
type can be adapted for a wide range of application rates and
spacing. They are effective with pressure of about 10 to 70 m
head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from 16 to 40 m head
are considered the most practical for most farmers. Fig.4 Sprinkler head
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Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens. Perforated
lateral lines are sometimes used as sprinklers. They require less pressure than rotating
sprinklers. They release more water per unit area than rotating sprinklers. Hence fixed
head sprinklers are adaptable for soils with high intake rate.
(v) Fittings and accessories: The following are some of the important fittings and
accessories used in sprinkler system.
(a) Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water delivered. This is necessary
to operate the system to give the required quantity of water.
(b) Flange, couplings and nipple used for proper connection to the pump, suction and
delivery.
(c) Pressure gauge: It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler system is working
with desired pressure to ensure application uniformity.
(d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and plugs.
(e) Fertilizer applicator: Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the sprinkler
system and applied to the crop. The equipment for fertiliser application is relatively
cheap and simple and can be fabricated locally. The fertilizer applicator consists of
a sealed fertilizer tank with necessary tubings and connections. A venturi injector
can be arranged in the main line, which creates the differential pressure suction and
allows the fertilizer solution to flow in the main water line.
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QRC HDPE sprinkler QRC HDPE QRC HDPE

with metal latches sprinkler with sprinkler base
plastic latches
QRC HDPE pump

connector QRC HDPE bend
QRC HDPE tee

QRC HDPE end plug
Fig 2.5 Different sprinkler pipes and fittings
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General rules for sprinkler system design
 Main should be laid up and down hill

• Lateral should be laid across the slope or nearly on the contour
• For multiple lateral operation, lateral pipe sizes should not be more than two
diameter
• Water supply source should be nearest to the center of the area
 Layout should facilitate and minimize lateral movement during the season
• Booster pump should be considered where small portion of field would require
high pressure at the pump
• Layout should be modified to apply different rates and amounts of water where
soils are greatly different in the design area.
Fig.6 Layout of sprinkler irrigation system

Selecting the most appropriate sprinkler systems
While selecting a sprinkler system, the most important physical parameters to
be considered are:
1. The crop or crops to be cultivated.
2. The shape and size (acres) of the field.
3. The topography of the field.
4. The amount of time and labor required to operate the system.
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Selecting sprinkler system capacity

A sprinkler system must be designed to apply water uniformly without runoff or
erosion. The application rate of the sprinkler system must be matched to the infiltration
rate of the most restrictive soil in the field. If the application rate exceeds the soil intake
rate, the water will runoff the field or relocate within the field resulting in over and under
watered areas.
The sprinkler system capacity is the flow rate needed to adequately irrigate an
area and is expressed in liters per minute per acre. The system capacity depends upon on
the: Peak crop water requirements during the growing season; effective crop rooting
depth; texture and infiltration rate of the soil; the available water holding capacity of the
soil; pumping capacity of the well or wells (if wells are the water source).
Constraints in application of sprinkler irrigation
(i) Uneven water distribution due to high winds

(ii) Evaporation loss when operating under high temperatures
(iii) Highly impermeable soils are not suitable
(iv) Initial cost is high
(v) Proper design
(vi) Lack of Package of practices
(vii) Lack of awareness
(viii) Lack of social concern to save natural resources
(ix) High water pressure required in sprinkler (>2.5kg/cm2)
(x) Difficulty in irrigation during wind in sprinkler
Operation and Maintenance of Sprinkler Systems
Proper design of a sprinkler system does not in itself ensure success. It should be
ensured that the prime mover and the pump are in alignment, particularly in the case of
tractor-driven pumps. For these the drive shaft as well as the pump shaft should lie at
nearly the same height to prevent too great an angle on the universal shaft.
While laying the main and lateral pipes, always begin laying at the pump. This
necessarily gives the correct connection of all quick coupling pipes. While joining
couplings, it is ensured that both the couplings and the rubber seal rings are clean.
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In starting the sprinkler system, the motor or engine is started with the valves
closed. The pump must attain the pressure stated on type-plate or otherwise there is a
fault in the suction line. After the pump reaches the regulation pressure, the delivery
valve is opened slowly. Similarly, the delivery valve is closed after stopping the power
unit.
The pipes and sprinkler-lines are shifted as required after stopping. Dismantling
of the installation takes place in the reverse order to the assembly described above.
Maintenance
General principles regarding the maintenance of the pipes and fittings and sprinkler heads
are given below:
1. Pipes and fittings
The pipes and fittings require virtually no maintenance but attention must be
given to the following procedures:
(a) Occasionally clean any dirt or sand out of the groove in the coupler in which the
rubber sealing ring fits. Any accumulation of dirt or sand will affect the performance of
the rubber sealing ring.
(b) Keep all nuts and bolts tight.
(c) Do not lay pipes on new damp concrete or on piles of fertilizer. Do not lay fertilizer
sacks on the pipe.
2. Sprinkler heads
The sprinkler heads should be given the following attention:
(a) When moving the sprinkler lines, make sure that the sprinklers are not damaged or
pushed into the soil.
(b) Do not apply oil, grease or any lubricant to the sprinklers. They are water lubricated
and using oil, grease or any other lubricant may stop them from working.
(c) Sprinklers usually have a sealed bearing and at the bottom of the bearing there are
washers. Usually it is the washers that wear and not the more expensive metal parts.
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Check the washers for wear once a season or every six months which is especially
important where water is sandy. Replace the washers if worn.
(d) After several season's operation the swing arm spring may need tightening. This is
done by pulling out the spring end at the top and rebending it. This will increase the
spring tension.
In general, check all equipment at the end of the season and make any repairs and
adjustments and order the spare parts immediately so that the equipment is in perfect
condition to start in the next season.
Storage
The following points are to be observed while storing the sprinkler equipment
during the off season:
(a) Remove the sprinklers and store in a cool, dry place.
(b) Remove the rubber sealing rings from the couplers and fittings and store them in a
cool, dark place.
(c) The pipes can be stored outdoors in which case they should be placed in racks with
one end higher than the other. Do not store pipes along with fertilizer.
(d) Disconnect the suction and delivery pipe-work from the pump and pour in a small
quantity of medium grade oil. Rotate the pump for a few minutes. Blank the suction and
delivery branches. This will prevent the pump from rusting. Grease the shaft.
(e) Protect the electric motor from the ingress of dust, dampness and rodents.
Trouble Shooting
The following are the general guidelines to identify and remove the common
troubles in the sprinkler systems:
1. Pump does not prime or develop pressure
(a) Check that the suction lift is within the limits. If not, get the pump closer to the
water.
(b) Check the suction pipeline and all connections for air leaks. All connections and
flanges should be air tight.
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(c) Check that the strainer on the foot valve is not blocked.
(d) Check that the flap in the foot valve is free to open fully.
(e) Check the pump gland (s) for air leaks. If air leaks are suspected tighten the
gland (s) gently. If necessary repack the gland (s) using a thick grease to seal the
gland satisfactorily.
(f) Check that the gate valve on the delivery pipe is fully closed during priming and
opens fully when the pump is running.
2. Sprinklers do not turn

(a) Check pressure.
(b) Check that the nozzle is not blocked. Preferably unscrew the nozzle or use a
small soft piece of wood to clear the blockage. Do not use a piece of wire or
metal as this may damage the nozzle.
(c) Check the condition of washers at the bottom of the bearing and replace them if
worn or damaged.
(d) Check that the swing arm moves freely and that the spoon which. moves into
the water stream is not bent by comparing it with a sprinkler which is operating
correctly.
(e) Adjust the swing arm spring tension~ Usually it should not be necessary to pull
up the spring by more than about 6 mm.
3. Leakage from coupler or fittings

The sealing rings in the couplers and fittings are usually designed to drain the
water from the pipes when the pressure is turned off. This ensures that the pipes are
automatically emptied and ready to be moved. With full pressure in the system the
couplers and fittings will be effectively leak-free. If, however, there is a leakage,
check the following:
(a) There is no accumulation of dirt or sand in the groove in the coupler in which the
sealing ring fits. Clean out any dirt or sand and refit the sealing ring.
(b) The end of the pipe going inside the coupler is smooth, clean and not distorted.
(c) In the case of fittings such as bends, tees and reducers ensure that the fitting has
been properly connected into the coupler.
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Unit Cost of Sprinkler Systems

Different components required for a sprinkler irrigation system to irrigate 1 ha to
4 ha area and their cost has been estimated and given in Table .3
Table .3 Unit Cost of Sprinkler Systems
1.0 ha 2.0 ha 4.0 ha

3.0 ha(75mm dia)
Sprinkler (50mm dia) (63mmdia) (75 mm dia)
System Quanti Amount Quanti Amount Quanti Amount Quant

Components ty ty ty ity Amount (Rs.)
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
(No.) (No.) (No.) (No.)
HDPE Pipes
with quick
action coupler 25 7770.00 30 10448.70 37 13378.09 45 16270.65
(2.5 kg/cm2) of
6m long
Sprinkler coupler with
5 921.60 7 1411.20 11 2382.30 14 3032.00
foot baton assembly
Sprinkler nozzles (1.7 to
5 1188.00 7 1662.20 11 2613.60 14 3326.40
2.8 kg/cm2)
Riser pipe 20mm
5 264.00 7 369.60 11 580.80 14 739.20
diameter x 75cm long
Connecting nipple 1 115.20 1 129.00 1 167.00 1 167.00
Bend with
1 108.00 1 126.00 1 168.00 1 168.00
coupler 900
Tee with coupler 1 138.00 1 152.40 1 180.00 1 180.00
End plug 2 96.00 2 108.00 2 132.00 2 132.00
Basic system
cost per 10600.80 14407.10 19601.79 24015.25
hectare (Rs.)
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PLASTIC MULCHING FOR CROP PRODUCTION
Introduction
Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more
favourable conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production.
Mulch technical term means ‘covering of soil’. While natural mulches such as leaf, straw,
dead leaves and compost have been used for centuries, during the last 60 years the advent
of synthetic materials has altered the methods and benefits of mulching. The research as
well as field data available on effect of synthetic mulches make a vast volume of useful
literature. When compared to other mulches plastic mulches are completely impermeable
to water; it therefore prevents direct evaporation of moisture from the soil and thus limits
the water losses and soil erosion over the surface. In this manner it plays a positive role in
water conservation. The suppression of evaporation also has a supplementary effect; it
prevents the rise of water containing salt, which is important in countries with high salt
content water resources.
Advantages of plastic mulching
1. It is completely impermeable to water.

2. It prevents the direct evaporation of moisture form the soil and thus limits the water
losses and conserves moisture.
3. By evaporation suppression, it prevents the rise of water containing salts.
4. Mulch can facilitate fertilizer placement and reduce the loss of plant nutrient through
leaching.
5. Mulches can also provide a barrier to soil pathogens
6. Opaque mulches prevent germination of annual weeds from receiving light
7. Reflective mulches will repel certain insects
8. Mulches maintain a warm temperature even during nighttime which enables seeds to
germinate quickly and for young plants to rapidly establish a strong root growth
system.
9. Synthetic mulches play a major role in soil solarisation process.
10. Mulches develop a microclimatic underside of the sheet, which is higher in carbon-
di-oxide due to the higher level of microbial activity.
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11. Under mulch, the soil structure is maintained during cropping period
12. Early germination almost 2-3 days.
13. Better nodulation in crops like Groundnut.
14. Less nematodes population.
15. Water erosion is completely averted since soil is completely covered form bearing
action of rain drops.
16. When compared to organic mulches, it serves for a longer period.
Moisture conservation
• Plastic film with its moisture barrier properties does not allow the soil moisture to
escape Water that evaporates from the soil surface under mulch film, condenses
on the lower surface of the film and falls back as droplets.
• Thus moisture is preserved for several days and increases the period between two
irrigations.
• The irrigation water or rainfall either moves into the soil thru holes on the mulch
around the plant area or through the un-mulched area.
Weed control
• Black plastic film does not allow the sunlight to pass through on to the soil
• Photosynthesis does not take place in the absence of sunlight below black film
hence, it arrests weed growth
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Limitations
• They are costly to use in commercial production when compared to organic

mulches.
• Probability of ‘burning’ or ‘scorching’ of the young pants due to high
temperature of black film.
• Difficulty in application of top dressed fertilizer
• Reptile movement and rodent activities are experienced in some places.
• More runoff
• Environmental pollution
• Difficult in machinery movement
• Can not be used for more than one season using thin mulches
• Weed penetration with thin films
• Toxic to livestock
Areas of application
Mulching is mainly employed for

a. Moisture conservation in rainfed areas
b. Reduction of irrigation frequency and water saving in irrigated areas
c. Soil temperature moderation in greenhouse cultivation
d. Soil solorisation for control of soil borne diseases
e. Reduce the rain impact, prevent soil erosion and maintain soil structure
f. In places where high value crops only to be cultivated
Types of mulch film
A wide range of plastic films based on different types of polymers have all been
evaluated for mulching at various periods in the 1960s. LDPE, HDPE and flexible PVC
have all been used and although there were some technical performance differences
between them, they were of minor nature. Owing to its greater permeability to long wave
radiation which can increase the temperature around plants during the night times,
polyethylene is preferred. Today the vast majority of plastic mulch is based on LLDPE
because it is more economic in use.
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Basic properties of mulch film

a. Air proof so as not to permit any moisture vapour to escape.
b. Thermal proof for preservation of temperature and prevention of evaporation
c. Durable at least for one crop season
Importance of parameters of the plastic film

a) Thickness
Normally the thickness of the film does not affect the mulching effect except
when it is used for solorisation. But some of the recent references do indicate the impact
of film thickness on crop yield. Since it is sold by weight it is advantageous to use as thin
a film as possible but at the same time due consideration should be given for the
longevity of the film. The early mulch film used were of 60-75 micron (240-300 gauge)
thickness, and today it is possible to have 15 micron thick film due to advent of film
extrusion technology. These films are mechanically weak, as shown by their easy tearing
when pulled tension.
b) Width
This depends upon the inter row spacing. Normally a one to one and half meter
width film can be easily adopted to different conditions.
c) Perforations
The perforations may be advantageous under some situations and
disadvantageous for some other situation. The capillary movement of water and fertilizer
distribution will be better and more uniform under unperforated condition. But for
prevention of water stagnation around the plants, perforation is better. But it has got the
disadvantages of encouraging weed growth.
d) Mulch colour
The colour of the mulch affects
i. Soil temperature
ii. Temperature of air around the plants
iii. Soil salinity
a. Due to lesser quantity of water used
b. Due to reduction in evaporation and prevention of upward movement of water.
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Transparant film - Deposits more salt on soil surface

Black film - Restricts water movement and upward movement of
salt is reduced.
iv. Weed flora - Black film
v. Insect control - Opaque while film acts as golden colour and attracts
insects
5
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Selection of mulch
The selection of mulches depends upon the ecological situations and primary and
secondary aspects of mulching
Rainy season - Perforated mulch
Orchard and plantation - Thicker mulch
Soil solarisation - Thin transparent film
Weed control through solarisation - Transparent film
Weed control in cropped land - Black film
Sandy soil - Black film
Saline water use - Black film
Summer cropped land - White film
Insect repellent - Silver colour film
Early germination - Thinner film
Methods of mulching
• Orchard/Fruit/Established trees
• Mulching area should preferably be equivalent to the canopy of the plant.
• Required size of mulch film is cut from the main roll.
• Clean the required area by removing the stones, pebbles, weeds etc.
• Till the soil well and apply a little quantity of water before mulching
• Small trench could be made around the periphery of the mulching area to
facilitate anchoring of the mulch film.
• Cover the film to the entire area around the tree and the end should be buried in
the ground.
• Semi circular holes could be made at four corners of the film in order to facilitate
water movement.
• The position of the slit/opening should be parallel to the wind direction
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• Cover the corners of the film with 4-6 inches of soil on all sides to keep the film
in position.
• In hard soil, make a trench of 1’x1’x2’ depth on four corners of the mulching area
and fill it up with gravel or stones, cover the trenches with the mulch film and
allow the water to pass through the mulch to the trenches via semi circular holes
on the film
Mulch Laying Techniques
i. Mulch should be laid on a non-windy condition
ii. The mulch material should be held tight without any crease and laid on the bed
iii. The borders (10 cm) should be anchored inside the soil in about 7-10 cm deep in
small furrows at an angle of 45°.
Pre planting mulch:
The mulch material should be punctured at the required distances as per crop
spacing and laid on the bed. The seeds/seedlings should be sown/transplanted in the
holes.
Mulching techniques for Vegetables /close space crop
• Very thin film is used for short duration crops like vegetables.
• Required length of film for one row of crop is taken and folded in ‘thaan’ form at
every one metre along the length of the film.
• Round holes are made at the center of the film using a punch or a bigger diameter
pipe and a hammer or a heated pipe end could be used.
• One end of the mulch film (along width) is anchored in the soil and the film is
unrolled along the length of the row of planting.
• Till the soil well and apply the required quantity of FYM and fertilizer before
mulching.
• Mulch film is then inserted (4-6”) into the soil on all sides to keep it intact
• Seeds are sown directly through the holes made on the mulch film.
• In case of transplanted crops, the seedlings could be planted directly into the hole.
• For mulching established seedlings, the process of punching the hole is the same.
One end of the film along the width is burried in the soil and the mulch film is
then unrolled over the saplings. During the process of unrolling, the saplings are
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held in the hand and inserted into the holes on the mulch film from the bottom
side, so that it could spread on the topside.
Precautions for Mulch Laying
• Do not stretch the film very tightly. It should be loose enough to overcome
the expansion and shrinkage conditions caused by temperature and the
impacts of cultural operation.
• The slackness for black film should be more as the expansion, shrinkage
phenomenon is maximum in this color.
• The film should not be laid on the hottest time of the day, when the film
will be in expanded condition.
Removal of mulch
In case the mulch film needs to be used for more than one season (thicker film)
the plant is cut at its base near the film and the film is removed and used.
By compounding appropriate additives into the plastics it is possible to produce a
film, which, after exposure to light (solar radiation) will start to breakup at a pre
determined time and eventually disintegrated into very small friable fragments. The time
period can be 60, 90, 120 or 150 days and for maize a 60-day photodegradable mulch is
used. However there are still some further problems to resolve. It has been observed that
the edges of the mulch, which are buried to secure the mulch to the soil, remain intact and
become a litter problem when brought to the surface during the post-harvest ploughing.
Currently much development effort is being made to find a satisfactory solution to this
problem.
In direct contrast in developing countries which have agricultural labour available
a different approach can be made. Fro example in the people Republic of China trials
have been made using a plastic mulch of 15 micron thickness on a sugarcane crop. After
the cuttings have been planted through the mulch they are left to grow for a period of one
month. Then the mulch is removed by hand and wound up so that it can be utilized for a
second season. A yield increase of 26% was obtained.
These two examples not only demonstrated the diversity of mechanisms available
for resolving the problems of mulch removed, but also illustrate the different technique,
which have been developed in different countries. It also indicates the necessity for each
country to adapt and develop mulching technique to meet its own specific requirements
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of climate, resources and economics. To undertake such technology development there is

a specific requirement that both plastics and agricultural development facilities are
available.
Irrigation practices under mulching
• In drip irrigation the lateral pipelines are laid under the mulch film
• In case inter-cultivation need to be carried out, it is better to keep the laterals and
drippers on top of the mulch film and regulate the flow of water through a small
pipe or through the holes made on the mulch film
• In flooding the irrigation water passes through the semi circular holes on the
mulch sheet.
Cost economics of mulching
The cost economic of mulching is an important aspect. In a leveled field if

mulching is to be done, then the film area required will be almost equal to that of field
itself. In fields with ridges and furrows mulching material required will be sizably more
than the field area. However mulching is carried out in strips covering 50-60% of field
area. In the present era of minimizing rainfall conserving moisture with mulching
transgresses the plan of economic analysis in the sense that the real cost analysis would
be even meaningless in the case of a precious commodity like water. A typical
calculation has been given for working out cost economics of mulching in Bhendi crop.
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Assumptions made in cost estimation

• Power and source of water are available.
• Price of synthetic film of black LLDPE is taken as Rs. 120 per Kg.
• PVC film is assumed to last for 2 seasons only. However in practice, black PVC
film may well last longer than two seasons, if handled properly, in that case
savings could be correspondingly larger.
Cost Economics of mulching
Black LLDPE
Sl. No. Particulars Control
film
1 Cost of cultivation (Rs. / ha) 16000 21000
2 Cost of mulch film per season 16600 --
3 Total seasonal cost (2+1) 32600 21000
4 Yield of produce (kg/ha) 11660 7770
5 Market price (Rs./kg) 6.00 6.00
6 Revenue (Rs./ha) 69960 46620
7 Total expenditure 32600 *21000
8 Net income 37360 25620
9 Difference in net seasonal income 11740 25620
10 Benefit cost ratio 1.45: 1
* 60% area covered with film, 50 micron film of 1 kg cover 22 sq. m
Case studies
Effect of mulching on groundnut
An experiment on mulching with plastic films was conducted for groundnut
Aliyarnagar Research Station. The film was LLDPE black and the thickness were 15
micron (T10, 20 micron (T2), 25 micron (T3), coir pith at the rate of 20 t/ha (T4) and
fifth plot was control (T5). Each plot was 2m x 1m and experiments were replicated four
times. For sampling purpose, 5 plants in each of the experimental plots were considered
for rot length on 60th day. The crop was harvested on 110th day since sowing. Parameters
like soil moisture, soil temperature, germination; weed, root and yield were observed.
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Plastic mulching in groundnut

Available Wet weed
Treatment moisture at wt. (g)/plot No. of Pod yield
harvest (%) at 45th day pods/plant (kg/ha)

T1 – 15 micron LLDPE (black) 7.69 150 9.00 1337
T2 – 20 micron LLDPE (black) 7.62 156 7.75 1118
T3 – 25 7.05 179 7.50 1275
T4 – Coir pith 20 t/ha 6.50 257 6.75 1012
T5 Control – no mulch 5.90 370 6.75 850
Mulching with 15 micron LLDPE film was found to give higher pod yield due to
better moisture conservation, reduced weed growth, when compared to coirpith mulch
and control. From the results it was also seen that the thickness of film did not matter
much in conserving moisture.
Effect of mulching on cotton crop

Experiments were conducted at TNAU, by PDC, CAE for dry land cotton,
covering 50% of land area by 25 micron LLDPE black polyethylene film. The replicated
trial was repeated for 3 seasons from 1992-93 for LRA 5166 cotton variety. For
comparative study purpose coir pith at a rate of 12.5 t/ha and organic mulch of 12.5 t/ha
were also taken. Plot size was 5 m x 4 m.
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Effect of mean yield of cotton over 3 years

Wet weed wt./plot (gm) at
Treatments Mean kapas yield (kg/ha)
45th day
Black LLDPE (20 micron) 673 303
Coir pith 565 575
Organic mulch 509 510
No mulch 436 1121
Effect of mulch on root length and plant height in castor and redgram
To study the effect of mulching on plant height and root length under dryland
conditions plants like redgram and castor crop were selected and trials were conducted at
TNAU campus. The results are as shown below:
Effect of mulch on plant height and root length
Red gram (SAI) Castor (CO 1)

Plant Root Plant Root
Treatment Root Root
height length height length
No. No.
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
30 mic. LLDPE black 45.0 25.3 5 50.1 38.3 8
40 mic. LLDPE black 41.6 20.7 3 48.7 35.8 5
50 mic. LLDPE black 41.9 23.0 3 48.0 34.3 5
No mulch 22.1 20.9 4 30.1 28.6 6
Effect of mulching on vegetable crops

From the year 1986 onwards, Coimbatore PDC is continuously conducting
experiments on mulching for principal vegetable crops like Bhendi, Tomato and Chilli.
Replicated trials were conducted with three irrigation levels and two type of mulches as
follows.
I1 – Irrigation at 0.41 IW/CPE Mo – Control – no mulch
I2 – Irrigation at 0.61 IW/CPE M1 – Control – no mulch
I3 – Irrigation at 0.61 IW/CPE M2 – Control – no mulch
The plot size was 5.5 m x 2.5 m/each
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Each experiment was repeated thrice in different season for the same variety of
crop for confirming the results. The mean values of yields of each crop are tabulated
below.
1. Bhendi
Effect of mulching on Bhendi yield (4 year average) in kg/ha
Treatment M0 M1 M2 Mean
I1 6593 8249 11292 8698
I2 8145 9156 12173 9825
I3 8571 8686 11555 9604
Mean 77770 8697 11660
2. Tomato
Effect of mulching on tomato yield
Mean yield data over three years
I1 8322 10260 11767 10116
I2 9527 11415 13012 11318
I3 11916 12326 13427 12556
Mean 9922 11334 12735
(14.2)* (28.4)*
*Percentage of yield increase over unmulched control / plot
3. Chilli
Effect of mulching on Chilli yield
Mean yield data over three years

I1 3972 4353 4916 4414
I2 4732 5115 5475 5107
I3 4940 5359 5872 5390
Mean 4548 4942 5421
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Effect of mulching on maize crop
Experiments conducted in TNAU main campus showed that evaporation loss

from the maize crop field can be arrested by covering the soil either with plastic film of
20 micron (80 gauge) of black sheet or with organic farm waste like cumbu straw. Due to
this water economizing to the level of 12-20% was achieved. Hence it is a viable
technology under moisture stress condition.
Effect of mulching on maize yield and WUE
Treatment Seasonal total Yield in kg/ha WUE (kg/ha

water (mm) mm)
1. Control 463 5562 11.90
2. Plastic mulch with 20 micron 373 5650 15.10
3. Cumbu straw 401 5594 13.90
4. Coir pith 403 5466 13.86
Conclusions on basis of experiments conducted so for
1. Flexible PVC film is suitable for mulching. PVC film shows the expected over all
advantages of mulch irrigation such as conservation of moisture and control of weed
growth.
2. Savings in water appear to be the main advantage and such savings are found to vary
from 20% to as high as 75%. The savings in water are more pronounced in arid areas.
These experiments clearly established that such savings could be of critical
importance in arid areas. Areas having elaborate irrigation do not appear to show
considerable advantage. Mulching, therefore, would appear and promising for arid
lands.
3. Yields of crops may not necessarily be substantially increased directly by usage of
mulching, but more land can be cultivated with the available amount of water and
thus overall cultivation of crops can be increased. However, it is significant to not
that in both experiments conducted in arid areas increased yields were reported.
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4. 150-200 gauge PVC film based on normal compositions would withstand weathering
for 2 seasons. However, the life of film could be increased by covering the film with
the soil and thus preventing direct exposure of the film to sunlight. PVC film based
on special compositions would certainly have better weather resistance and would
last for several seasons. Black as well as completely opaque, white film would be
better than natural semi-transparent film in respect of weather resistance. Black film
would appear to be better for colder climates while opaque white film would show
some advantages for warm climates.
5. Black PVC film shows better control on weed growth than completely opaque white
and natural translucent film.
Conclusion
Plasticulture is crucial to Indian agriculture in view of the changing technological
scenario for boosting crop yields and productivity. Introduction of linear low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) as a mulch film has brought a revolution in agricultural water
management. It is actually a boon to dryland farmers. This is one of the fastest growing
plasticultural applications in the world. The cost of LLDPE film is also lesser than one
third of LDPE mulch film. Moreover for mulch activity lower thickness (15 to 20
microns) are highly suitable. However due to ever increasing cost of raw materials the
films are costlier now. Hence Government should take all possible measures to produce
the film in a mass scale and make it available to the farmers at a reasonable price.
Subsidy may also be given through banks to encourage the farmer to adoption soil
mulching. Low cost machines may be developed for spreading and rolling down the film
in the field. PFDC’s may be geared up for large scale demonstration in farmer’s field to
give a wide publicity.
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Studies on mulching at various centres of PFDC's all over India

Increase Additional
Sl.
Crop Location of PFDC Mulch material in yield income
No. (%) (Rs./ha)
1. Chilli Navasari (Gujarat) Black plastic (50 micron) 60.1 10140.00
2. Brinjal Navasari (Gujarat) Black plastic (50 micron) 27.1 7400.00
3. Sugarcane Navasari (Gujarat) Black plastic (50 micron) 50.2 25000.00
4. Chilli Navasari (Gujarat) Green plastic (50 micron) 59.0 22190.00
5. Cauliflower Hisar Black plastic (50 micron) 31.9 6751.00
6. Potato Pantnagar (UP) Black plastic (50 micron) 35.5 8700.00
7. Cauliflower Pantnagar (UP) Black plastic (50 micron) 71.0 16120.00
8. Tomato Pantnagar (UP) Plastic film (25 micron) 46.5 11250.00
9. Okra Pantnagar (UP) Plastic film (25 micron) 47.85 9250.00
10. Tomato Pantnagar (UP) Plastic film (25 micron) 79.2 22764.00
11. Tomato Kharagpur (WB) Plastic film (25 micron) 65.4 43210.00
12. Okra Kharagpur (WB) Plastic film (25 micron) 55.1 19625.00
13. Guava Delhi Plastic film (100 micron) 26.0 --
14. Lemon Delhi Plastic film (100 micron) 21.6 --
15. Kinnow Delhi Plastic film (100 micron) 46.8 --
16. Pomogranate Delhi Plastic film (100 micron) 33.3
17. Brinjal Coimbatore Plastic film (25 micron) 33.3 12062.00
18. Bhendi Coimbatore Plastic film (25 micron) 46.7 9770.00
19. Bhendi Coimbatore Plastic film (25 micron) 54.0 6400.00
20. Chilli Coimbatore Plastic film (25 micron) 18.6 6800.00
21. Groundnut Coimbatore Plastic film (15 micron) 20.5 7300.00
22. Banana Travacore (Kerala) Plastic film (50 micron) 12.6 13906.00
23. Arecanut Travacore (Kerala) Plastic film (50 micron) 28.4 --
24. Bhendi Travacore (Kerala) Plastic film (50 micron) 25.0 18885.00
25. Maize Rajendranagar (AP) Plastic film (25 micron) 44.6 9800.00
26. Brinjal Rajendranagar (AP) Plastic film (25 micron) 10.0 15100.00
27. Bhendi Rajendranagar (AP) Plastic film (25 micron) 67.0 18300.00
28. Tomato Rajendranagar (AP) Plastic film (25 micron) 65.3 13800.00
29. Plum Solan (HP) Plastic film (50 micron) 9.2 12000.00
30. Tomato Solan (HP) Plastic film (50 micron) 85.6 18250.00
31. Pea Solan (HP) Plastic film (50 micron) 66.6 25960.00
32. Apricot Solan (HP) Plastic film (50 micron) 33.3 18320.00
33. Peach Solan (HP) 31.2 13890.00
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LEC. 18 & 19. METHODS OF IRRIGATION - SUITABILITY,
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Water application methods are grouped as:
1. Flooding 3. Spraying it under pressure

2. Applying it beneath the soil surface 4. Applying in drops
Irrigation methods
I. Surface
II. Sub-surface
III. Pressurized irrigation
Surface is grouped as Border, Check basin and Furrow irrigations. Border is again
classified in to two as straight and contour. Check basins may be of rectangular,
contour or ring, whereas furrow irrigation is classified as deep furrow and corrugated
furrows. These may be again straight or contour according to direction and leveled and
graded as per their elevation
I. Surface irrigation
1. Border irrigation
 The land is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders.

 These borders are separated by low ridges.

 The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the direction of irrigation.

 Each strip is irrigated independently by turning the water in the upper end.

 The water spreads and flows down the strip in a sheet confined by the border ridges.
Suitability : To soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates. It is not
used in coarse sandy soils that have very high infiltration rates and also in heavy soils
having very low infiltration rate. Suitable to irrigate all close growing crops like wheat,
barley, fodder crops and legumes and not suitable for rice.
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Advantages
1. Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like bullock drawn “A”
frame ridger or bund former.
2. Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional check basin
method.
3. Uniform distribution of water and high water application efficiencies are possible.
4. Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
5. Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.
Width of border strip: It varies from 3-15 m

Border length
Slope Soil Length

0.25 - 0.60% Sandy and sandy loam 60-120 m
0.20 - 0.40% Medium loam soil 100-180 m
0.05 – 0.20% Clay loam and clay soil 150-300 m
2. Check basin irrigation

 It is the most common method.

 Here the field is divided into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level surface.

 Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the
irrigation water can be controlled.

 The water applied to a desired depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil.

 The size of the basin varies from 10m2 to 25 m2 depending upon soil type ,
topography, stream size and crop.
Adaptability
 Small gentle and uniform land slopes

 Soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.

 Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils.

 Suitable to permeable soils.
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Advantages
1. Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
2. Rainfall can be conserved and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain
3. High water application and distribution efficiency.
Limitations
1. The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.
2. More area occupied by ridges and field channels.
3. The method impedes surface drainage
4. Precise land grading and shaping are required
5. Labour requirement is higher.
6. Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem.
Furrow irrigation
⇒
Used in the irrigation of row crops.
⇒
The furrows are formed between !
crop rows.
⇒
The dimension of furrows depend
on the crop grown, equipment used
and soil type.
⇒
Water is applied by small running
streams in furrows between the crop
rows.
⇒
Water infiltrates into soil and spreads laterally to wet the area between the furrows.
⇒
In heavy soils furrows can be used to dispose the excess water.
Adaptability
1. Wide spaced row crops including vegetables.
2. Suitable for maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes
3. Suitable to most soils except sand.
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Advantages
1. Water in furrows contacts only one half to one fifth of the land surface.
2. Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.
3. Compared to check basins
there is less wastage of land in
field ditches.
Types of furrow irrigation

Based on alignment of furrows
: 1. Straight furrows
2. Contour furrows
Based on size and spacing : 1. Deep furrows 2. Corrugations
Based on irrigation:
A. All furrow irrigation: Water is applied evenly in all the furrows and are called
furrow system or uniform furrow system.
B. Alternate furrow irrigation: It is not an irrigation layout but a technique for water
saving. Water is applied in alternate furrows for eg. During first irrigation if the even
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numbers of furrows are irrigated, during next irrigation, the odd number of furrows
will be irrigated.
!
C. Skip furrow irrigation: They
are normally adopted during
the period of water scarcity
and to accommodate
intercrops . In the skip furrow
irrigation, a set of furrows are
completely skipped out from
irrigation permanently. The
skipped furrow will be
utilized for
raising intercrop. The system ensures water saving of 30-35 per cent. By this method,
the available water is economically used without much field reduction.
D. Surge irrigation: Surge irrigation is the application of water in to the furrows
intermittently in a series of relatively short ON and OFF times of irrigation cycle. It
has been found that intermittent application of water reduces the infiltration tare over
surges thereby the water front advances quickly. Hence, reduced net irrigation water
requirement. This also results in more uniform soil moisture distribution and storage
in the crop root zone compared to continuous flow. The irrigation efficiency is in
between 85 and 90%.
II. Sub-surface irrigation
♦
In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground by creating and
maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the
ground surface.
♦
Moisture moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action
♦
Water is applied through underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart.
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♦
Open ditches are preferred because they are relatively cheaper and suitable to all
types of soil.
♦
The irrigation water should be of good quality to prevent soil salinity.
Advantages
1. Minimum water requirement for raising crops
2. Minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses
3. No wastage of land
7. No interference to movement of farm machinery
8. Cultivation operations can be carried out without concern for the irrigation period.
Disadvantages
1. Requires a special combination of natural conditions.
2. There is danger of water logging
3. Possibility of choking of the pipes lay underground.
4. High cost.

 Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation.

 It is suitable for water scarcity and salt affected soils.

 Water is applied in the root zone of the crop

Standard water quality test needed for design and operation of drip irrigation system.
(Major inorganic salts, hardeners, suspended solids, total dissolved solids, biological
oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, organic, and organic matter, micro-
organisms, iron, dissolved oxygen, H2S, iron bacteria, sulphur reducing bacteria etc
have to be tested)
Components
♦
A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line, sub-mains,
laterals and emitters.
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♦
The mainline delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the laterals.
♦
The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.
♦
The mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually made of black PVC (poly vinyl
chloride) tubing. The emitters are also made of PVC material
♦
The other components include regulator, filters, valves, water meter, fertilizer
application components, etc.,
Pump
The pump creates the pressure necessary to force water through the components
of the system including the fertilizer tank, filter unit, mainline, lateral and the emitters
and drippers. Centrifugal pump operated by engines or electric motors are commonly
used. The laterals may be designed to operate under pressures as low as 0.15 to 0.2 kg/
cm2 and as large as 1 to 1.75 kg/cm2. The water coming out of the emitters is almost at
atmospheric pressure.
Chemical tank
A tank may be provided at the head of the drip irrigation systems for applying
fertilizers, herbicides and other chemicals in solution directly to the field along with
irrigation water.
Filter
It is an essential part of drip irrigation system. It prevents the blockage of pipes
and drippers/emitters. The filter system consists of valves and a pressure gauge for
regulation and control.
Emitters
Drip nozzles commonly called drippers or emitters are provided at regular
intervals on the laterals. They allow water to emit at very low rates usually in trickles.
The amount of water dripping out of each emitters in a unit time will depend mainly upon
the pressure and size of the opening. The discharge rate of emitters usually ranges from 2
to 10 litres per hour.
Micro-tubes are also used in a drip lateral. They are used mainly in the following
ways (1) as emitters (2) as connectors, (3) as pressure regulators
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Advantages
1. Water saving - losses due to deep percolation, surface runoff and transmission are
avoided. Evaporation losses occurring in sprinkler irrigation do not occur in drip
irrigation.
2. Uniform water distribution
3. Application rates can be adjusted by using different size of drippers
4. Suitable for wide spaced row crops, particularly coconut and other horticultural
tree crops
5. Soil erosion is reduced
6. Better weed control
7. Land saving
8. Less labour cost
Disadvantages
1. High initial cost
2. Drippers are susceptible to blockage
3. Interferes with farm operations and movement of implements and machineries
4. Frequent maintenance
5. Trees grown may develop shallow confined root zones resulting in poor
anchorage. LAYOUT OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM
 The sprinkler (overhead or pressure) irrigation system conveys water to the field
through pipes (aluminium or PVC) under pressure with a system of nozzles.

 This system is designed to distribute the required depth of water uniformly, which is
not possible in surface irrigation.
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 Water is applied at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil hence the runoff
from irrigation is avoided.
!
A sprinkler system usually consists

of the following parts.
1. A pumping unit
2. Debris removal equipment
3. Pressure gauge / water-meter
4. Pipelines (mains – sub-mains
and laterals)
5. Couplers
6. Raiser pipes
7. Sprinklers
8. Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs, etc.
Pumping unit
A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be installed for operating the system
for individual farm holdings. The pumping plants usually consist of a centrifugal or a
turbine type pump, a driving unit, a suction line and a foot valve.
Pipe lines
Pipelines are generally of two types. They are main and lateral. Main pipelines
carry water from the pumping plant to many parts of the field. In some cases sub main
lines are provided to take water from the mains to laterals. The lateral pipelines carry the
water from the main or sub main pipe to the sprinklers. The pipelines may be either
permanent, semi permanent or portable.
Couplers
A coupler provides connection between two tubing and between tubing and
fittings.
Sprinklers
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Sprinklers may rotate or remain fixed. The rotating sprinklers can be adapted for a
wide range of application rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure of about 10
to 70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from 16-40 m head are considered the
most practical for most farms. Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small
lawns and gardens.
Other accessories / fittings

1. Water meters - It is used to measure the volume of water delivered.
2. Pressure gauge - It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler is working with the
desired pressure in order to deliver the water uniformly.
3. Bends, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valves, end plugs and risers
4. Debris removal equipment: This is needed when water is obtained from streams,
ponds, canals or other surface supplies. It helps to keep the sprinkler system clear of
sand, weed seeds, leaves, sticks, moss and other trash that may otherwise plug the
sprinklers.
5. Fertilizer applicators. These are available in various sizes. They inject fertilizers in
liquid form to the sprinkler system at a desired rate.
Types of sprinkler system

On the basis of arrangement for spraying irrigation water
1. Rotating head (or) revolving sprinkler system
2. Perforated pipe system
Based on the portability
1. Portable system: It has portable mainlines and laterals and a portable pumping unit
2. Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a fully portable system
except that the location of the water source and pumping plant are fixed.
3. Semi permanent system: A semi permanent system has portable lateral lines,
permanent main lines and sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
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172
The mainlines and sub-mains are usually buried, with risers for nozzles located at suitable
intervals.
4. Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their movement.
The laterals are placed in the field early in the crop season and remain for the season.
5. Permanent system: It consists of permanently laid mains, sub-mains and laterals and
a stationary water source and pumping plant. Mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually
buried below plough depth. Sprinklers are permanently located on each riser.
Advantages
1. Water saving to an extent of 35-40% compared to surface irrigation methods.
2. Saving in fertilizers - even distribution and avoids wastage.
3. Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands)
4. Reduces erosion
5. Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
6. Frost control - protect crops against frost and high temperature
7. Drainage problems eliminated
8. Saving in land
9. Fertilisers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water
Disadvantages
2. Efficiency is affected by wind
3. Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
4. Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
5. Not suitable for heavy clay soils
6. Poor quality water can not be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and
clogging of nozzles)
Steps to be taken for reducing the salt deposits on leaves and fruits during sprinkler
irrigation
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 
 Irrigate at night
 
 Increase the speed of the sprinkler rotation
 
Decrease the frequency of irrigation
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LEC. 18 & 19. METHODS OF IRRIGATION - SUITABILITY,
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
Water application methods are grouped as:
1. Flooding 3. Spraying it under pressure

2. Applying it beneath the soil surface 4. Applying in drops
Irrigation methods
I. Surface
II. Sub-surface
III. Pressurized irrigation
Surface is grouped as Border, Check basin and Furrow irrigations. Border is again
classified in to two as straight and contour. Check basins may be of rectangular,
contour or ring, whereas furrow irrigation is classified as deep furrow and corrugated
furrows. These may be again straight or contour according to direction and leveled and
graded as per their elevation
I. Surface irrigation
1. Border irrigation
 The land is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders.

 These borders are separated by low ridges.

 The border strip has a uniform gentle slope in the direction of irrigation.

 Each strip is irrigated independently by turning the water in the upper end.

 The water spreads and flows down the strip in a sheet confined by the border ridges.
Suitability : To soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates. It is not
used in coarse sandy soils that have very high infiltration rates and also in heavy soils
having very low infiltration rate. Suitable to irrigate all close growing crops like wheat,
barley, fodder crops and legumes and not suitable for rice.
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Advantages
1. Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like bullock drawn “A”
frame ridger or bund former.
2. Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional check basin
method.
3. Uniform distribution of water and high water application efficiencies are possible.
4. Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
5. Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.
Width of border strip: It varies from 3-15 m

Border length
Slope Soil Length

0.25 - 0.60% Sandy and sandy loam 60-120 m
0.20 - 0.40% Medium loam soil 100-180 m
0.05 – 0.20% Clay loam and clay soil 150-300 m
2. Check basin irrigation

 It is the most common method.

 Here the field is divided into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level surface.

 Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the
irrigation water can be controlled.

 The water applied to a desired depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil.

 The size of the basin varies from 10m2 to 25 m2 depending upon soil type ,
topography, stream size and crop.
Adaptability
 Small gentle and uniform land slopes

 Soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.

 Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils.

 Suitable to permeable soils.
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Advantages
1. Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
2. Rainfall can be conserved and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain
3. High water application and distribution efficiency.
Limitations
1. The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.
2. More area occupied by ridges and field channels.
3. The method impedes surface drainage
4. Precise land grading and shaping are required
5. Labour requirement is higher.
6. Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem.
Furrow irrigation
⇒
Used in the irrigation of row crops.
⇒
The furrows are formed between !
crop rows.
⇒
The dimension of furrows depend
on the crop grown, equipment used
and soil type.
⇒
Water is applied by small running
streams in furrows between the crop
rows.
⇒
Water infiltrates into soil and spreads laterally to wet the area between the furrows.
⇒
In heavy soils furrows can be used to dispose the excess water.
Adaptability
1. Wide spaced row crops including vegetables.
2. Suitable for maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes
3. Suitable to most soils except sand.
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Advantages
1. Water in furrows contacts only one half to one fifth of the land surface.
2. Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.
3. Compared to check basins
there is less wastage of land in
field ditches.
Types of furrow irrigation

Based on alignment of furrows
: 1. Straight furrows
2. Contour furrows
Based on size and spacing : 1. Deep furrows 2. Corrugations
Based on irrigation:
A. All furrow irrigation: Water is applied evenly in all the furrows and are called
furrow system or uniform furrow system.
B. Alternate furrow irrigation: It is not an irrigation layout but a technique for water
saving. Water is applied in alternate furrows for eg. During first irrigation if the even
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178
numbers of furrows are irrigated, during next irrigation, the odd number of furrows
will be irrigated.
!
C. Skip furrow irrigation: They
are normally adopted during
the period of water scarcity
and to accommodate
intercrops . In the skip furrow
irrigation, a set of furrows are
completely skipped out from
irrigation permanently. The
skipped furrow will be
utilized for
raising intercrop. The system ensures water saving of 30-35 per cent. By this method,
the available water is economically used without much field reduction.
D. Surge irrigation: Surge irrigation is the application of water in to the furrows
intermittently in a series of relatively short ON and OFF times of irrigation cycle. It
has been found that intermittent application of water reduces the infiltration tare over
surges thereby the water front advances quickly. Hence, reduced net irrigation water
requirement. This also results in more uniform soil moisture distribution and storage
in the crop root zone compared to continuous flow. The irrigation efficiency is in
between 85 and 90%.
II. Sub-surface irrigation
♦
In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground by creating and
maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the
ground surface.
♦
Moisture moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action
♦
Water is applied through underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart.
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♦
Open ditches are preferred because they are relatively cheaper and suitable to all
types of soil.
♦
The irrigation water should be of good quality to prevent soil salinity.
Advantages
1. Minimum water requirement for raising crops
2. Minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses
3. No wastage of land
7. No interference to movement of farm machinery
8. Cultivation operations can be carried out without concern for the irrigation period.
Disadvantages
1. Requires a special combination of natural conditions.
2. There is danger of water logging
3. Possibility of choking of the pipes lay underground.
4. High cost.

 Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation.

 It is suitable for water scarcity and salt affected soils.

 Water is applied in the root zone of the crop

Standard water quality test needed for design and operation of drip irrigation system.
(Major inorganic salts, hardeners, suspended solids, total dissolved solids, biological
oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, organic, and organic matter, micro-
organisms, iron, dissolved oxygen, H2S, iron bacteria, sulphur reducing bacteria etc
have to be tested)
Components
♦
A drip irrigation system consists of a pump or overhead tank, main line, sub-mains,
laterals and emitters.
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180
♦
The mainline delivers water to the sub-mains and the sub-mains into the laterals.
♦
The emitters which are attached to the laterals distribute water for irrigation.
♦
The mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually made of black PVC (poly vinyl
chloride) tubing. The emitters are also made of PVC material
♦
The other components include regulator, filters, valves, water meter, fertilizer
application components, etc.,
Pump
The pump creates the pressure necessary to force water through the components
of the system including the fertilizer tank, filter unit, mainline, lateral and the emitters
and drippers. Centrifugal pump operated by engines or electric motors are commonly
used. The laterals may be designed to operate under pressures as low as 0.15 to 0.2 kg/
cm2 and as large as 1 to 1.75 kg/cm2. The water coming out of the emitters is almost at
atmospheric pressure.
Chemical tank
A tank may be provided at the head of the drip irrigation systems for applying
fertilizers, herbicides and other chemicals in solution directly to the field along with
irrigation water.
Filter
It is an essential part of drip irrigation system. It prevents the blockage of pipes
and drippers/emitters. The filter system consists of valves and a pressure gauge for
regulation and control.
Emitters
Drip nozzles commonly called drippers or emitters are provided at regular
intervals on the laterals. They allow water to emit at very low rates usually in trickles.
The amount of water dripping out of each emitters in a unit time will depend mainly upon
the pressure and size of the opening. The discharge rate of emitters usually ranges from 2
to 10 litres per hour.
Micro-tubes are also used in a drip lateral. They are used mainly in the following
ways (1) as emitters (2) as connectors, (3) as pressure regulators
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Advantages
1. Water saving - losses due to deep percolation, surface runoff and transmission are
avoided. Evaporation losses occurring in sprinkler irrigation do not occur in drip
irrigation.
2. Uniform water distribution
3. Application rates can be adjusted by using different size of drippers
4. Suitable for wide spaced row crops, particularly coconut and other horticultural
tree crops
5. Soil erosion is reduced
6. Better weed control
7. Land saving
8. Less labour cost
Disadvantages
2. Drippers are susceptible to blockage
3. Interferes with farm operations and movement of implements and machineries
4. Frequent maintenance
5. Trees grown may develop shallow confined root zones resulting in poor
anchorage. LAYOUT OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM
 The sprinkler (overhead or pressure) irrigation system conveys water to the field
through pipes (aluminium or PVC) under pressure with a system of nozzles.

 This system is designed to distribute the required depth of water uniformly, which is
not possible in surface irrigation.
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182
 Water is applied at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil hence the runoff
from irrigation is avoided.
!
A sprinkler system usually consists

of the following parts.
1. A pumping unit
2. Debris removal equipment
3. Pressure gauge / water-meter
4. Pipelines (mains – sub-mains
and laterals)
5. Couplers
6. Raiser pipes
7. Sprinklers
8. Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs, etc.
Pumping unit
A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be installed for operating the system
for individual farm holdings. The pumping plants usually consist of a centrifugal or a
turbine type pump, a driving unit, a suction line and a foot valve.
Pipe lines
Pipelines are generally of two types. They are main and lateral. Main pipelines
carry water from the pumping plant to many parts of the field. In some cases sub main
lines are provided to take water from the mains to laterals. The lateral pipelines carry the
water from the main or sub main pipe to the sprinklers. The pipelines may be either
permanent, semi permanent or portable.
Couplers
A coupler provides connection between two tubing and between tubing and
fittings.
Sprinklers
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183
Sprinklers may rotate or remain fixed. The rotating sprinklers can be adapted for a
wide range of application rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure of about 10
to 70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from 16-40 m head are considered the
most practical for most farms. Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small
lawns and gardens.
Other accessories / fittings

1. Water meters - It is used to measure the volume of water delivered.
2. Pressure gauge - It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler is working with the
desired pressure in order to deliver the water uniformly.
3. Bends, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valves, end plugs and risers
4. Debris removal equipment: This is needed when water is obtained from streams,
ponds, canals or other surface supplies. It helps to keep the sprinkler system clear of
sand, weed seeds, leaves, sticks, moss and other trash that may otherwise plug the
sprinklers.
5. Fertilizer applicators. These are available in various sizes. They inject fertilizers in
liquid form to the sprinkler system at a desired rate.
Types of sprinkler system

On the basis of arrangement for spraying irrigation water
1. Rotating head (or) revolving sprinkler system
2. Perforated pipe system
Based on the portability
1. Portable system: It has portable mainlines and laterals and a portable pumping unit
2. Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a fully portable system
except that the location of the water source and pumping plant are fixed.
3. Semi permanent system: A semi permanent system has portable lateral lines,
permanent main lines and sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping plant.
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184
The mainlines and sub-mains are usually buried, with risers for nozzles located at suitable
intervals.
4. Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their movement.
The laterals are placed in the field early in the crop season and remain for the season.
5. Permanent system: It consists of permanently laid mains, sub-mains and laterals and
a stationary water source and pumping plant. Mains, sub-mains and laterals are usually
buried below plough depth. Sprinklers are permanently located on each riser.
Advantages
1. Water saving to an extent of 35-40% compared to surface irrigation methods.
2. Saving in fertilizers - even distribution and avoids wastage.
3. Suitable for undulating topography (sloppy lands)
4. Reduces erosion
5. Suitable for coarse textured soils (sandy soils)
6. Frost control - protect crops against frost and high temperature
7. Drainage problems eliminated
8. Saving in land
9. Fertilisers and other chemicals can be applied through irrigation water
Disadvantages
2. Efficiency is affected by wind
3. Higher evaporation losses in spraying water
4. Not suitable for tall crops like sugarcane
5. Not suitable for heavy clay soils
6. Poor quality water can not be used (Sensitivity of crop to saline water and
clogging of nozzles)
Steps to be taken for reducing the salt deposits on leaves and fruits during sprinkler
irrigation
www.agrosalai.com
185
 
 Irrigate at night
 
 Increase the speed of the sprinkler rotation
 
Decrease the frequency of irrigation
www.agrosalai.com

Irrigation Management

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IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT AND MICRO IRRIGATION

1. DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION IN INDIA - WATER

IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

 Method of application of water

It comprises the months of October, November and December. North East

IRRIGATION – HISTORY AND STATISTICS

during 13th century.

Irrigation Development during five year plans

Classification of irrigation work or projects

Important irrigation projects in India

State Project Name

Punjab Western Jamuna, Bhakranangal Sutlej, Beas

India’s water budget

Disposal of surface run off

The surface runoff is disposed in three ways

Total surface run off = 180 M ha m

Land utilization pattern of India

Land utilization pattern in Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu Ground Water Potential

Water Resources in India and Tamil Nadu

Distribution of irrigated area in ‘000 hectares

Canal Tanks Wells Other

Sl.No. Countries Area irrigated in million hectares

2. ROLE OF WATER IN PLANT GROWTH – HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE -

IMPORTANCE OF WATER – THE LIQUID GOLD

 Stem, leaves and fruits -70-90%

Water as a source of sustenance

Water as a destructive force to be controlled

As indicated by Sir.C.V.Raman water is the ELIXER of Life which makes

Solid – liquid- gaseous form (refer any standard book)

As water – ocean – extent of ocean – their role on water availability

Water in Soil - plant - atmosphere continuum

Soil physical properties influencing irrigation

Water Relations of Soil

Factors Affecting Infiltration Rate

Soil Moisture Retention and Movement

3. SOIL WATER MOVEMENT - SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FLOW

Soil Moisture Tension

Soil Moisture Characteristics

Soil moisture tension is not necessarily an indication of the moisture content of

Soil moisture stress

membrane impermeable to the dissolved substance, such as a cell membrane in a plant

Soil moisture constants

Filed capacity is determined by ponding water on the soil surface in an area of

Permanent wilting percentage: The permanent wilting percentage, also known as

calculated which is the permanent wilting percentage. The determination of moisture

Range of available water holding capacity of soils

Movement of water within soils

Percolation. Percolation is the downward movement of water through saturated or

Permeability (1) Qualitative. It is the characteristic of a pervious medium relating

to the readiness with which it transmits fluids.

Hydraulic gradient Hydraulic gradient is the rate of change of piezometric or

Movement of water under saturated conditions

Sand > loam > clay

Moisture movement under unsaturated conditions

gravitational potential ψg. In horizontal movement, only ψ m applies. Under conditions of

In unsaturated soil moisture movement, also called capillary movement, k

Movement of unsaturated flow ceases in sand at a lower tension than in finer

Sand < loam < clay