CDMA Tutorial April 29, 2006

Michael Souryal
April 29, 2006

Common Components
Encoding, modulation, spreading
Common Features/Functionality
Power control, diversity, soft handoff
System Particulars
cdmaOne (IS-95)
cdma2000

Sources:
1. V. Vanghi, A. Damnjanovic, and B. Vojcic, The cdma2000 System
for Mobile Communications (Prentice Hall PTR, 2004).
2. V. K. Garg, IS-95 CDMA and cdma2000 (Prentice Hall PTR, 2000).
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A way for multiple users to share the channel

Time Division Frequency Division Code Division

Multiple Access Multiple Access Multiple Access

Input
Data FEC
Interleaver Modulator Spreader
Encoder

Channel

Output
Data
FEC
Deinterleaver Demodulator Despreader
Decoder

M. Souryal 2
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Standard component of most digital communications

systems
Especially important in fading and interference channels
FEC encoder adds coded redundancy to the information
data stream
Decoder uses the redundancy to correct errors caused by
channel impairments (FEC a.k.a. “channel coding”)
Benefits
Ability to operate at a lower bit error rate (BER), for a
given signal-to-noise-and-interference ratio (SNIR)
Ability to operate at a lower SNIR for a given BER
(“coding gain”)
Ability to tolerate more users in a multiuser system

Costs
Added complexity of encoder/decoder
Increased bandwidth and/or reduced data rate
(exception: trellis-coded modulation)

Types of codes
Block (e.g., Golay, Reed-Solomon)
Convolutional
Turbo (i.e., concatenated with iterative decoding)

used in current cellular CDMA standards

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Implemented using linear shift registers and mod-2 adders

Example:
+ +
g0

input output
D D

g1
+
rate: r=1/2 (doubles the sequence length)
constraint length: K=3
generator polynomials: g 0 = (7)oct , g1 = (5)oct

!"
Example: r=1/3 parallel concatenated convolutional code
X (systematic bit)
Y
+ + (parity bit)
X + D D D
+
Inter-
leaver

punctured
Y'
+ + (parity bit)
+ D D D
+

Feed-forward and feedback generator polynomials: g1=(15)oct, g0=(13)oct

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For achieving higher code rates (reducing redundancy)

Example: Puncturing of rate 1/3 turbo code

Puncturing Matrix (rate 1/2)

Info. Bits
c0 1 1

RSC c1
1 0
Π
RSC c2 0 1

Punctured output sequence:

c0,1 , c1,1 , c0,2 , c2,2 , c0,3 , c1,3 , c0,4 , c2,4 ,
9

# $ %
0
Synchronous DS CDMA
10
Simulated BER w/o FEC
Eb N 0 = 20 dB Simulated BER with FEC

-1
10
Bit error probability

-2
10

-3
10

-4
10

r=1/3; constr. length = 9

-5
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
K (number of users)
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& !

Turbo Codes
Higher coding gain (resilience to noise/interference)
Longer latency (better suited for data, not voice)
Greater complexity (decoder)

11

Input
Data FEC
Interleaver Modulator Spreader
Encoder

Channel

Output
Data
FEC
Deinterleaver Demodulator Despreader
Decoder

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% '
Channel amplitude

Temporary decrease in
received energy due to fading
burst errors

Time

Can be alleviated by interleaving coded symbols at the

transmitter and deinterleaving them at the receiver

13

( )'

Coded symbols (bits) are written To Channel

to the interleaver row-wise and
N Columns
read out to the channel column- From
Encoder
wise X1 ... XN

Deinterleaver performs reverse XN+1 ... X 2N

operation at receiver
Adjacent symbols through the
M Rows

channel are separated by N

...
...

positions in the coded sequence

Cost:
Additional memory
Introduces delay XN(M-1)+1 … XMN

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Input
Data FEC
Interleaver Modulator Spreader
Encoder

Channel

Output
Data
FEC
Deinterleaver Demodulator Despreader
Decoder

15

Coherent Schemes
Increasing
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) spectral
Quaternary Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) efficiency.
Higher SINR
8-PSK
required to
16-QAM achieve a
given BER.

Non-coherent Schemes
Orthogonal signals (e.g., Walsh functions)
Differential PSK

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Input
Data FEC
Interleaver Modulator Spreader
Encoder

Channel

Output
Data
FEC
Deinterleaver Demodulator Despreader
Decoder

17

d(t)a(t)
d(t) Channel
A B C

a(t) a(t)

Each signal (user) is spread with a different spreading

sequence (distributes signal power over wider bandwidth).
Different spreading sequences have low cross-correlation.
Despreading recovers desired signal while leaving other
signals at lower power.
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$ +

Maximal Length Shift Register (MLSR) sequences

Used for generating pseudo-noise (PN) sequences with
random-like properties
Long periods

Gold sequences, …
Good cross-correlation properties

Orthogonal sequences
Zero cross-correlation (when synchronous)
Example: Walsh-Hadamard

19

, %-. +

Generation

0 0 HN HN
H1 = [ 0] , H 2 = , H2 N =
0 1 HN HN

Example
0 0 0 0
H2 H2 0 1 0 1
H4 = =
H2 H2 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0

Walsh sequences are rows of Hadamard matrix

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Common Components
Common Features/Functionality
Power Control
Diversity
Soft Handoff
System Particulars
cdmaOne (IS-95)
cdma2000

21

CDMA performance is sensitive to relative received powers

of the signals.
If one signal is too strong, it generates too much
interference to the others (near-far effect).
Goals of Power Control
Maintain equal performance for all users
Minimize transmitted power to achieve desired QoS
Types of Power Control
Open Loop
Closed Loop

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/ #

Mobile measures received power

Mobile adjusts transmission power inversely with received
power
Advantage:
Does not require communication overhead
Disadvantage:
Ineffective when channels are asymmetric (e.g.,
frequency division duplex)

23

/ #

Base station measures received power from mobile

Instructs mobile to increase/decrease transmission power
via feedback channel

Measures Adjusts
received transmission
power, Pr power,
Feedback channel: Pt′ = Pt ± ∆P
±∆P

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Diversity provides multiple, (nearly) independent channels

between the transmitter and receiver.
When one channel is in a deep fade, the other(s) may not
be
Channel amplitude

α1 (t ) α 2 (t )

Time
25

Types of diversity:
Frequency
Time
Antenna (both receive and transmit)

Receiver combines multiple copies of signal, usually with

some knowledge of channel state

While frequency and time diversity require additional

bandwidth or time, antenna diversity does not. Instead,
antenna diversity requires additional hardware (antennas
and receivers).
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Multiple antennas at the receiver

Energy gain: L-order diversity up to L-fold increase in
SNIR
Reduced outage probability
For cellular, usually at the base station

α1
α2
...
αL

Base Station
27

Multiple antennas at the transmitter

Techniques for transmit antenna diversity
Space-time coding (STC)
Orthogonal transmit diversity
Unlike receive antenna diversity, there is no energy gain,
only fading diversity gain.

Space-time coding
Combines FEC coding and antenna diversity
Can be generalized to include coding and spreading

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- 1

Alamouti encoding and transmission sequence

time Antenna 0 Antenna 1

0≤t <T s0 s1
T ≤ t < 2T − s1* s0*

-s1*, s0

α1
s0*, s1
α2

Mobile Station
Base Station
29

Sampled received signals in the two time slots:

r0 = α1 s0 + α 2 s1 + n0 ,
r1 = −α1 s1* + α 2 s0 + n1 .
Combiner:
s0 = α1* r0 + α 2 r1* , ~ ( 2 2
s0 = α1 + α 2 s0 + n0′ )
s1 = α 2* r0 − α1r1* , s = (α
~ )s + n′
2 2
1 1 + α2 1 1

Resulting SNR:

SNR =
(α 1
2
+ α2
2
)s i
2

i
N0

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' $

Universal frequency reuse

Reduction of co-channel interference due to processing
gain allows frequency reuse factor of 1 (one)
(With FDMA and TDMA, co-channel cells must be at a
sufficient distance from desired cell)

Interference sources on
Forward link
Reverse link

31

/ )' $

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0 / )' $

33

Example:
3 sectors/cell, 120º
antenna
beamwidth
Reduces
interference by a
factor of 3
Increases capacity
by same factor
90ºand 60ºpatterns
also possible

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$. $
$

Allows mobile to
communicate with new BS
w/o interrupting comm. with
current BS
Made possible by universal
frequency reuse of CDMA
A form of macro-diversity
Cost: increased interference
on forward link

35

Common Components
Encoding, modulation, spreading
Common Features/Functionality
Power control, diversity, soft handoff
System Particulars
cdmaOne (IS-95)
cdma2000

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'-34

2G cellular telephony standard designed to be compatible

with AMPS frequency band

Qualcomm produced CDMA/AMPS dual mode phones in

1994

Each IS-95 channel occupies 1.25 MHz on each one-way

link (forward link and reverse link)

37

'-34 /)

64 orthogonal channels
Pilot signal at higher power level
Spreading sequences
64 Walsh functions (for
channelization)
Scrambling code: length 215 PN
sequence
Reduces interference from Mobile Station
co-channel mobiles in different Base Station
cells/sectors
Provides desired wide spectral
characteristics
Power control of FL channels based on
measured FER reported by the mobile
station (MS) to base station (BS)
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'-340 /)

Asynchronous signals from mobiles

Walsh functions used for 64-ary
orthogonal signaling
Offset QPSK (OQPSK) modulation
Spreading sequences
Long code: length 242–1 PN
sequence (unique for each user)
Short code: length 215 PN sequence Mobile Station

Tight power control of each user’s Base Station

transmitter power
Based on received SIR measured by
BS
Faster than forward link power
control

39

/) %

Control channels
One Pilot channel
One Synch channel
One to seven Paging channels
Traffic channels
For voice/data
Ranging from 55 to 61 channels
Each channel assigned one of 64 Walsh functions
See Fig. 6-1 of [Garg]

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# %

Provides phase reference to the mobile for coherent

detection
Also used for comparisons of signal strength between
different base stations (handoff decision)
Carries no data/signaling information
Signal level is 4-6 dB higher than that of traffic channel
Pilot PN sequence
Short code, period 215 = 32,768 chips (@1.2288 Mcps
75 pilot code repetitions every 2 sec)
All base stations use the same sequence but with
different offsets (64 chip offsets 512 unique offsets)
See Fig. 7-7 of [Garg]
41

% %

Used with pilot channel to acquire initial time

synchronization
Only the synch channel message is transmitted over this
channel
System time
Offset local time
Pilot short PN sequence offset
Long-code state
Daylight saving time indicator
Etc.
See Fig. 7-9 of [Garg]

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# %

Used to transmit control info to the MS

When a mobile receives a call, it receives a page from
the BS on an assigned paging channel
Acknowledgments to access requests made by the
mobile station
Supplementary service info (e.g., caller ID, no. of
messages waiting)

43

$
$ %

Rate sets
RS1: 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600 bps
RS2 (optional): 1800, 3600, 7200, 14400 bps
Each forward traffic channel consists of
1 Fundamental code channel
0-7 Supplemental code channels
Mobile power control subchannel
± 1 dB power control commands every 1.25 ms
Decimated long code used for privacy
See Fig. 7-21 of [Garg]

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$
$ % #

Data Rate (bps)

Parameters Units
9600 4800 2400 1200

PN chip rate 1.2288 1.2288 1.2288 1.2288 Mcps

bits per code

Code rate 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
symbol
Code symbol repeated symbols
1 2 4 8
repetition per code symbol
Modulation
19,200 19,200 19,200 19,200 sps
symbols rate
PN chips per
PN chips per
modulation 64 64 64 64
modulation symbol
symbol
PN chips per
128 256 512 1024 PN chips per bit
bit
45

0 /) %

Access channel
For control control information (e.g., call origination,
response to paging)

Traffic channel

See Fig. 6-2 of [Garg]

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Up to 32 access channels (more than one MS can share an

access channel)
Each access channel has a unique access channel long
code, access number and paging channel number
associated with it
Messages carried
Registration message (for mobility mgmt, paging)
Origination message
Page response message
Etc.
See Fig. 7-16 of [Garg]

47

/ #5 + )

D D D D D D D D ... D

42
bits
Modulo 2 Addition

long code mask long code

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$
$ 6# 7
PNI cos(2πfCt)

I Mapping
Channel Baseband
0 to +1
Gain Filter
1 to -1

½ PN Mapping s(t)
Q Channel Baseband
Chip 0 to +1
Gain Filter
Delay 1 to -1

PNQ sin(2πfCt)

Q
01 00
Results in non-zero crossing
OQPSK signal
envelope
constellation
Allows for a simpler power
−
I
−
amplifier at MS
11 10
49

0 $
$ %

62 reverse traffic channels, differentiated by user-specific

long codes
Processing similar to that of access channel, except for
More data rates
Inclusion of “data burst randomizer”
Masks out redundant symbols of lower data rate
streams
Reduces reverse link interference by reducing
transmitted power during quiet periods of speech
See Figs. 7-26, -27, -28 of [Garg]
See Table 6-6 of [Garg]

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0 $
$ % #
Parameter 9600 bps 4800 bps 2400 bps 1200 bps Units

PN chip rate 1.2288 1.2288 1.2288 1.2288 Mcps

bits per code

Code rate 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3
symbol
Code symbol repeated symbols
1 2 4 8
repetition per code symbol
Code symbol 3×9600
28,800 28,800 28,800 sps
rate =28,800
code symbol per
Modulation 6 6 6 6
modulation symbol
Modulation 28,800/6
4800 4800 4800 sps
symbol rate =4800
Walsh chip 64×4800=
307.2 307.2 307.2 kcps
rate 307.2
PN chips per PN chips per Walsh
4 4 4 4
Walsh chip chip
51

8999

Features
Support of voice and low to high data rates
Multiple channel sizes
Spreading Rate 1 (SR1): 1.2288 Mcps
a.k.a. “single carrier” or “1×”
SR3, “multicarrier” or “3×”
Forward link: 3 carriers spread @ 1.2288 Mcps
Reverse link: 1 carrier spread @ 3.6864 Mcps
Support for advanced antenna technologies
Backward compatibility with IS-95 (cdmaOne)

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8999 /) %
Common
Assignment
Channels
Pilot Channel
Common Power
Control Channels
Transmit Diversity
Pilot Channel
Pilot Channels
Auxiliary Pilot
Channels
Common Control
Channels
Auxiliary Transmit
Diversity Pilot
Channels
Sync Channel
Forward
Channels Packet Data
Channels
Traffic Channels

Dedicated Control
Channel
Broadcast Control
Channels
Fundamental
Channel
Paging Channels

Power Control
Subchannel
Quick Paging
Channels
Supplemental
Channels
Packet Data
Control Channels 53

/)

Multiple carriers
Orthogonal channels using Walsh codes
QPSK modulation (and 8-PSK, 16-QAM for packet data
channel)
Fast closed-loop power control
Transmit antenna diversity
FEC
Convolutional codes for voice and data
Turbo codes for long data frames

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Using variable length Walsh functions

Different bit rates use different length Walsh codes, ranging
from 4 to 128 chips
Allocated to maintain orthogonality

W 02 W 12

W 04 W24 W 14 W 34

W 08 W 48 W 28 W6 8 W 18 W5 8 W 38 W 78

W 016 W 816 W 416 W 12 16W 216 W 1016 W 616 W 1416 W 116 W 916 W 5 16 W 13 16 W 3 16W 11 16 W 716 W 1516

W 0 32 ... W 432 ... W 232 ... W 632 ... W 132 ... W 532 ... W 3 32 ... W 732 ...

W 064W 32 64... W 4 64 ... W 2 64 ... W 6 64 ... W 1 64 ... W 564 ... W 364 ... W 764 ... 55

QPSK modulation
Distinct data on in-phase and quadrature channels
Allows for stronger coding while maintaining data rate
Complex spreading using length 215 short PN codes
quadrature spreading
cos(2πfC t)

I Baseband
YI
Filter
Walsh I’=I PNI-Q PNQ
function Q’=I PNQ+Q PNI
s(t)
Baseband
YQ
Q Filter

sin(2πfCt)
PNI PNQ
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Orthogonal Transmit Diversity (OTD)

Multiplexes consecutive coded bits onto different
antennas
Coded bits are spread with a length-2 Walsh function for
orthogonality between the two antennas
++

+-

Mobile Station
Base Station

Space Time Spreading (STS)

Uses the Alamouti space-time code discussed in the last
lecture
57

/ )( )

Conv. or Symbol
source Block
bits
turbo repetition/ Interleaver
encoder
encoder puncturing

cos(2πfct)
long
code

Orthogonal Quadrature s(t)

Modulator Filter
Spreading Spreading

Scrambling Walsh
PNI PNQ sin(2πfct)
Function

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89990 /) %
Access Channel

R-PICH
Enhanced Access
Channel
Operation
R-EACH

R-PICH
Reverse Common
Control Channel
Reverse Channels Operation
R-CCCH

R-PICH

0 or 1 R-DCCH

0 or 1 R-FCH
Reverse Traffic
Channel 0 or 2 R-SCH
Operation
0 or 1 R-PCSCH

0 or 1 R-ACKCH

0 or 1 R-CQICH 59

0 /)

Code multiplexing using orthogonal Walsh functions

Pilot signal transmitted by each user
BPSK modulation with coherent detection
Limited power larger carrier
phase estimation error BPSK instead
RL not dimension-limited of QPSK
User-specific long PN code
Complex spreading with OQPSK

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0 / )( )

Conv. or Symbol
source Block
bits
turbo repetition/ Interleaver
encoder
encoder puncturing

long code cos(2πfct)

Orthogonal Quadrature s(t)

other channels'
Spreading Filter
spreading
modulation symbols

PNI PNQ sin(2πfct)

61

. % 0

Implemented on forward link packet data channel

(FL-PDCH)
Carries bursty, high speed, non-real-time data
Shared channel
BS transmits to only one mobile at a time
Data is code-multiplexed using up to 28 length-32 Walsh
codes
Adaptive modulation using QPSK, 8-PSK, 16-QAM
Adaptive coding: code rates range from 1/5 to 3/4
Exploits multiuser diversity with opportunistic scheduling

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%
User 2 User 1 User 3 User 1

User 2
User 2
User 3

User 1
SNIR

time
63

/ )# ) %
Add 6-Bit Turbo
Add 16- Block
F-PDCH bits Encoder Tail Encoder
Bit CRC Interleaver
Allow ance R=1/5

386, 770, 1538, 2306,

3074 or 3842 bits

QPSK,
Subpacket
8-PSK or
Selection
16-QAM

I I
Scrambling Bit WCI_SET
Extraction [0]
Symbol Q Q
I Walsh I
DEMUX
Chip
I/Q Pairs 1
Long Code Q Summer Q
to n
Generator I WCI_SET I
(1.2288 Mcps)
[n-1]
Q Q

long code
mask
cover w ith 32-chip Walsh
codes n=1,2, … , or 28 64

M. Souryal 32