JEAN PIAGET

Born August 9, 1896, Neuchâtel, Switzerland—died September 16, 1980, Geneva. Jean
Piaget is a swiss psychologist who was the first to make a systematic study of the acquisition of
understanding in children. He is thought by many to have been the major figure in 20th-century
developmental psychology.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development describes the ways in which the quality of
children’s thinking changes over time based on their intellectual development. According to
Piaget, there are four factors that affect the quality of an individual’s thinking: biological
maturation, activity, social experiences and equilibration. All these factors are linked to Piaget’s
Stages of Cognitive Development as discussed by Godwin, Herb, Ricketts & Wymer (2013)
namely:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years of age) – Children use sensory exploration of the
world: They do not use or have language skills and are dependent on their senses. Class
activities for literacy development in this stage include: (i) Board books with brightly
colored pictures and Books with sound, things to touch, or smell.
2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of age) – There is rapid language development skills in
this stage as children begin to categorize things with words. Literacy activities include story
book reading and discussing the story.
3. Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years of age) – In this stage of development, children use
concrete objects to begin to think about abstract concepts. Activities for Literacy
development include Graphic Organizers (Venn Diagrams, Flow Maps) and others.
4. Formal Operational (11 years of age to adult) – In this stage, children use language in an
abstract way. Activities for Literacy include the use of metacognitive reading strategies
helps students to “think about their thinking” before and after they read. Examples: Making
Inferences and Summarizing information.
 ARNOLD GESSEL
Arnold Lucius Gesell, (born June 21, 1880, Alma, Wisconsin, U.S.—died May 29, 1961,
New Haven, Connecticut), American psychologist and pediatrician, who pioneered the use of
motion-picture cameras to study the physical and mental development of normal infants and
children and whose books influenced child rearing in the United States. As director of the Clinic
of Child Development at Yale University (1911–48), he collected and published a vast quantity of
data and amassed a large collection of films on child development.

MATURATION THEORY
The maturation theory states that Children would be ready to read when they have
developed certain prerequisite skills and there is little that teachers and parents can do to hurry the
process of cognitive development. In other ways, the theory advocate for not teaching reading until
children were mature enough for instruction. Scholars for this theory hypothesized that this could
happen when children were at mental age of 6 1/2. Aldridge & Goldman (2007) noted that the
Maturational Theory of child development was developed by Arnold Gesell with his colleagues
including Morphette and Washburne who constructed a set of behavioral norms that illustrate
sequential and predictable patterns of growth and development. Gesell contended that all children
go through similar stages, although each child may move through these stages at their own rate
(Godwin, Herb, Ricketts & Wymer, 2013).
 DONALD HOLDAWAY
Donald Holdaway was born on 1930 and died in 2004. He is the father of the big book and
the founder of “Shared Reading” and the developer of the Natural Learning Model. He worked in
New Zealand and Australia with students who lacked reading abilities developed the best way to
teach Malread students. His work really helped a lot of malread children in the world.

THEORY OF LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

The theory was developed by Holdaway in 1979 and it states that learning to read was a
natural development that is closely linked to a child’s natural development of oral language skills.
Holdaway’s theory of literacy further contends that literacy development begins in children’s
homes and is based on meaningful learning experiences. There are four key components in this
theory as itemized by (Godwin etal, 2013):

a) Observation -which demand that children need to have the opportunity to observe literacy
behaviours from others. For example, parents and siblings to read for them.
b) Collaboration – this require that children need to interact with others who provide
encouragement and help with the reading process.
c) Practice – children need the opportunity to practice alone in order to self-evaluate, make
corrections and increase their skills independently.
d) Performance – children need the opportunity to share their new reading skills with those
who support them.
 LESLEY MANDEL MORROW
Lesley Mandel Morrow is a Professor of Literacy at Rutgers University's Graduate School
of Education, where she is Chair of the Department of Learning and Teaching. She began her
career as a classroom teacher, then became a reading specialist and later received her PhD from
Fordham University in New York City. Her area of research deals with early literacy development,
and the organization and management of Language Arts Programs. Her research is carried out with
children and families from diverse backgrounds.

FAMILY LITERACY THEORY

Family literacy refers to a series of ideas that researchers share, including the design,
implementation, and evaluation of programs to help facilitate literacy development of family
members; the relationship between family literacy and student achievement; and the ways in which
literacy is naturally used in the home. This theory stresses the importance of family involvement
on student achievement. The actions to encourage Family Literacy include;
 Create a two – way street between parents and teachers in order to gain information about
literacy in the home.
 Teach parents about the school culture and necessary skills for a student to be successful.
 Help parents understand what they can do at home to help support and encourage their
children’s academic success. Many studies have been done on parent and child reading
interactions to support the importance of the connection between home and school.
 Parent Volunteers Reading in the Classroom
 LEV VYGOTSKY
Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist who is best known for his sociocultural
theory. He believed that social interaction plays a critical role in children's learning. Through such
social interactions, children go through a continuous process of learning. Vygotsky noted,
however, that culture profoundly influences this process. Imitation, guided learning, and
collaborative learning all play a critical part in his theory.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM or SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Social constructivism is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes the
collaborative nature of much learning. Social constructivism was developed by post-revolutionary
Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky was a cognitivist, but rejected the assumption made
by cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry that it was possible to separate learning from its social
context. He argued that all cognitive functions originate in (and must therefore be explained as
products of) social interactions and that learning did not simply comprise the assimilation and
accommodation of new knowledge by learners; it was the process by which learners were
integrated into a knowledge community.
Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level
and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the
child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to
the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals.
Vygotsky’s theory of social learning has been expanded upon by numerous later theorists
and researchers.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

The zone of proximal development (sometimes abbreviated ZPD), is the difference

between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept
developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934). Vygotsky
stated that a child follows an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks
without help or assistance. Vygotsky's often-quoted definition of zone of proximal development
presents it as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers."
Vygotsky among other educational professionals believes the role of education to be to
provide children with experiences which are in their ZPD, thereby encouraging and advancing
their individual learning.
The concept of ZPD has been expanded, modified, and changed into new concepts since
Vygotsky's original conception.
The concept of scaffolding is closely related to the ZPD, although Vygotsky himself never
mentioned the term; instead, scaffolding was developed by other sociocultural theorists applying
Vygotsky's ZPD to educational contexts. Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher or more
competent peer gives aid to the student in her/his ZPD as necessary, and tapers off this aid as it
becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction.
According to education expert Nancy Balaban, "Scaffolding refers to the way the adult guides the
child's learning via focused questions and positive interactions." This concept has been further
developed by Ann Brown, among others. Several instructional programs were developed on the
basis of the notion of ZPD interpreted this way, including reciprocal teaching and dynamic
assessment.
 WILLIAM PERRY
William G. Perry, Jr. (1913 – January 12, 1998[1][2]) was a well-known educational
psychologist who studied the cognitive development of students during their college years. He was
a professor of education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and founder and longtime
director of the Bureau of Study Counsel. While at Harvard, he developed his theory of the
intellectual and cognitive development of college-age students through a 15-year study during the
1950s and 1960s. He published his work in 1970 as Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development
in the College Years. His work was very influential in the field of student development. Perry also
translated, with Alsten Hurd Chase, Homer's Iliad. He was born in Paris and graduated from
Harvard University.

THEORY OF INTELLECTUAL AND ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT

William Perry believes that college students go through four stages of mental and moral
develop. The four states are dualism, multiplicity, relativism, and lastly commitment. These four
stages are then further divided into nine positions.
The first stage that is typically discussed for people who are very young is dualism.
Dualism is the belief that every problem is solvable, that students are to learn the right answers,
and that one must obey authorities. The second stage is known as multiplicity. Multiplicity is that
there are two types of problems: solvable, and also problems that the answer is not known yet. In
addition, in this stage, students put trust in their own inner voice.
Relativism is the third stage. During this stage, all solutions to problems must have
reasons, and be viewed within a specific context. The basis for this stage is that every issue must
be evaluated because everything is contextual. Lastly, commitment is the stage where there is an
acceptance of uncertainty as part of life. During this stage, students use the combination of personal
experience and evidence learned from outside sources to arrive at conclusions.
 BRENDA PARKES
Brenda Parkes has written many books for children as well as a professional book for
teachers about shared reading. She has taught in New Zealand and Australia and spent twenty years
as a teacher educator at Griffith University, Queensland.

SHARED READING
Shared reading is “an interactive reading experience that occurs when students join in or
share the reading of a book or other text while guided and supported by a teacher. The teacher
explicitly models the skills of proficient readers, including reading with fluency and expression.”
It is a method of teaching reading that allows for students to be supported while reading a leveled
text just above their reading level. It can be used to teach all reading strategies including decoding,
fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary, and it is an appropriate activity for all grade levels, but
should especially be done in the primary classroom.
Brenda Parkes says that “shared reading is to provide children with an enjoyable reading
experience, to introduce them to a variety of authors and illustrators…and to entice them to want
to be readers themselves.” Another purpose “is to teach children systematically and explicitly how
to be readers and writers themselves.”
Essentially, during shared reading, you are reading a book WITH your students as they
chime in. You are demonstrating comprehension and word solving strategies and showing them
what it looks like to be a reader.
Like interactive read alouds and guided reading, shared reading is an important aspect of
any balanced literacy program. While interactive read alouds support comprehension and provide
a fluent reading model, shared reading is an interactive experience where students help you read
and learn strategies right along with you.
 JAMES ASHER
Dr. James J. Asher, a professor of psychology and former associate dean at San Jose State
University, has degrees in psychology from the University of New Mexico and the University of
Houston with postdoctoral training at the University of Washington (Linguistics), Standford
University (Research in Educational Psychology), and the Defense Language Institute West Coast
(Arabic). His research into language acquisition has been funded by grants from the Office of
Education, the Office of Naval Research, the Department of Defense, and the State of California.

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

TPR stands for Total Physical Response and was created by Dr. James J Asher. It is based
upon the way that children learn their mother tongue. Parents have 'language-body conversations'
with their children, the parent instructs and the child physically responds to this. The parent says,
"Look at mummy" or "Give me the ball" and the child does so. These conversations continue for
many months before the child actually starts to speak itself. Even though it can't speak during this
time, the child is taking in all of the language; the sounds and the patterns. Eventually when it has
decoded enough, the child reproduces the language quite spontaneously. TPR attempts to mirror
this effect in the language classroom.
 DEBORAH J. LEONG, ET.AL
Dr. Deborah J. Leong is the Executive Director of Tools of the Mind and Professor Emerita
of Psychology at Metropolitan State University of Denver, where she taught for 36 years in the
Psychology Department and in the Department of Education. Dr. Leong developed the Tools of
the Mind approach with Dr. Bodrova with whom she has written numerous books, articles, and
educational videos on the Vygotskian Approach to Psychology and the development of play. Dr.
Leong has written several books on early childhood assessment with Drs. McAfee and Bodrova.
She has her Ph.D. from Stanford University in Psychological Studies in Education, her M.Ed. from
Harvard University, and her B.A. from Stanford University. She was a Fulbright Fellow to the
University of Patagonia, Argentina.

PLAY AND LITERACY

Children incorporate literacy into their play. They make notes and lists on paper with their
crayons. They pretend to read. They learn that they can leave marks of themselves on pieces of
paper (and walls!). During play, children learn critical problem-solving skills. These contribute to
their ability to comprehend texts and read for meaning. When children play, they are learning how
to read and write. They learn abstract representation—that an object can represent something or
someone else. Making meaning out of a jumble of letters and words takes the ability to reason
abstractly. Pretend play provides an excellent cognitive foundation. In play, children develop
communication skills. They verbalize their intentions to others and negotiate rules. They explain
their actions to parents and friends. As children narrate stories and describe scenes, they learn skills
essential to clear and effective writing. Children learn to regulate themselves during play, self-
discipline important to learning how to read. Vygotsky, a noted child development theorist, argues
that during play a child's behavior progresses from impulsive to deliberative and thoughtful. Play
prepares children to respect the basic rules inherent to reading, such as following stories from
beginning to end.
 MARIA MONTESSORI
Maria Montessori was an Italian physician, educator, and innovator, acclaimed for her
educational method that builds on the way children learn naturally. She was born on August 31,
1870, in the provincial town of Chiaravalle, Italy. Her father was a financial manager for a state-
run industry. Her mother, raised in a family that prized education, was well schooled and an avid
reader—unusual for Italian women of that time. The same thirst for knowledge took root in young
Maria, and she immersed herself in many fields of study before creating the educational method
that bears her name.

MONTESSORI
Montessori is a method of education that is based on self-directed activity, hands-on
learning and collaborative play. In Montessori classrooms children make creative choices in their
learning, while the classroom and the highly trained teacher offer age-appropriate activities to
guide the process. Children work in groups and individually to discover and explore knowledge of
the world and to develop their maximum potential.
Every material in a Montessori classroom supports an aspect of child development, creating
a match between the child’s natural interests and the available activities. Children can learn
through their own experience and at their own pace. They can respond at any moment to the natural
curiosities that exist in all humans and build a solid foundation for life-long learning.
Above all, Montessori classrooms at all levels nurture each child’s individual strengths and
interests. Montessori education encourages children to explore their world, and to understand and
respect the life forms, systems and forces of which it consists. It all starts with a trained teacher.
 SAMUEL WILDERSPIN
Samuel Wilderspin was born March 23, 1791, in a working-class neighborhood of London,
England. He was the only child of Alexander Wilderspin, a printing shop worker, and wife Ann
Wilderspin. On April 10, 1791, Wilderspin was baptized at the Swedenborgian Chapel in London.
He grew up in Hornsey, near an aqueduct that diverted water into the city of London and played
in the grassy, nature-filled banks alongside the artificial waterway. He also spent time exploring
the nearby woods, observing the animals he encountered there. These experiences had a lasting
influence; when he later worked as a teacher, he would take his young student outdoors to play
and to study the plants and animals.

PRESCHOOL or PLAY SCHOOL

Preschool is an early childhood program in which children combine learning with play in
a program run by professionally trained adults. Children are most commonly enrolled in preschool
between the ages of three and five, though those as young as two can attend some schools.
Preschools are different from traditional day care in that their emphasis is learning and
development rather than enabling parents to work or pursue other activities.
Before 1960, the education of young children was primarily regarded as the responsibility
of families within the home. Most young children in the globe spend some portion of their days
apart from their parents. Most attend some sort of center-based program prior to kindergarten. This
program is known by other names, including child care, day care, and nursery school. They vary
widely in their setting, format, and educational philosophy. Preschools may meet all-day or half-
day, either every day or just a few days per week. They may be sponsored by a church, operate as
an independent non-profit, or run for profit. They may be part of the public school system or part
of the Federal Head Start program.
 DAVID KOLD
David Kolb was born in 1939. He earned his undergraduate degree in 1961 from Knox
College. He then went on to earn his Ph.D. in social psychology from Harvard University. Today,
he is a Professor of Organizational Behavior in the Weatherhead School of Management at Case
Western Reserve University.
David Kolb is a psychologist and educational theorist who is perhaps best known for his
theory of experiential learning. In addition to developing a theory that outlined how experiential
learning takes place, Kolb is also known for his learning style inventory that remains quite popular
among educators today

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

In 1984, David A. Kolb, published a ground breaking book entitled Experiential Learning:
experience as the source of learning and development (Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1984).
This book essentially exposed the principle that a person would learn through discovery and
experience. The reason the theory is called "experiential" is its intellectual origins are taken from
the experiential work of Lewin, Piaget, Dewey, Freire and James, forming a unique perspective on
learning and development.
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) provides a holistic model of the learning process and
is a multi-linear model of adult development, both of which are consistent with what we know
about how we naturally learn, grow, and develop. The theory is called "Experiential Learning" to
emphasize the central role that experience plays in the learning process.
 STEPHEN KRASHEN
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of
linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his
recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition.
Since 1980, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver
over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.

INPUT HYPOTHESIS
The input hypothesis posits the process that allows second language learners to move
through the predictable sequence of the acquisition of grammatical structures predicted by the
natural order hypothesis. According to the input hypothesis, second language learners require
comprehensible input, represented by i+1, to move from the current level of acquisition,
represented by i, to the next level of acquisition. Comprehensible input is input that contains a
structure that is “a little beyond” the current understanding—with understanding defined as
understanding of meaning rather than understanding of form—of the language learner. Learners
progress in their knowledge of the language when they comprehend language input that is slightly
more advanced than their current level. Krashen called this level of input "i+1", where "i" is the
learner's interlanguage and "+1" is the next stage of language acquisition.
 LOUISE ROSENBLATT
Louise Rosenblatt (b. 1904–d. 2005) was a highly influential thinker in literary and critical
theory, reading pedagogy, and education. She was professor of education at New York University
from 1948 until 1972, and she continued to teach for many years at other universities. The impact
of her writings extends to aesthetics, communication and media studies, and cultural studies. Her
transactional theory of reading literature earned a permanent place among methodologies applied
to the study of reader comprehension and improving the teaching of reading, from preschool to
college-age years. She is most widely known for her “reader response” theory of literature. The
process of reading is a dynamic transaction between the reader and the text, in which meaningful
ideas arise for readers from their own thoughtful and creative interpretations.

READER RESPONSE THEORY

Transactional reader-response theory analyzes the transaction between the text and the
reader. Rosenblatt doesn’t reject the importance of the text in favor of the reader; rather she claims
that both are necessary in the production of meaning. She differentiates among the term text, which
refers to the printed words on the page; reader, and poem, which refers to the literary work
produced by the text and the reader. The reader actively constructs meaning from the text and
makes connections to his or her own life.
 NANCY FALCHIKOV
Nancy Falchikov is an Education consultant at Napier University, Edinburgh. She has
worked as a teacher in Higher Education for many years, and has been researching ways of
improving learning and teaching since the mid 1980s.

PEER ASSESSMENT
Peer assessment or peer review provides a structured learning process for students to
critique and provide feedback to each other on their work. It helps students develop lifelong skills
in assessing and providing feedback to others, and also equips them with skills to self-assess and
improve their own work. 
In peer assessment, a collaborative learning technique, students evaluate their peers’ work
and have their work evaluated by peers.
Often used as a learning tool, peer assessment gives students feedback on the quality of
their work, often with ideas and strategies for improvement. At the same time, evaluating peers’
work can enhance the evaluators’ own learning and self-confidence. Peer involvement
personalizes the learning experience, potentially motivating continued learning.
When used in grading, peer assessment can give the instructor needed information on
student performance. Especially for large online classes, it may allow inclusion of assignments
where students’ creative work could not be graded reliably through automation or efficiently by
teaching staff.
Peer assessment techniques vary considerably, and are often best understood through
example. To give effective, valid and reliable feedback to fellow learners, students need clear
guidelines, training on assessment criteria and scoring rules, and practice with examples. Before
students are ready to give feedback to others, their assessments should be compared to staff-
grading of the same examples for quality assurance.

STUDENT SELF-ASSESSMENT
Student self-assessment describes the process in which each student evaluates his or her
own progress or performance. This can take the form of “I can” statements, learner contracts,
reflections, portfolio reviews, and recording oneself. Research has shown that using self-
assessment with students can positively effect self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation levels in
students Student self-assessment involves students in evaluating their own work and learning
progress.
Self-assessment is a valuable learning tool as well as part of an assessment process.
Through self-assessment, students can:
 identify their own skill gaps, where their knowledge is weak
 see where to focus their attention in learning
 set realistic goals
 revise their work
 track their own progress
 if online, decide when to move to the next level of the course
This process helps students stay involved and motivated and encourages self-reflection and
responsibility for their learning.
You should set clear expectations for student performance. As in peer assessment, you
need to coach students on assessment criteria and how to apply them in grading their work. Give
them practice assessing themselves.
A valuable process on its own, self-assessment may be paired with peer assessment.
Applying knowledge gained through peer assessment, students’ self-assessment can be a potent
next step in actively promoting their own learning and achievement.
Having students complete self-assessments and peer assessments is a valuable process.
With the assistance of the assessment methods mentioned above, students are able to evaluate their
performance as well as that of their peers. Through this reflective process, students may become
more aware of their own strengths and weaknesses in terms of familiarity with the content, their
learning styles, and learning strategies. This also helps the teacher assess exactly where students
feel their weaknesses and strengths lie, and therefore help the teacher to focus review work.
 EDGAR DALE
Edgar Dale (April 27, 1900 – March 8, 1985) was a U.S. educationist who developed the
famous Cone of Experience. Dale was a professor of education at University. He made several
contributions to audio and visual instruction, including a methodology for analyzing the content
of motion pictures Edgar Dale, an expert in audiovisual education, created a model in his 1946
book Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching that he named the Cone of Experience to discuss various
modalities/channels of imparting information. . The cone of experience given by Edgar dale has
rightly said that it is not offered as a perfect or mechanically flaw less picture to be taken with
absolute literalness in its simplified form. It is merely a visual aid to explain the interrelationships
of various types of audiovisual materials, as well as their individual positions in learning process
His cone did not refer to learning or retention at all, instead modelling levels of abstraction: words
being the most abstract in his model, at the top of the cone, and real-life experiences the most
concrete, and at the base of the cone.

CONE OF EXPERIENCE
Dale’s Cone of Experience is a visual model that is composed of eleven (11) stages starting
from concrete experiences at the bottom of the cone then it becomes more and more abstract as it
reach the peak of the cone. Also, according to Dale, the arrangement in the cone is not based on
its difficulty but rather based on abstraction and on the number of senses involved. The experiences
in each stages can be mixed and are interrelated that fosters more meaningful learning.
 JOHN BOWLBY
John Bowlby (February 27, 1907 - September 2, 1990) was a British psychologist and
psychoanalyst who believed that early childhood attachments played a critical role in later
development and mental functioning. His work, along with the work of psychologist Mary
Ainsworth, contributed to the development of attachment theory.
Bowlby believed that children are born with a biologically-programmed tendency to
seek and remain close to attachment figures. This provides nurturance and comfort, but it
also aids in the child’s survival. Sticking close to a caregiver ensures that the child’s needs
are met and that he or she is protected from dangers in the environment.

ATTACHMENT THEORY
Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child
development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.
Bowlby's attachment theory suggested that children are born with an innate need to form
attachments. Such attachments aid in survival by ensuring that the child receives care and
protection. Not only that, but these attachments are characterized by clear behavioral and
motivational patterns. In other words, both children and caregivers engage in behaviors designed
to ensure proximity. Children strive to stay close and connected to their caregivers who in turn
provide a safe haven and a secure base for exploration.
Researchers have also expanded upon Bowlby's original work and have suggested that a
number of different attachment styles exist. Children who receive consistent support and care are
more likely to develop a secure attachment style, while those who receive less reliable care may
develop an ambivalent, avoidant, or disorganized style.
 ALBERT BANDURA
Albert Bandura is an influential social cognitive psychologist who is perhaps best
known for his social learning theory, the concept of self-efficacy, and his famous Bobo doll
experiments. He is a Professor Emeritus at Stanford University and is widely regarded as one
of the greatest living psychologists.
One 2002 survey ranked him as the fourth most influential psychologist of the
twentieth century, behind only B.F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean Piaget.

SOCIAL-LEARNING THEORY
Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura
believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain all of
human learning. For example, how can the conditioning process account for learned behaviors that
have not been reinforced through classical conditioning or operant conditioning?
According to social learning theory, behaviors can also be learned through observation and
modeling. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new
skills and acquire new information.
Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a critical role in
learning, but this observation does not necessarily need to take the form of watching a live
model. Instead, people can also learn by listening to verbal instructions about how to perform a
behavior as well as through observing either real or fictional characters display behaviors in books
or films.

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