Lab Manual Welding

PARTICIPANT WORKBOOK
LABORATORY MANUAL
Welding
C
Contents
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 5
Terminology .......................................................................................................................... 5
Welding Demonstration and Practice – Safety Topics ............................................................. 6
Shielded Metal Arc Welding................................................................................................... 9
Gas Metal Arc Welding ........................................................................................................ 13
Flux-Cored Arc Welding ....................................................................................................... 19
Submerged Arc Welding ...................................................................................................... 24
Welding Inspection (Visual Tests) ........................................................................................ 27
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)/Nondestructive Testing (NDT) .......................................... 44
Penetrant Testing (PT) ......................................................................................................... 44
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) ............................................................................................ 48
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) ........................................................................................................ 52
Radiographic Testing (RT) .................................................................................................... 54
Analyzing Weld Failures (Case Studies) ................................................................................ 58
Incomplete Fusion (IF) ......................................................................................................... 58
Incomplete Penetration (IP)................................................................................................. 60
Reinforcement .................................................................................................................... 62
Surface (Piping) Porosity...................................................................................................... 64
Subsurface Porosity and Inclusions ...................................................................................... 66
Cracks ................................................................................................................................. 70
Undercut ............................................................................................................................. 72
Underfill, Convexity, Craters ................................................................................................ 74
Spatter ................................................................................................................................ 78
Arc Strike ............................................................................................................................ 80
Fracture-Critical Members ................................................................................................... 82
Module C Welding
Introduction
While there are numerous welding processes utilized in highway and bridge industry, shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW), flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW)
are the most common. An explanation of these three, along with filler metal information
follows. Selecting the proper filler metal requires an understanding of the mechanical
properties desired and the weld’s appearance considerations. After selecting the welding
process and filler metal, the proper welding parameters must be developed and maintained.
Amperage, voltage, and travel speed determine the heat input and are the key parameters to
set and maintain.
The American Welding Society publishes the A5.X series of filler metal specifications. Filler
metals are typically purchased by these specifications and the class of filler metal described in
the appropriate specification. These classes are designated by a numbering system summarized
with the description of each process.
Terminology
Electrode – a rod that is used in arc welding to carry a current through a work piece to fuse two
pieces together. In some welding processes, the electrode may also act as the filler metal.
Filler metal – metal deposited into the weld to add strength and mass to the welded joint.
Flux – a chemical cleaning agent that is applied to a joint just prior to the welding process to
clean and protect the metal surface from surface oxides that form as a result of heating.
Porosity – the appearance of tiny bubbles on a weld bead as a result of gas entrapment;
excessive porosity can weaken a weld.
Root opening – the separation at the joint root between the base metals.
Shielding Gas – inert or semi-inert gas that is used to protect the weld puddle and arc from
reacting negatively with the atmosphere.
Slag – cooled flux that forms over the top of the weld; slag protects the cooling metal and is
then chipped off.
Spatter – liquid metal droplets expelled from the welding process.
Weldability – the ability of a material to be welded under prescribed conditions and to perform
as intended.
5
Module C Welding
Welding Demonstration and Practice – Safety Topics
Background Information
Safety is a critical consideration for any welding application. Arc welding is a safe occupation
when proper precautions are taken. If safety awareness is not a priority, welders face an array
of hazards that can be potentially dangerous, including electric shock, fumes, fire, explosions,
and more. Knowing how to avoid the most common welding hazards ensures a safe, productive
work environment.
Electric Shock
Electric shock is one of the most serious and immediate risks facing a welder. Electric shock can
lead to severe injury or death, either from the shock itself or from a fall caused by the reaction
to a shock.
Electric shock in welding can come from two sources. Welding machines connected to primary
voltages of typically 120V, 230V or 460V pose the greatest threat. Connection and maintenance
of the primary system should only be done by qualified personnel. Inside the machine, primary
voltages are transformed to the secondary voltages and currents required for the welding arc.
Once energized, many components of the welding operation are electrically “hot” including the
electrode holder, gun or torch, the wire feeder, and the spool or coil of wire. An electrical
circuit exists between these and the work connection. If welders insert themselves into this
circuit, shock will occur. Care should be taken to wear the proper personal protective
equipment (PPE) and assure that they are in good repair. Even heavy welding gloves, if wet, can
cause shock to the welder. Welding equipment electrical systems should only be installed and
repaired by qualified personnel.
Eye and Face Protection
The proper eye and face protection for welding safety varies depending on the welding process,
its heat or current, and other factors. Helmets, hand shields, goggles, safety glasses, or a
combination of these may be required based on the application. Arc welding requires the
proper filter lens shade based on process and current settings.
According to OSHA 29 CFR 1910.252, "Helmets and hand shields shall protect the face,
forehead, neck and ears to a vertical line in back of the ears, from the arc direct radiant energy
and weld spatter."
OSHA requires that when arc cutting or arc welding with open arc, helmets or hand shields with
filter lenses and cover plates be used by welders and welding operators. Anyone in the area
6
Module C Welding
should be shielded from the arc or be wearing proper eye protection. Safety glasses with a
Shade 2 lens are recommended for general-purpose protection for distant workers who may
inadvertently view the arc.
Protective Clothing
According to ANSI Z49.1:2012: Welding and Cutting (4.3), appropriate protective clothing for
any welding or cutting operation will vary with the size, nature, and location of the work to be
performed. “Clothing shall provide sufficient coverage and be made of suitable materials to
minimize skin burns caused by sparks, spatter or radiation.” All parts of the body must be
protected against the rays given off by the arc. Even if facing away from the arc, it is possible to
be “burned” by reflected energy.
The ANSI standard requires all welders and cutters to wear protective flame-resistant gloves,
such as leather welder's gloves, which provide the heat resistance needed for welding. Gloves
should have cuffs long enough to cover any exposed skin and should be insulated enough to
keep the heat from reaching the welder’s hands.
Fumes and Gases
Many welding operations produce fumes from the base metal and its coatings and from the
burning of the welding consumable. It is always important to keep your head out of the fumes.
Ventilation, either natural or mechanical, is required to reduce exposure to the harmful metal
oxides produced in the welding operation.
Safety data sheets are available from consumable manufacturers outlining the specific potential
health effects which relate to that product.
OSHA outlines threshold limit values (TLV) and permissible exposure limits (PEL) for substances
in welding fumes. These limits specify the amount of a substance to which welders can be
exposed over time. Testing can be done to verify your operation is within these limits.
Respirators or supplied air helmets are available to stay within these exposure limits.
Ventilation
Ventilation or “changes of air” is necessary to prevent welders and those around the welding
operation from breathing high levels of fumes. Ventilation is a way of providing adequate clean
air, and must be provided for all welding, cutting, and brazing applications. Adequate
ventilation depends on the following factors:
• Volume of the space where the welding operations occur;
7
Module C Welding
• The size and configuration of the welding space;

• The type of welding being done;
• The natural air flow in the area; and
• Location of the welders' breathing zones in relation to the fume source.
Proper ventilation can be obtained either naturally or mechanically.
Natural ventilation is considered sufficient for welding and brazing operations if the present
work area meets these requirements:
• More than 10,000 ft2 per welder;

• A ceiling height of more than 16 ft.; and
• The welding area is clear of any building element which restricts air flow.
Mechanical ventilation can take many forms—all of which use some method of capturing
welding fumes and moving them somewhere else. The overall design concept of these systems
should provide 100 ft. per minute of air flow through the entire welding area.
Fumes can be captured by ducting fixtures, fans, fixed hoods over the area, or movable “arms.”
After capture, fumes may be simply exhausted in some cases or passed through a filtering
system with clean air exhausted back into the area.
Note: Fumes and gases from welding and cutting cannot be easily classified. The quantity of
fumes is related to the metals being welded, the welding process, and the welding consumable.
Coatings and cleaning agents on the metals can also add contamination to the air. Air sampling
may be required to determine needed actions. For more information, see OSHA 29 CFR
1910.252 on welding regulations, or ANSI Z49.1:2012 – Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied
Processes, which is available for free download at aws.org. Both OSHA and AWS have fact
sheets on many aspects of welding safety available for free download on their respective Web
sites.
8
Module C Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also called “stick welding,” or in many other countries
manual metal arc (MMA), is an arc welding process that uses a solid rod coated with flux. This
rod or electrode can be made from a variety of metals and flux components, making the
process one of the most versatile in welding many materials. The rod carries electric current
from a power supply to create an arc that melts both the base metal and the rod. As the weld is
deposited, the flux coating of the electrode provides both a shielding gas (by burning of flux
components) and a slag layer that protects the molten metal from the atmosphere.
Significance and Use
SMAW dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry. Although
flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the
construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to
weld iron and steels, including stainless steel, but most alloys can be welded with this method.
Procedure
The electrode is placed in an electrode holder, which is connected to one lug of a constant
current welding power supply. This power supply can be operated on alternating current (AC),
direct current electrode positive (DCEP), or direct current electrode negative (DCEN) depending
on the type of electrode being used. A cable connected to the work is attached to the other lug.
The machine is energized and the electrode is lightly touched to the work—the arc is then
initiated. The welder then manually moves the electrode along the weld joint.
9
Module C Welding
Advantages
• Wide variety of metals welded due to wide choice of electrodes

• Simple and portable equipment
• Low cost
• Adaptable to confined spaces and remote locations
• Suitable for out-of-position welding
10
Module C Welding
Disadvantages
• Not as productive as continuous wire processes

• More costly to deposit a given quantity of metal due to labor costs
• Frequent stop/starts to change electrode
• Relatively high metal wastage (electrode stubs)
• Slag can become trapped in the weld
Common Discontinuities
• Slag inclusions
• Porosity
• Spatter
• Incomplete fusion
• Incomplete joint penetration
• Arc strike
11
Module C Welding
SMAW Filler Metal Classification – A5.1 (Carbon Steel), A5.5 (Low Alloy)
12
Module C Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is a semi-automatic arc welding process which uses a
continuously-fed and consumed solid or metal cored wire electrode and an external gas shield
supplied from a cylinder. The process is commonly called MIG Welding for “Metal Inert Gas”;
however, many of the gases used today are not inert. While this process is one of the easiest to
do, it is often misunderstood as there are three different “modes of transfer” which is the
manner in which the molten metal is melted and transferred across the arc.
Procedure
The filler metal is typically on a spool or coil mounted to a wire feeder which is connected to
one lug of a constant voltage welding power supply. A cable connected to the work is attached
to the other lug. The welder holds a welding gun through which the wire is fed, exiting through
a contact tip sized to the wire. When the trigger on the gun is pulled, the machine is energized,
gas flow begins, the wire is fed to the work from a wire feeder, and the arc is initiated. The
welder then moves the electrode along the weld joint. When the welder moves the gun, the
process is termed semi-automatic as the wire is being machine fed. If the gun is attached to a
travel device and the welding operator just observes, the process type is considered
“mechanized” or “machine welding”.
13
Module C Welding
Advantages
• Semiautomatic process
• High productivity
• No slag to remove
• Clean process
• Welds most alloys
Disadvantages
• Unsuitable for windy conditions

• Little tolerance for contamination
• Usually limited to shop welding
• Equipment can be complex
• Porosity
Transfer Modes
The manner in which the solid wire melts and “transfers” across the arc changes as the level of
energy is applied.
14
Module C Welding
Short Circuiting Transfer

At the lowest energies the wire actually touches the work forming an electrical short causing
the voltage to drop and the current to rise. As the wire heats a large droplet will “pinch” off
and be deposited in the weld pool. These shorts occur from 20-200 times per second and
produce a distinct “bacon frying” sound. Some spatter is produced which can vary with the
shielding gas used. This transfer mode is usable in all welding positions, but produces the
lowest level of weld penetration and fusion.
Globular Transfer
As energy is increased the heat of the arc causes the end of the wire to form a larger ball before
the wire actually shorts to the work. This ball is then flung across the arc splashing into the
molten puddle creating maximum amounts of spatter. This transfer mode should be avoided.
Spray Transfer
Also called Axial Spray Transfer. As energy is again increased a “transition” level is reached
where large droplets happening relatively slowly changes to very small droplets happening very
rapidly. At this point an arc cone is visible and no shorting occurs. Very little spatter is
produced. This mode is only usable in the flat and horizontal positions but produces the
greatest level of weld penetration and fusion.
Pulsed Spray Transfer

This is not a separate transfer mode, but is Spray Transfer created by varying the weld energy
between two levels. The higher level sprays off a few droplets and then the lower level “cools”
the arc down. This process requires more sophisticated equipment, but produces spray
transfer with lower overall heat input which becomes usable in all positions.
Gases
When considering the energy required for these transfer modes, amps and volts are not the
only consideration. Different shielding gases have varying ionizing potentials which affect their
ability to carry the required current. The primary gases used in GMAW are CO2, mixes of Argon
with CO2 and mixes of Argon with Oxygen. As a rule of thumb, a minimum of 80% Argon is
required to achieve spray transfer. Common gases for short circuit transfer are 100% CO2 and
75%Argon/25%CO2 (produces a more stable arc with less spatter than 100% CO2). Common
gases for spray transfer are 98%Ar/2%O2 and 90%, 92%, 95%, 98% Argon-Balance CO2. 92% or
greater Argon/balance CO2 is typically used for pulsed spray transfer.
Guidelines
Table 1 provides some estimated ideas for choice of transfer mode.
15
Module C Welding
Characteristics Short Global Spray Pulsed Notes

Circuit Spray
Energy Low Medium High Any None
Penetration Low Medium High Medium Pulsed spray can have
penetration issues.
Positions All Flat & Flat & All None
Hor. Hor.
Thickness ¼” & less 3/16” to 3/16” & Any Guidelines only-not
½” greater hard and fast rules.
100% CO2 Yes Yes No No None
75% Argon Yes Yes No Fair Produces less spatter
25% CO2 than 100% CO2
90-92% Ar Bal. Yes Yes Yes Yes None
CO2
95-98% Ar Bal. No No Yes Yes None
CO2
98% Argon No No Yes Poor This is a spray only gas
2% Oxygen
Table 1: Choices of Transfer Modes
16
Module C Welding
GMAW Filler Metal Classification – A5.18 (Carbon Steel), A5.28 (Low Alloy)
17
Module C Welding
Note: Carbon Steel GMAW wires utilize deoxidizers which help eliminate oxides/porosity in the
weld metal. Silicon & Manganese are the most common and also make the weld puddle more
fluid. Titanium, Zirconium and Aluminum are less common and make the puddle more sluggish.
18
Module C Welding
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a semi-automatic arc welding process which uses a
continuously-fed and consumed tubular electrode containing a flux. The electrode is somewhat
like a SMAW electrode turned inside out. A strip of sheath material is rolled into a “U” shape,
and fluxing agents and metal compounds are added. The strip is then rolled shut and drawn to
size.
The flux components can be similar enough to the coating on a SMAW electrode that no
shielding gas is required. If shielding gas can be externally supplied, the core can contain
elements such as iron powder to allow higher deposition rates.
Procedure
The filler metal is typically on a spool or coil mounted to a wire feeder that is connected to one
lug of a constant voltage welding power supply. A cable connected to the work is attached to
the other lug. The welder holds a welding gun through which the wire is fed, exiting through a
contact tip sized to the wire. When the trigger on the gun is pulled, the machine is energized,
the wire is fed to the work from a wire feeder, and the arc is initiated. The welder then moves
the electrode along the weld joint. When the welder moves the gun, the process is termed
semi-automatic since the wire is being machine-fed. If the gun is attached to a travel device and
the welding operator just observes, the process type is considered “mechanized” or termed
“machine welding.”
19
Module C Welding
Advantages
• High productivity
• Deep penetration
• Tolerates contamination
• Suitable for field work
Disadvantages
• Slag removal
• Smoky process
• Electrode cost
• Equipment complexity
20
Module C Welding
• Slag inclusions
• Porosity
21
Module C Welding
FCAW Filler Metal Classification – A5.20 (Carbon Steel), A5.29 (Low Alloy)
22
Module C Welding
23
Module C Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a welding process similar in concept to FCAW or gas metal arc
welding (GMAW). It also uses a consumed electrode which can be a solid GMAW-style wire or a
cored FCAW-style wire. The large difference in this process is that shielding is provided by the
arc being fully submerged under a layer of flux containing mineral components such as
manganese oxide or calcium fluoride. When the arc is established, the flux melts and also
becomes conductive, which provides the path for the current.
The process typically operates at much higher electrical parameters, thereby increasing the
volume of weld metal deposited, but it also typically restricts the process to only flat groove
welds and flat, horizontal fillets.
Procedure
Like the FCAW process, the wire is fed from a spool or coil through a contact tip in a gun by a
wire feeder. The system also has a cone to deposit the granular flux in front of or around the
arc. Typically mechanized, the control has a start button initiated by an operator. When the
wire contacts the part, the arc begins.
24
Module C Welding
Advantages
• High deposition rate

• Deep penetration
• Mechanized process
• Good for overlay of large areas
• High operator appeal
Disadvantages
• Flat or horizontal fillets only

• Extensive set-up time
• Needs positioning equipment
• Arc not visible to operator
• Slag removal
• Slag inclusions
• Cracking (due to high depth to width ratio)
25
Module C Welding
• Porosity
SMAW Filler Metal Classification – A5.1 (Carbon Steel), A5.5 (Low Alloy)
26
Module C Welding
Welding Inspection (Visual Tests)
One of the most common questions welding inspectors are asked is, “Is this a good or bad
weld?” It is important that a welding inspector recognizes that there is no such thing as a good
or bad weld. With a full understanding of welding codes and weld inspection, welds are either
“acceptable” or “rejectable.” Welding inspectors use the acceptance criteria of the applicable
welding code and measuring tools to determine whether or not a weld is acceptable. This
means that just because a weld is not “pretty” or uniform, does not mean it is not acceptable in
accordance with the welding code. This section will cover the terms and definitions a welding
inspector needs to be familiar with, how to use weld measuring tools, and the visual inspection
criteria of the AWS D1.5-2010 Bridge Welding Code.
Terms and Definitions
Before we can understand the philosophy of accepting or rejecting a weld in accordance with a
code or specification, it is important to understand the terms associated with common weld
discontinuities.
Discontinuity – an interruption in the typical structure of a weldment, such as a lack of

homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, chemical, or physical characteristics of the
material or weldment.
Most welds contain some level of discontinuities such as undercut, porosity, spatter, etc.
Discontinuities in a weld do not automatically make a weld rejectable. It is the weld inspector’s
job to identify the discontinuity, measure it, and compare it to the applicable welding code’s
acceptance criteria to determine if the discontinuity is acceptable or not.
Defect – a discontinuity that fails to meet the minimum acceptance level stated in a code or
specification.
When a discontinuity exceeds what is allowed by the acceptance criteria of the applicable
welding code, it is considered a defect. Defects are cause for a weld to be determined
rejectable. For example, if a welding code’s acceptance criteria allows for undercut up to 1/32-
inch deep and the welding inspector measures undercut that is 1/16-inch deep, then that weld
is rejectable and must be repaired. However, if the undercut measured was 1/32-inch or less,
then the weld would be acceptable.
27
Module C Welding
All defects are discontinuities, but not all discontinuities are defects. Understanding this forms
the key to proper analysis of any weld performed in accordance with the requirements of a
welding code or specification.
Fusion – the melting together of filler metal and base metal, or of base metal only, which
results in coalescence.
Coalescence is the growing together or growth into one body of the materials being joined. So
fusion is the melting together of metal, which results in two or more separate pieces (base
metal to base metal or base metal to filler metal) becoming one. Proper fusion can be identified
by a weld that has a smooth, uninterrupted transition from the weld joint to the base metal and
from each weld bead to the next.
Incomplete fusion – fusion which is less than complete (groove sidewall, weld root, or corner,
etc.).
Below is a cross section of a multi-pass groove weld with four indications of Incomplete Fusion.
Notice on the surface, that the edges of the weld look rolled over or tucked in instead of having
a smooth transition to the base metal. In the center of the weld, there is a void between the
weld bead passes. Towards the bottom of the weld, on the right side of the groove, there is a
void between the weld bead passes and the base metal. These are all signs of incomplete
fusion.
Figure 1: Incomplete fusion
Incomplete fusion can be caused by excessive travel speeds, lack of welding heat, and improper
torch/electrode angle. The appropriate repair for incomplete fusion is to grind or cut out the
incompletely fused metal and re-weld if necessary.
28
Module C Welding
Penetration – the minimum depth a groove or flange weld extended from its face into a joint
exclusive of reinforcement.
Penetration is the measurement of coalesced metal in a joint starting from the face of the weld
and not exceeding the thickness of the base metal. Weld metal above the weld joint or past the
thickness of the base metal is not included in penetration. Penetration that extends from the
face of the weld all the way through the joint thickness is known as “complete joint
penetration.”
Incomplete penetration – penetration which is less than specified.
To determine whether or not a weld has incomplete penetration, a weld inspector must first
know what the welding code or drawing specifies for penetration. Assume that the joint shown
in Figure 2 was specified to be a complete joint penetration weld. Notice that the weld metal
does not fully extend through the base metal. This would be considered incomplete
penetration. However, if the plate is 3/8-inch thick and the weld was specified to have 3/16-
inch deep penetration, then no incomplete penetration exists. Incomplete penetration can be
caused by too large of a root face, too narrow of a root opening, improper torch/electrode
angle, too large electrode diameter, and lack of welding heat. To visually inspect for incomplete
joint penetration, an inspector needs to have access to the root side of the weld. If the weld
metal does not extend past the base metal and the original edge of the joint is still visible, then
incomplete joint penetration is present. If the weld metal does not extend through the
thickness of the base metal, but the original edges of the joint were fully consumed, then
complete joint penetration was achieved. To properly repair incomplete penetration, the weld
metal must be ground or cut out in the spot where the incomplete penetration exists and then
re-welded.
Figure 2: Incomplete penetration
29
Module C Welding
Reinforcement – weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill a joint.
Reinforcement occurs when the weld metal extends beyond the face or root of the weld. Figure
3 illustrates both face and root reinforcement. Face reinforcement is measured from the top
surface of the base metal to the top of the face of the weld. Root reinforcement is measured
from the bottom surface of the weld to the root surface of the weld. Excessive reinforcement is
considered a defect in most welding codes. The drastic change in surface contour results in an
area of stress concentration which can cause the weld to fail. Excessive reinforcement is caused
by overfilling the joint with weld metal. It can be repaired by simply grinding away the excessive
reinforcement until it is within the range allowed by the acceptance criteria of the applicable
welding code.
Figure 3: Root and face reinforcement
Inclusions – solid material trapped in the weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.
Inclusions are anything in the weld joint other than weld metal, trapped between the weld
metal and base metal. In SMAW and FCAW, slag inclusions can be caused by improper cleaning
and removal of slag between weld passes as well as improper torch/electrode angle. In GTAW,
tungsten inclusions are a result of pieces of the tungsten electrode breaking off and being
deposited in the molten weld puddle. They can be caused by dipping the tungsten into the weld
puddle and exceeding the amperage rating of the tungsten. Inclusions are repaired by cutting
or grinding away the weld metal until the inclusion is exposed, then further cutting or grinding
to sound metal and re-welding. Figure 4 is an illustration of what inclusions look like in a weld
cross-section.
Figure 4: Inclusions
30
Module C Welding
Porosity – a void or cavity formed by gas entrapment during weld solidification.
Porosity is a hollow void in the weld metal formed by gas bubbles being trapped inside molten
weld puddle as it solidifies. There are different types of porosity illustrated in Figure 5 and
Figure 6. Porosity is caused by improper shielding of the molten weld puddle or the presence of
moisture or contaminants in the filler metal or base metal. Porosity is repaired by cutting or
grinding to sound metal and re-welding.
Figure 5: Types of porosity
Figure 6: Internal porosity
Cracks – fracture type discontinuity with a sharp tip and high length-to-width ratio.
There are several different types of weld cracks, some of which are illustrated in Figure 7. As
molten metal solidifies, it shrinks. This shrinkage causes stress in the weld joint and base metal.
If the stress exceeds the strength of the metal, then a crack is formed. There are several other
causes for cracks including hydrogen embrittlement, improper weld bead profile, and
insufficient filler metal. Cracks are repaired by cutting or grinding down to sound metal and re-
welding.
31
Module C Welding
Figure 7: Welding cracks
Overlap – the protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face, or root of a weld, without fusion.
Overlap is a specific type of incomplete fusion. It is formed by molten weld metal that is
deposited on top of unmelted base metal. When the molten weld metal solidifies, it overlaps
the base metal instead of fusing with it to achieve coalescence. Improper electrode angle and
travel speed can cause overlap. Overlap is repaired by grinding down the overlapped portion of
weld to create a smooth transition from weld metal to base metal and re-welding if necessary.
Figure 8: Fusion
Undercut – a groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe or root of a weld and left
unfilled by weld metal.
Undercut occurs along the edges of a weld when base metal is melted away by the heat of the
electrode, but no filler metal is added to fill the void. It is caused by excessive weld heat, long
arc length, and improper torch/electrode angle. Undercut is repaired by welding to fill the
undercut void. Figure 9 is a cross-section of a weld illustrating undercut.
32
Module C Welding
Figure 9: Undercut
Underfill – a depression on the face or root surface of a weld extending below the surface of
the adjacent base metal.
Underfill occurs when not enough filler metal is added to sufficiently fill the weld joint. Most
welding codes require the welding joint to be filled at least flush with the surface of the base
metal. Underfill is repaired by additional welding to fill to the weld joint. Figure 10 is an
illustration of a weld cross-section containing underfill.
Figure 10: Underfill
Spatter – metal particles expelled during welding, which do not form a part of the weld.
Spatter, not “splatter,” are little balls of molten metal that fuse to the surface of the base metal
or weld metal and solidify. They are caused by excessively long arc length and improper
torch/electrode angle. Spatter is removed by chipping or grinding. Figure 11 is a picture of a
weld containing spatter.
33
Module C Welding
Figure 11: Spatter
Arc strike – a discontinuity consisting of any localized re-melted metal or change in the surface
profile of any part of a weld or base metal resulting from an arc.
Arc strikes are common in SMAW. They are caused by dragging the electrode outside of the
weld joint to initiate the arc. As the arc starts to ignite, the heat from the arc melts the base
metal, leaving behind an etched trail. Arc strikes can be prevented by limiting the motion of
striking an arc to a small area inside the weld joint that is welded over once the arc is initiated.
Arc strikes are repaired by grinding and if necessary, welding to fill the void. Figure 12 is an
image of an arc strike.
Figure 12: Arc strike
34
Module C Welding
Welding Procedures and Qualifications
One of the other responsibilities of a welding inspector is to assure the welding is done in
accordance with an approved welding procedure and that all of the welders engaged in the
welding operation are properly qualified.
Welding procedure specification (WPS) – a document providing the required welding variables
for a specific application to assure repeatability by properly trained welders and welding
operators. Once qualified, this document provides proof that materials and processes will
produce satisfactory weld joints.
Consider the WPS to be the recipe for making a sound weld. It lists all of the essential variables
associated with the particular welding application. To qualify a WPS, a sample weld is done. The
variables of the sample weld are recorded and the sample weld is then tested to the
requirements of the applicable welding code.
Welding procedure qualification record (PQR) – a record of welding variables used to produce
an acceptable test weldment and the results of tests conducted on the weldment to qualify a
welding procedure specification.
The PQR is proof that your recipe (WPS) produces an acceptable weld. It includes all of the
essential variables and test results of the sample weld.
Essential variable – a variable of the welding process that is deemed as important enough by a
code committee to require proving.
Essential variables are the variables of a welding procedure that must not change during
production welding. Some essential variables are given as ranges, such as “Voltage: 22-24V”
and “Gas Flow Rate: 20-30 CFH.” Other essential variables are stated outright, such as “Welding
Process: SMAW” and “Polarity: Electrode Positive.” Welding procedures are only applicable to
welding done within ALL of the parameters of the essential variables listed in the WPS/PQR.
Any change in just one essential variable requires requalification.
Evaluating WPSs and Welders
Each welder and WPS must be evaluated to ensure that the resulting weldment is suitable and
conforms to applicable code requirements. For the WPS, test specimens are created by
performing the weld in the same manner, and with base metal that is as thick as, or thicker
than expected during production welding. The finished test specimen is first visually inspected
to verify that there are no obvious defects, such as cracking or undercuts in the weldment. If
the specimen appears acceptable, it is then subjected to nondestructive testing (NDT) to
35
Module C Welding
further analyze its acceptability. Specifically it must pass either radiographic testing (RT) or
ultrasonic testing (UT) through the entire length of the weld in the test specimen.
Finally the test specimen is cut into several pieces depending on the specific weld process.
Each of these pieces is designated to undergo particular mechanical tests. Certain parts of the
test specimen are bent to check the root and face of the weld, other sections of the test
specimen are tension tested to determine tensile strength, and when required, portions of the
specimen will undergo Charpy V-Notch tests to assess how impact affects the weld area. The
number of each of these tests differs depending upon the exact specifications of the joint.
Welders also must produce test specimens for examination in order to achieve qualification.
They are expected to weld their test specimens in the same manner as production welds will
occur. This includes taking into account the position of the weld (flat, overhead, etc.) during
the test specimen creation. The position of the weld for the test specimen may limit the
positions that a welder is qualified to perform during production. Once the specimen has been
created, it is subjected to the same types of inspection as the WPS test specimens. If a welder’s
specimen fails, they may perform an immediate retest; however, they must create two welds of
each type and position, which must both pass the reevaluation. Failing a retest requires the
welder to seek further training and practice prior to any more retests.
36
Module C Welding
37
Module C Welding
38
Module C Welding
Inspection Tools and Measurements
Fillet Welds
The leg length of the largest right isosceles triangle that can be inscribed within the fillet weld
cross section is the size of the fillet weld. There are two types of fillet welds: concave and
convex. The fillet weld type is determined by the shape of the fillet weld. Fillet weld gauges
such as the ones in Figure 13 are for specific size fillet welds and are two-sided in order to
measure both concave and convex fillet welds. Be sure to use the proper side of the gauge for
the fillet weld type being measured.
Figure 13: Fillet welds
Fillet welds can be measured using a gauge set as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14: Weld fillet gauge
Fillet welds can also be measured using other gauges as shown in Figures 15, 16, and 17. The
gauges can be used on both concave and convex fillet welds as long as the user understands
how a fillet is measured. Whether measuring fillet welds or other weld features, the key to
using these gauges is to make sure they are sitting flat against the surface.
39
Module C Welding
Figure 15: V-WAC gauge
Figure 16: Throat measurement with cam gauge
Figure 17: Bridge cam gauge
Note: Fillet welds are designed based on their cross-sectional area, which is calculated by the
throat times the length. Drawing callouts for fillet sizes are given as the leg size. It is important
for the inspector to understand that concave fillet welds cannot be measured by their leg size.
Concave tools measure the throat and convert this size to the equivalent leg.
Undercut
Undercut is measured from the surface of the base metal to the deepest point of the undercut.
Undercut can be quickly identified by running a flashlight along the edge of weld parallel to the
surface of the base metal.
40
Module C Welding
Figure 15: Undercut
Reinforcement
Face reinforcement is measured from the top surface of the base metal to the top of the face of
the weld. Root reinforcement is measured from the bottom surface of the weld to the root
surface of the weld.
Figure 16: Reinforcement
Note: There are many other welding inspection tools available. Selection of these tools should
be based on an evaluation of the attributes you are trying to verify. Practice with each selected
tool is essential.
41
Module C Welding
As has been described, welds are evaluated to the acceptance criteria stated in the applicable
code or specification. Below are the criteria for VT from the AWS D1.5-2010 Bridge Welding
Code.
Note: A proper application of the fundamentals of visual welding inspection can assure
successful cooperation between quality control and production and results in high-quality
weldments.
42
Module C Welding
43
Module C Welding
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)/Nondestructive Testing (NDT)
This manual section will describe the basics of four primary nondestructive examination (NDE
or NDT) methods: dye penetrant testing (PT), magnetic particle testing (MT), ultrasonic testing
(UT), and radiographic testing (RT).
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Dye penetrant testing (PT), also called liquid penetrant testing, is a commonly used, low-cost
inspection method used to locate defects which are open to the surface in nonporous
materials. The penetrant may be applied to all metals; although for ferrous components,
magnetic-particle inspection is often used instead for its ability to also find some subsurface
defects. PT is used to detect welding surface defects such as hairline cracks and surface
porosity. It is also used to detect leaks where the penetrant can be applied from one side and
the developer on the other.
PT uses a high viscosity fluid which penetrates into clean and dry discontinuities that are open
to the surface by capillary action. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration (dwell) time has been allowed, the excess
penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. The developer draws the penetrant out of the
flaw and the indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under
ultraviolet or white light, depending on the type of dye used—fluorescent or visible. Procedures
for the process should detail the amount of lighting required.
History
The current process grew from the use of oiling railroad rails and then applying chalk to detect
cracks. Visible dyes were then added to the oil and later fluorescent dyes were offered for more
sensitive detection.
Procedure
Step 1
Pre-cleaning: Clean the part to be inspected thoroughly using a degreasing solvent. Process
component manufacturers supply these as “cleaner” or “emulsifier.” Brushing may be required
to force contaminants out of hard-to-reach areas. Use a steel wire brush only on ferrous
44
Module C Welding
components and a fiber brush on aluminum and magnesium components. Use a clean rag to
dry the part as much as possible. Allow the remaining solvent to evaporate in an open area
before continuing the process.
Step 2
Apply Penetrant: Penetrant may be applied by spraying, brushing, wiping, or immersion. After
application, a dwell time of 5 to 30 minutes is required depending on material to allow
penetrant to infiltrate into the surface. During the dwell time, it is important that the penetrant
remains wet.
Figure 17: Application of penetrant
Step 3
Surface Penetrant Removal: Wipe the penetrant off of the surface using a dry, clean rag. Spray
solvent only onto the rag until slightly moist and remove the final penetrant. Ensure that the
rag is not too moist as this can wash penetrant out of any potential cracks or defects. Never
spray solvent on the part as this can wash away dye from potential indications. Solvents must
be allowed to dry before application of the developer.
Step 4
Developer Application: This is most often done by spraying. Canned developers should be
shaken vigorously for up to 60 seconds. Hold the spray can 8 to 12 inches away from the part
and cover only small areas at a time. Spray the developer lightly over the surface of the part.
Spray developers apply as a wet gray color. As the developer dries, it produces a white chalky
looking thin film.
45
Module C Welding
Step 5
Inspect the Developed Part Surfaces: Defects will appear as bright red lines or dots. Larger and
brighter spots that continue to grow over time indicate more extensive or deep defects
extending below the surface.
Figure 18: PT indication of welding defect
Step 6
Final Cleaning: Immediately after inspection, parts to be reused should be cleaned with solvent
and a rag. Penetrant and developer become more difficult to remove with time.
Advantages
• Highly sensitivity to small surface discontinuities

• Large areas and large volumes of parts can be inspected rapidly at low cost
• Metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and
nonconductive materials may be inspected
• Parts with complex shapes can also be inspected
Disadvantages
• Only surface defects can be detected

• Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected
• Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can hide discontinuities
• The inspector must be able to clearly see the surface being inspected
46
Module C Welding
47
Module C Welding
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Magnetic particle testing is a method of locating and defining discontinuities in magnetic

materials. It is excellent for detecting surface defects in welds, including discontinuities that are
too small to be seen with the naked eye and those that are slightly subsurface. This method
may be used to inspect plate edges prior to welding, for in-process inspection of each weld pass
or layer, for post weld evaluation, and to inspect repairs.
Magnetic particle testing is a good method for detecting surface cracks in both the weld and
adjacent base metal, subsurface cracks, incomplete fusion, undercut, inadequate penetration in
the weld, and defects on the repaired edges of the base metal. MT should not be a substitute
for radiography testing (RT) or ultrasonic testing (UT) for subsurface analysis. However, MT may
present advantages over RT or UT in detecting tight cracks and surface discontinuities,
especially in near surface discontinuities in some orientations.
History
The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an object took place as early as the mid-1800s.
Cannon barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel and then sliding a compass
along the barrel's length. Cracks in the barrels formed a concentrated magnetic field detected
by the compass. This form of nondestructive testing was not formalized until after World War I.
Procedure
With this method, probes or “prods” are placed on each side of the area to be inspected.
Electric current is applied to create an electromagnetic field. A magnetic flux is produced at
right angles to the flow of current. When these flux lines move through a discontinuity, such as
a crack, they are diverted and create magnetic field concentrations on the surface. When
magnetic powder is dusted onto the surface, it will cling to these leakage areas more than
elsewhere, and will line up along the discontinuity as shown in the figure below.
48
Module C Welding
Figure 19: Magnetic particle testing (MT)
For an indication to develop, the discontinuity must be aligned nearly perpendicular to the
magnetic force. When evaluating a weld, the probes must be alternated both near parallel and
near perpendicular to the weld.
Although simpler and less expensive than radiographic testing, MT is limited to magnetic
materials, which means it cannot be used on metals such as austenitic (stainless) steels or
aluminum. If significantly magnetically dissimilar materials are joined, the variation in magnetic
fields can produce false indications. MT’s sensitivity decreases with the size of the defect and is
also lessened with round discontinuities, such as porosity. It is great with elongated forms, such
as cracks, and is limited to surface flaws and some slightly subsurface flaws. Sensitivity also
decreases with material thickness as the field becomes weaker.
Figure 20: MT of throat crack
Magnetic powders may be applied dry or wet. The dry powder method is popular for inspecting
heavy weldments and field inspections, while the wet method is often used in inspecting more
critical components and in industrial plants. Dry powder is dusted on the part with a dusting
49
Module C Welding
bag or atomizer. These magnetic particle powders are available in several colors to provide
proper visibility on various materials. In the wet method, very fine red or black particles are
suspended in water or light petroleum products. In the wet method, parts are usually
submerged and fluorescent particles are used for increased sensitivity.
Figure 21: MT of toe crack
Advantages
• Highly sensitivity to small surface discontinuities

• Large areas and large volumes of parts can be inspected rapidly at low cost
• Parts with complex shapes can also be inspected
Disadvantages
• Only ferromagnetic materials can be inspected

• Proper alignment of magnetic field to the defect is critical
• Large currents are needed for thick parts
• Requires relatively smooth surface
• Any nonmagnetic coating will affect sensitivity
• Demagnetization and post-cleaning is usually necessary
50
Module C Welding
51
Module C Welding
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
This method uses high frequency, electrically-generated vibrations which pass through a
component. The ultrasonic waves come from a transducer (transmitter and receiver) which
changes electrical energy into mechanical vibrations. As the waves pass through a part, it
“echoes” off of the far side and returns to the transducer. To properly pass the waves through,
a couplant is required, which is typically a film of petroleum based heavy liquid. The UT
machine is calibrated on material with similar sound properties so that the time required for
the waves to complete a return trip in a solid piece becomes the baseline reading on a screen. If
the beam encounters a discontinuity in its path, the resultant echo will display as an addition
trace on a screen at a quicker time, as shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22: Ultrasonic testing (UT)
One of the most useful characteristics of ultrasonic testing is its ability to determine the exact
position of a discontinuity in a weld. Since the velocity of sound through any particular material
is nearly constant, once a discontinuity is located it can be fully evaluated. The amplitude
(height) of the indication is relative to its size and by moving the transducer around the surface
the time of return can be used to calculate the depth of the indication.
This testing method requires a high level of operator training and skill. Accurate test and
calibration procedures must be followed. UT can be used on ferrous and nonferrous materials,
as long as the thickness is sufficient to distinguish a discontinuity from the far side of the
component.
52
Module C Welding
History
In 1942, U.S. Patent No. 2,280,226, titled "Flaw Detecting Device and Measuring Instrument"
was granted to Dr. Floyd Firestone of the University of Michigan for the first practical ultrasonic
testing device.
Since then, many advances have been made in the process and equipment. Not so many years
ago a UT technician would have to perform several calculations to express the location of an
indication. With modern equipment, most dimensional attributes are shown on the device. As
with many other testing technologies, the current trend is toward digital equipment.
Advantages
• Depth of flaw detection is greater than other methods

• Only single-sided access is required
• Provides dimensional location of flaw for easier repair
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Good for finding cracks
Disadvantages
• Surface must be accessible to probe and couplant

• High level of operator training and skill is required
• Surface finish and roughness can interfere with inspection
• Not usable on thin parts
• Defects oriented parallel to the beam can go undetected
• Requires calibration on test block with similar sound conducting characteristics
53
Module C Welding
Radiographic Testing (RT)
This method of weld testing makes use of X-rays, produced by an X-ray tube, or gamma rays,
produced by radioactive isotopes such as cobalt-60 and iridium-192. The basic principle of
radiographic inspection of welds is the same as that for medical radiography. Radiation is
passed through a component including a weld and onto a photographic film, resulting in an
image of the object's internal structure being deposited on the film.
The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on its thickness and density. Energy not
absorbed will cause more exposure of the film. These areas will be darker when the film is
developed. Areas of the film exposed to less rays remain lighter. Therefore, areas of the object
where the thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such as porosity or cracks, will appear
as dark outlines on the film. Inclusions of low density, such as slag, will appear as dark areas on
the film while inclusions of high density, such as tungsten, will appear as light areas.
Discontinuities are evaluated by viewing the shape and variations in density of the processed
film. Interpreting films properly requires much training and practice as one has to distinguish
items based on varying shades of black to white.
History
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845–1923) who was a professor
at Wuerzburg University in Germany. The use of radioactive sources was added shortly after.
Industrial applications of both were developed in the early 1900s and have progressed to
today’s safer and more accurate systems. Digital radiography is now available, which precludes
the need to develop film and can even be shot as video.
Procedure
Radiographic testing provides a permanent film record of weld quality. Typically a film pack is
place on one side of the part and the radiation source is set up at the appropriate distance on
the other side. Although this is a slow and expensive method of nondestructive testing, it is a
positive method for detecting porosity, inclusions, cracks, and voids in welds. It is essential that
only qualified personnel conduct radiographic interpretation since false interpretation of
radiographs can be expensive and interfere seriously with productivity. There are also serious
safety considerations in RT work. The radiation involved is not visible and can have serious
54
Module C Welding
health implications. Only suitably trained and qualified personnel should practice this type of
testing. The area surrounding the RT operation must be adequately roped off and monitored.
Figure 23: Radiographic testing (RT)
Figure 24: Defects seen in radiographic testing
Advantages
• Can be used to inspect virtually all materials

• Detects surface and subsurface defects
• Can inspect assembled components
• Minimum surface preparation required
• Sensitive to changes in thickness, voids, cracks, and density changes
• Good for finding volumetric discontinuities.
• Provides a permanent record
55
Module C Welding
Disadvantages
• Extensive operator training and skill required

• Access to both sides of the weldment is usually required
• Orientation of the radiation beam to defects is critical
o Less sensitive to planar discontinuities
• Field inspection of thick sections can be time-consuming
• Relatively expensive equipment investment is required
• Possible radiation hazard for personnel
AASHTO/AWS D1.5-2010 Bridge Welding Code NDT Requirements
D1.5-2010 requires first a 100% visual inspection of all welds. Inspection duties, qualifications
applications, and requirements are outlined in Clause 6. The extent of required NDT is based on
the type of joint and the designed loads. Procedural, acceptance, and methodology
requirements for RT are given in Clause 6 Part B; for UT in Clause 6 Part C; and for MT in 6.7.2-
6.7.6. For joints requiring RT or UT, frequency requirements are given in 6.7.1.2.
NDT requirements by weld type:
• Fillet welds and partial joint penetration (PJP) groove welds joining primary components
of main members shall be tested using MT in conformance with 6.7.2.1.
• Complete joint penetration (CJP) groove welds in butt joints subject to calculated
tension or reversal of stress shall be tested using RT.
• CJP groove welds in T-joints and corner joints shall be tested by UT.
• When required by contract, CJP groove welds in compression or shear may be tested by
either RT or UT.
Though not required by code, 6.7.7 allows PT to be used for detecting discontinuities that are
open to the surface.
Note: The basic concepts of four methods of NDT have been presented herein. Selection and
use of these methods should be based on their ability to evaluate the discontinuities likely to
influence the required joint quality and design. Care should be taken to balance the level of
examination stipulated with the production cost of these methods. Many cases exist where
NDT methods are contractually required in excess. The old adage that “you cannot inspect
quality into a weld” should be kept in mind. These methods are only valuable when they are
used to enhance a full quality program that involves qualified welders working to qualified
welding procedures followed by rigorous visual examination of production components.
56
Module C Welding
57
Module C Welding
Analyzing Weld Failures (Case Studies)
In this section we will review how a weld is inspected for various discontinuities, analyzed, and
if rejectable, give practical examples of how each type of discontinuity might be repaired. To
accomplish this, we will look at each type of discontinuity with respect to how it is best found,
how it is measured, how it is accepted or rejected, and how it might best be repaired.
Incomplete Fusion (IF)
Description
Fusion which is less than complete (groove sidewall, weld root, or corner, etc.).
Acceptance Criteria
Thorough fusion shall exist between adjacent layers of weld metal and between weld metal and
base metal.
In effect, this means no incomplete fusion is allowed. D1.5-2010 does discuss internal porosity
and inclusions as “fusion discontinuities” and has some allowance for those. This will be
discussed later.
Identifying
The two surface indications shown in Figure 25, especially the one on the right, will typically be
found during visual inspection. Since they are on the surface, they are further defined as
overlap. This trait is considered overlap when the reentrant angle (the angle at which the weld
face meets the base metal at the weld toe) is greater than 90°. The condition on the left is less
common and can sometimes be difficult to find visually. Either MT or PT will readily find either
of these surface discontinuities.
Figure 25: Surface indications
58
Module C Welding
The two indications inside the weld can only be located with a volumetric process, such as UT
or RT. In an RT film, they would show up as a darker area. When found using UT, the depth and
extent of the discontinuities could be determined.
Common Causes
Incomplete fusion can be caused by excessive travel speeds, lack of welding heat, or improper
torch/electrode angle. Welding position can contribute to the likelihood of this defect as gravity
pulls the puddle down especially in horizontal welds.
Repair
3.7.2.1 Overlap or Excessive Convexity.
Excess weld metal shall be removed.
Surface indications may be repaired simply by grinding the excess deposited weld. If it can be
removed to meet the weld contour requirements additional welding is not required. If grinding
causes contour issues, additional welding will be required.
3.7.2.3 Excessive Weld Porosity, Excessive Slag Inclusions, Incomplete Fusion.
Unacceptable portions shall be removed (see 3.7.1) and re-welded.
Subsurface indications have to be excavated. Once located and removed, MT or PT should be

employed to verify soundness before repair welds are done.
59
Module C Welding
Incomplete Penetration (IP)
Description
Penetration which is less than specified.
Acceptance Criteria
D1.5-2010 evaluates incomplete penetration similar to fusion and requires the depth of
penetration to be as specified in the design.
Identifying
To visually inspect for incomplete joint penetration, an inspector needs to have access to the
root side of the weld. If the weld metal does not extend past the base metal and the original
edge of the joint is still visible, then incomplete joint penetration is present. As D1.5-2010
requires all groove welds to be either welded from one side with backing or welded from both
sides, VT for this condition is typically not possible.
With UT, IP will present indications similar to IF. With RT, it is also similar to IF, but is typically a
sharper indication.
Figure 26: Incomplete penetration
Common Causes
Incomplete penetration can be caused by too large of a root face (land), too narrow of a root
opening, improper torch/electrode angle, too large electrode diameter, or lack of welding heat.
60
Module C Welding
Repair
To properly repair incomplete penetration, the weld metal must be ground or cut out in the
spot where the incomplete penetration exists and then re-welded. Once excavated, MT or PT
should be employed to verify soundness before repair welds are done.
61
Module C Welding
Reinforcement
Description
Weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill a joint.
Acceptance Criteria
3.6.2 Groove welds shall preferably be made with slight or minimum face reinforcement except
as may be otherwise provided. In the case of butt and corner joints, the face reinforcement
shall not exceed 3 mm (1/8 in) in height and shall have gradual transition to the plane of the
base metal surface [see Figure 3.3(D)].
Most welding codes define a maximum reinforcement height since a drastic change in surface
contour results in an area of stress concentration, which can cause the weld to fail.
Identifying
As reinforcement is, by definition, a surface attribute, excessive amounts are identifiable

visually and can be measured by common tools.
Figure 27: Measuring reinforcement
Common Causes
Excessive reinforcement is caused by overfilling the joint with weld metal typically attributable
to incorrect technique or bead sequence.
Repair
Unacceptable portions of the weld shall be removed without substantial removal of the base
metal (from 3.7.1).
62
Module C Welding
It can be repaired by simply grinding away the excessive reinforcement until it is within the
range allowed.
63
Module C Welding
Surface (Piping) Porosity
Description
A void or cavity formed by gas entrapment during weld solidification.
Acceptance Criteria
Fillet Welds
6.26.1.6 The frequency of piping porosity in the surface of fillet welds shall not exceed one in
100 mm (4 in) or six in 1,200 mm (4 ft.) of weld length and the maximum diameter shall not
exceed 2.4 mm (3/32 in).
A subsurface inspection for porosity shall be performed whenever piping porosity 2.4 mm (3/32
in) or larger in diameter extends to the surface at intervals of 300 mm (12 in) or less over a
distance of 1200 mm (4 ft.), or when the condition of electrodes, flux, base metal, or the
presence of weld cracking indicates that there may be a problem with piping or gross porosity.
This subsurface inspection shall be a visual inspection of 300 mm (12 in) exposed lengths of the
fillet weld throat after it has been ground or removed by air carbon arc gouging to a depth of
1/2 the design throat. When viewed at mid-throat of the weld, the sum of the diameters of all
porosity shall not exceed 10 mm (3/8 in) in any 25 mm (1 in) length of weld or 20 mm (3/4 in) in
any 300 mm (12 in) length of weld.
Groove Welds
6.26.1.8 CJP groove welds in butt joints transverse to the direction of computed tensile stress
shall have no piping porosity. For all other groove welds, the frequency of piping porosity shall
not exceed one in 100 mm (4 in) of length, and the maximum diameter shall not exceed 2.4 mm
(3/32 in).
Though often difficult for most to understand, surface porosity subject to certain diameter,
spacing, and accumulation limits is acceptable in many codes.
Identifying
Surface porosity is noted visually and can be quantified with many conventional length
measurement tools.
Common Causes
Porosity is caused by improper shielding of the molten weld puddle or the presence of moisture
or contaminants in the filler metal or base metal.
64
Module C Welding
Repair
3.7.2.3 Excessive Weld Porosity, Excessive Slag Inclusions, Incomplete Fusion. Unacceptable
portions shall be removed (see 3.7.1) and re-welded.
65
Module C Welding
Subsurface Porosity and Inclusions
Description
Solid material trapped in the weld metal or between weld metal and base metal. As these
discontinuities are evaluated to the same criteria, they will be discussed together.
Acceptance Criteria
When found by MT or RT
6.26.2.1 For welds subject to tensile stress under any condition of loading, the greatest
dimension of any porosity or fusion-type discontinuity that is 2 mm (1/16 in) or larger in
greatest dimension shall not exceed the size, B, indicated in Figure 29 for the effective throat or
weld size involved. The distance from any porosity or fusion-type discontinuity described above
to another such discontinuity, to an edge, or to the toe or root of any intersecting flange-to-
web weld shall be not less than the minimum clearance allowed, C, indicated in Figure 29 for
the size of discontinuity under examination.
6.26.2.2 For welds subject only to compressive stress and specifically indicated as such on the
design drawings, the greatest dimension of porosity or a fusion-type discontinuity that is 3 mm
(1/8 in) or larger in greatest dimension shall not exceed the size, B, nor shall the space between
adjacent discontinuities be less than the minimum clearance allowed, C, indicated by Figure 28
for the size of discontinuity under examination.
6.26.2.3 Independent of the requirements of 6.26.2.1 and 6.26.2.2, discontinuities having a

greatest dimension of less than 2 mm (1/16 in) shall be unacceptable if the sum of their
greatest dimensions exceeds 10 mm (3/8 in) in any 25 mm (1 in) length of weld.
Identifying
As these are subsurface conditions, they are found only by volumetric techniques, except that
MT may find them if near the surface being evaluated.
Common Causes
Porosity is caused by improper shielding of the molten weld puddle or the presence of moisture
or contaminants in the filler metal or base metal. Inclusions can be caused by improper cleaning
and removal of slag between weld passes as well as improper torch/electrode angle or
inadequate weld parameters.
66
Module C Welding
Repair
3.7.2.3 Excessive Weld Porosity, Excessive Slag Inclusions, Incomplete Fusion. Unacceptable
portions shall be removed (see 3.7.1) and re-welded.
Figure 29: Weld requirements for discontinuities occurring in tension welds
Figure 28: Weld requirements for discontinuities occurring in compression welds
67
Module C Welding
Figure 30: Representation of size and spacing requirements for welds in tension (6.26.2.1) from Annex K
68
Module C Welding
69
Module C Welding
Cracks
Description
Fracture type discontinuity with a sharp tip and high length to width ratio.
Acceptance Criteria
Visual Inspection
6.26.1.1 The weld shall have no cracks.
When found by MT or RT
6.26.2 RT and MT Inspection. Welds that are subject to RT or MT in addition to visual
inspection shall have no cracks and shall be unacceptable if the RT or MT shows any of the
types of discontinuities described in 6.26.2.1, 6.26.2.2, 6.26.2.3, or 6.26.2.4.
Identifying
Cracks open to the surface can typically be found visually but not always. MT or PT will find
them readily. MT can find cracks slightly below the surface; however, most cracks internal to
the weld can only be found by volumetric techniques.
Figure 31: Identifying weld cracks
Common Causes
As molten metal solidifies, it shrinks. This shrinkage causes stress in the weld joint and base
metal. If the stress exceeds the strength of the metal, then a crack is formed. There are several
other causes for cracks including hydrogen embrittlement, improper weld bead profile,
insufficient filler metal, incorrect preheat or in some cases, filler metal chemistry issues.
70
Module C Welding
Repair
3.7.2.4 Cracks in Weld or Base Metal. The extent of the crack shall be ascertained by use of MT,
PT, or other equally positive means; the metal shall be removed for the full length of the crack
plus 50 mm (2 in) beyond each end of the crack, and re-welded.
Note that even if found by visual inspection, MT or PT must be employed to ascertain its extent.
71
Module C Welding
Undercut
Description
A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe or root of a weld and left unfilled by
weld metal.
Acceptance Criteria
6.26.1.5 In primary members, undercut shall be no more than 0.25 mm (0.01 in) deep when the
weld is transverse to tensile stress under any design loading condition. Undercut shall be no
more than 1 mm (1/32 in) deep for all other cases.
Identifying
Undercut is found with visual inspection. A good flashlight is of valuable assistance in quickly
identifying undercut. A specially made gauge is available for measuring the primary member
depth requirement of 0.01 inches. Several tools are available capable of measuring the non-
primary requirement of 1/32 inches.
Figure 33: Visual inspection with flashlight
72
Module C Welding
Figure 32: Gauges for measuring undercut
Common Causes
Undercut can be caused by excessive weld heat, long arc length, or improper electrode angle or
manipulation. As with overlap at the bottom of a horizontal weld due to gravity, undercut can
be prevalent at the top.
Repair
3.7.2.2 Excessive Concavity of Weld or Crater, Undersize Welds, Undercutting. Surfaces shall
be prepared (see 3.11 “Weld Cleaning”) and additional weld metal deposited.
73
Module C Welding
Underfill, Convexity, Craters
Description
Underfill – a depression on the face or root surface of a weld extending below the surface of
the adjacent base metal. This term typically applies to groove weld faces. When the face of a
fillet weld shows a depression, it is defined as concavity and only affects the way the weld size
must be measured.
Convexity – a term applying to the face of a weld with a crowned profile. In groove welds, this
is evaluated to the reinforcement height requirements.
Craters – a depression in the face of a weld at the termination of a weld bead.
Acceptance Criteria
Fillet Welds
3.6.1 The faces of fillet welds may be slightly convex, flat, or slightly concave as shown in Figure
3.3(A) and (B), with none of the unacceptable profiles shown in Figure 3.3(C).
3.6.1.1 Except at outside welds in corner joints, the convexity C of a weld or individual surface
bead shall not exceed 0.07 times the actual face width of the weld or individual bead,
respectively, plus 1.5 mm (0.06 in) [see Figure 3.3(B)].
6.26.1.3 All craters are to be filled to the full cross section of the weld, except for the ends of
intermittent fillet welds outside of their effective length when such welds are allowed in the
design. (Crater requirement also applies to groove welds.)
Groove Welds
3.6.2 Groove welds shall preferably be made with slight or minimum face reinforcement except
as may be otherwise provided. In the case of butt and corner joints, the face reinforcement
shall not exceed 3 mm (1/8 in) in height and shall have gradual transition to the plane of the
base metal surface [see Figure 3.3(D)]. They shall be free of the discontinuities shown for butt
joints in Figure 3.3(E).
Groove welds are required to be filled to the full cross-section designed.
Groove welds which are required to be flushed.
3.6.3 Surfaces of butt joints required to be flush shall be finished so as not to reduce the
thickness of the thinner base metal or weld metal by more than 1 mm (1/32 in) or 5% of the
thickness, whichever is smaller, nor leave reinforcement that exceeds 1 mm (1/32 in). Unless
74
Module C Welding
otherwise approved by the engineer, all reinforcement shall be removed where the weld forms
a part of a faying surface. Any reinforcement shall blend smoothly into the plate surfaces with
transition areas free from weld edge undercut. Chipping may be used, provided it is followed by
grinding.
Identifying
These discontinuities are all found visually and can be measured with several of the tools
already discussed.
Figure 34: Identifying convexity
Common Causes
Weld face profiles can be affected by weld parameters and technique and, in the case of welds
requiring finishing, excess or improper grinding.
Repair
3.7.2.1 Overlap or Excessive Convexity. Excess weld metal shall be removed.
3.7.2.2 Excessive Concavity of Weld or Crater, Undersize Welds, Undercutting. Surfaces shall be
prepared (see 3.11 “Weld Cleaning”) and additional weld metal deposited.
75
Module C Welding
76
Module C Welding
77
Module C Welding
Spatter
Description
Metal particles expelled during welding, which do not form a part of the weld.
Acceptance Criteria
3.11.2 Cleaning of Completed Welds. Slag shall be removed from all completed welds, and the
weld and adjacent base metal shall be cleaned by brushing or other suitable means. Tightly
adherent spatter remaining after the cleaning operation shall be acceptable unless its removal
shall be required for the purpose of NDT or painting. Welded joints shall not be painted until
after welding has been completed and the weld has been accepted.
Identifying
Found by visual examination.
Figure 35: Spatter
Common Causes
Caused by excessively long arc length or improper torch/electrode angle.
Repair
3.8.2 Manual slag hammers, chisels, and lightweight vibrating tools for the removal of slag and
spatter may be used and shall not be considered peening.
78
Module C Welding
79
Module C Welding
Arc Strike
Description
A discontinuity consisting of any localized re-melted metal or changes in the surface profile of
any part of a weld or base metal resulting from an arc.
Acceptance Criteria
3.10 Care shall be taken to avoid arc strikes outside the area of permanent welds on any base
metal. Cracks or blemishes caused by arc strikes shall be ground to remove all of the defect. On
tension and reversal of stress members, MT (preferably the yoke method) shall be used to
determine that no cracks are present in the structure (see 6.7.6.2). Hardness tests shall be
employed as stated in 3.3.7.4.
3.3.7.4 The removal of tack welds may expose unacceptably hard or cracked HAZs. Such areas
on members subject to tension or reversal-of-stress shall be tested by MT (preferably by the
yoke method) to assure that no cracks are present. Hardness tests are recommended to
determine that HAZ remaining in the structure are not unacceptably hard. Hardness values shall
not exceed Rockwell C30 in the HAZ or the hardness value measured in the unaffected base
metal, whichever is higher. Since HAZ hardening generally extends less than 3 mm (1/8 in) into
the base metal, unacceptable hardening can be removed by shallow grinding.
Identifying
Found by visual examination.
Common Causes
Arc strikes are most common in SMAW as the electrode is electrically “hot” when the welding
power supply is energized. They are caused by dragging the electrode outside of the weld joint
to initiate the arc.
80
Module C Welding
Figure 36: Arc strike
Repair
Typically repaired by grinding and, if MT reveals no cracking, the base metal should be
evaluated to the same requirements as groove welds required to be flushed. If base metal
thickness is reduced in excess of that allowed, weld build-up will be required.
Note: Typically repaired by grinding and, if MT reveals no cracking, the base metal should be
evaluated to the same requirements as groove welds required to be flushed. If base metal
thickness is reduced in excess of that allowed, weld build-up will be required.
81
Module C Welding
Fracture-Critical Members
Additional plans and requirements for these members are found in Clause 12 of AWS D1.5-
2010:
12.1 General Provisions
This clause shall apply to fracture critical nonredundant members. All steel bridge members and
member components designated on the plans or elsewhere in the contract documents as
fracture critical shall be subject to the additional provisions of this section.
12.3.1 Design Evaluation
The engineer shall evaluate each bridge design to determine the location of any FCMs that may
exist and shall ensure that all FCMs are properly designated as required by 12.3.2. The engineer
shall ensure that the contract documents contain all information necessary to order materials
and properly construct FCMs as required by the design.
When members are designated as FCMs, Clause 12 adds many additional requirements on
items such as drawing acceptance, consumables and their storage, welding processes, diffusible
hydrogen testing, impact (CVN) testing, welding procedure specification (WPS) testing and
period of effectiveness, certification of contractors and welding personnel, repairs, and post-
weld treatments. Also, additional NDT is required as follows:
12.16.2 Type of Weld and NDT Required
12.16.2.1 Tension and Repaired Welds in Butt Joints. Butt joints in tension and repaired groove
welds in butt joints shall be QC inspected by both RT and UT.
12.16.2.2 T- and Corner Joint Tension and Repaired Groove Welds. All tension and repaired
groove welds in T- and corner joints shall be QC inspected by UT.
12.16.2.3 Fillet Weld Repairs
Fillet weld repairs shall be inspected by MT. The test length shall include 100% of the length of
the repair, and, when appropriate, at least 300 mm (12 in) beyond the ends of each repair weld.
12.16.3 RT Requirements
RT shall be done using hole-type IQIs as described in Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1E.
Note: Image quality indicators (IQIs) are used to interpret the contrast sensitivity of the
radiograph.
82
Module C Welding
12.16.4 Cooling Times Prior to Inspection
RT and preliminary visual inspections may be performed as soon as welds have cooled. UT, MT,
and final visual inspection shall be done after the welds have cooled to ambient temperature
for at least the following minimum time periods:
• Fillet welds on steel with a minimum specified yield strength of 345 MPa (50 ksi) or less,
24 hours.
• Fillet welds on steel with a minimum specified yield strength greater than 345 MPa (50
ksi), 48 hours.
• Groove welds in steel with a minimum specified yield strength of 345 MPa (50 ksi) or
less; 24 hours when the weld depth is 50 mm (2 in) or less, and 48 hours when the weld
depth is greater than 50 mm (2 in).
Note: When involved in fabrication or inspection of bridge fracture critical nonredundant

members, thorough review and comprehension of Clause 12 is required.
83

Lab Manual Welding

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lab Manual Welding

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lab Manual Welding

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PARTICIPANT WORKBOOK

Spatter – liquid metal droplets expelled from the welding process.

Welding Demonstration and Practice – Safety Topics

Eye and Face Protection

Fumes and Gases

• Volume of the space where the welding operations occur;

• The size and configuration of the welding space;

Proper ventilation can be obtained either naturally or mechanically.

• More than 10,000 ft2 per welder;

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Significance and Use

• Wide variety of metals welded due to wide choice of electrodes

• Not as productive as continuous wire processes

Gas Metal Arc Welding

• Unsuitable for windy conditions

Short Circuiting Transfer

Pulsed Spray Transfer

Table 1 provides some estimated ideas for choice of transfer mode.

Characteristics Short Global Spray Pulsed Notes

Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Significance and Use

Submerged Arc Welding

Significance and Use

• High deposition rate

• Flat or horizontal fillets only

Welding Inspection (Visual Tests)

Terms and Definitions

Discontinuity – an interruption in the typical structure of a weldment, such as a lack of

Figure 1: Incomplete fusion

Incomplete penetration – penetration which is less than specified.

Figure 2: Incomplete penetration

Reinforcement – weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill a joint.

Figure 3: Root and face reinforcement

Porosity – a void or cavity formed by gas entrapment during weld solidification.

Figure 5: Types of porosity

Figure 6: Internal porosity

Figure 7: Welding cracks

Figure 10: Underfill

Figure 11: Spatter

Figure 12: Arc strike

Welding Procedures and Qualifications

Evaluating WPSs and Welders

Inspection Tools and Measurements

Figure 13: Fillet welds

Figure 14: Weld fillet gauge

Figure 15: V-WAC gauge

Figure 16: Throat measurement with cam gauge

Figure 17: Bridge cam gauge

Figure 15: Undercut

Figure 16: Reinforcement

Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)/Nondestructive Testing (NDT)

Penetrant Testing (PT)

Significance and Use

Figure 17: Application of penetrant

Figure 18: PT indication of welding defect

• Highly sensitivity to small surface discontinuities

• Only surface defects can be detected

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Magnetic particle testing is a method of locating and defining discontinuities in magnetic