FISH NUTRITION 101

Feeds & Feeding Strategies for Aquaculture

Dr. Jesse Trushenski
Center for Fisheries Aquaculture & Aquatic Sciences
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Carbondale, Illinois USA
saluski@siu.edu
 WHY DO WE FEED FISH?

“The growth of a fish results from its consumption of food...”

(Vasnetsov 1953)

Yes, but feed provides…

Energy
Biosynthetic building blocks
Essential nutrients
Amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals

This presentation will cover the basics of fish nutrition and how
feeds are formulated to provide fish with what they need
Aquaculture production has continually outstripped projections,
and there is little reason to believe that it will not continue to do
so. –World Bank 2006

UNEP 2009
INCREASING GLOBAL RELIANCE ON COMPLETE FEEDS

100
Total Aquafeed Production (MMT)

80 Aquaculture Production Using Compound Feeds (%)

60

40

20

0
1995 2000 2005 2020

Tacon and Metian 2008

Nutritional Demands

Regardless of
nutritional guild,
fish have high
protein and lipid
demands

Omnivores Carnivores
Fish have high protein demands…
Dietary Dietary
Species Species
Protein (%) Protein (%)
Asian sea bass 45 Freshwater basses 35-47
Atlantic halibut 51 Trouts 40-53
Atlantic salmon 55 Flatfishes 50-51
Tilapias 30-40 Catfish 32-36
Pacific salmonids 40-45 Beef cattle 7-18
Carps 31-43 Dairy cattle 12-18
Eels 40-45 Sheep 9-15
Sea basses 45-50 Swine 12-13
Sea breams 50-55 Poultry 14-28

…but require amino acids, not protein

Halver and Hardy, 2002
 ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS
Essential Estimated Requirement Fish Meal
Amino Acids (Rainbow Trout) Composition
Arginine 3.3-5.9 6.2
Histidine 1.6 2.8
Isoleucine 2.4 4.2
Leucine 4.4 7.2
Lysine 3.7-6.1 7.8
Methionine 1.8-3.0 3.4
Phenylalanine 4.3-5.2 3.9
Threonine 3.2-3.7 4.2
Tryptophan 0.5-1.4 0.8
Valine 3.1 5.0
All data expressed as % crude protein

Halver and Hardy, 2002; Omega Protein, Inc., 2006

 BASIS OF AMINO ACID DEMAND

Amino acids are/can be used for…

Synthesis of peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, amines,
hormones, and other N-containing compounds
As a carbon source for intermediary metabolism
Energy production
Protein demand is higher for fish because of…
Greater carcass protein content
Lower energy requirements
Fish have high lipid demands too…

Species Dietary Lipid (%) Species Dietary Lipid (%)

Trout 18-20 Milk fish 7-10

Other salmonids 20-30 Catfish 5-6
Tilapia <10 Turbot <15
Sea breams 10-15 Sole 5
Carp <18 Beef cattle 1-2
Sea basses 12-18 Dairy cattle 1-2.5
Yellow tail 11 Sheep 2.5-3
Red drum 7-11 Swine 2-6
Grouper 13-14 Poultry ~3

…but require fatty acids, not lipid

Guillaume et al. 2001
18:0 18:1n-9
∆9 ∆15
∆12

18:2n-6 18:3n-3
∆6 ∆6

18:3n-6 18:4n-3
C20 C20

20:3n-6 20:4n-3
∆5 ∆5

20:4n-6 20:5n-3
C22
Short ∆6 C24
22:6n-3 24:6n-3 24:5n-3 22:5n-3
18:0 18:1n-9
∆9 ∆15
∆12

18:2n-6 Limited physiological functions

18:3n-3
∆6 ∆6

18:3n-6 18:4n-3
C20 C20

20:3n-6 20:4n-3
∆5 ∆5

20:4n-6 Distinct physiological functions

20:5n-3
C22
Short ∆6 C24
22:6n-3 24:6n-3 24:5n-3 22:5n-3
18:0 18:1n-9
∆9 ∆15
∆12

18:2n-6 18:3n-3
∆6 ∆6

18:3n-6 18:4n-3
C20 C20

20:3n-6 20:4n-3
∆5 ∆5

20:4n-6 20:5n-3
C22
Short ∆6 C24
22:6n-3 24:6n-3 24:5n-3 22:5n-3
 ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS
Advanced Juvenile/
Species Fish Oil Composition
Adult Requirement
18:3n-3 (0.7-1.0%)
Rainbow trout 18:2n-6 (~1.7%)
18:2n-6 (~1.7%)
n-3 LC-PUFA (0.4-0.5%)
18:2n-6 (1.0%)
Common carp 18:3n-3 (~2.0%)
18:3n-3 (0.5-1.0%) 18:3n-3 (~2.0%)
Tilapia 18:2n-6 (0.5-1.0%) 20:5n-3 (~13%)
Various Pacific 18:2n-6 (1.0%)
22:6n-3 (~13%)
20:5n-3 (~15%)
salmonids 18:3n-3 (1.0%)
Gilthead
n-3 LC-PUFA (0.9-1.9%) LC-PUFA (~30%)
seabream 22:6n-3 (~15%)
22:6n-3 (0.5%)
Red seabream
20:5n-3 (1.0%)
LC-PUFA (~30%)
Striped jack 22:6n-3 (1.7%)
All values reported as % of dry diet

Halver and Hardy 2002

GROWTH HAPPENS WHEN LIMITING RESOURCES BECOME
AVAILABLE AND IS AS FAST AS THE SLOWEST PROCESS

Protein Micro-
nutrients

Lipid Carbohydrates

All the building blocks must be

available before new molecules or
tissues can be synthesized
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF ATLANTIC SALMON

Protein
Lipid
Ash

From Shearer et al. 1994

BASIC BIOENERGETIC Gross Energy
MODEL FOR FISH 12-35%
Feces

Digestible
Energy

2-8% Urine & Gill

Excretions

Metabolizable
Energy
Heat Increment
(Maintenance) 10-30%
Heat Increment
(Production)

Net Energy 27-76% of Intake

Maintenance Swimming & Somatic Reproductive

Metabolism Other Activity Growth Investment
 WHAT AFFECTS BIOENERGETICS & GROWTH?
Energy Intake Feed composition, feeding rate, feeding frequency

Gastric evacuation rate, life stage, feed digestibility, feed

Excretions
protein vs. CHO vs. lipid content, limiting factor for growth

Water temperature, nutrient intake vs. demand,

Heat Increment
number and type of transformations to be made

Routine Life stage, body size, temperature, normal behavior

Metabolism and activity levels

Retained Energy
Investment Life stage, overall reproductive strategy, season
 THINKING SMALL AND THINKING BIG

Higher resting metabolic rate

Higher energy expenditures

Higher feeding rates (e.g. 5%)

Higher maintenance demand

Lower resting metabolic rate

Lower energy expenditures

Lower feeding rates (e.g. 3%)

Lower maintenance demand

SMALL VS. LARGE FISH METABOLISM—AN ANALOGY

Size = 1043 ft2

Construction cost = $102K

Cost per ft2 = $98

Size = 1209 ft2

Construction cost = $115K

Cost per ft2 = $95

 Membrane
Competence
Reproduction

Pigmentation Metamorphosis

Stress
Behavior Response
Metabolic
Regulation
Biosynthetic
Endocrine Rates
Status Macro- &
Micronutrients
Seafood Cell
Quality Signaling
Appetite
Regulation

Antioxidative Immunity
Defense & Survival Growth &
Development
Osmoregulation

Energy
Substrates
Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008
 HOW DO I KNOW WHAT TO FEED?

Feed as little protein and lipid as needed

Minimize feed costs and effluents
Nutrient requirement or demand studies
Published results
Previous experience with different feeds
Requirements of different lifestages or species
Carnivores vs. omnivores
Effects of water temperature
Larvae vs. juveniles vs. broodstock
 High Energy Medium Energy Low Energy
Typical Feeds (Carnivorous) (Carnivorous) (Omnivorous)

Fish meal 25-50 20-40 0-20

Soy products 0-15 25-35 30-50

Gluten products 5-20 15-20 15-20

Cereal grains 10-18 20-25 30-45

Fats/oils 20-30 5-10 2-5

Other 3-5 3-5 3-5

Current price
>1500 ------------------------------------------------ <500
($USD/MT)
“…while the inclusion level of fish meal in feed is 25 percent, it actually accounts for 43 percent of raw material
costs and 32 percent of total production costs. Alternative proteins such soybean, wheat and corn gluten, which
can make up 45 percent of volume, account for 19 percent of raw material costs.” (Seafood Source 2010)
WHAT WILL LIMIT THE GROWTH OF AQUACULTURE?
2500
Fish Meal Price in $US/MT
2000

1500

1000

500 Aquaculture
consumes ~61% of
global supply
0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
“…much research has focused on finding replacements for fish meal…Partial
replacements have been achieved. However, no dramatic breakthroughs have
been reported, and the share of fish meal and fish oil used in aquaculture is
increasing…” (FAO 2008)
WHAT WILL LIMIT THE GROWTH OF AQUACULTURE?
2500
Fish Oil Price in $US/MT
2000

1500

1000

Aquaculture
500 consumes ~74%
of global supply
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

“…given the difficulty in replacing fish oils…it is clear that competition for fish oil
is likely to be a more serious obstacle for some sections of the aquaculture
industry.” (FAO 2008)
 Lower feed costs
EAA, EFA, etc. may be low or absent
High levels of EAA, EFA, etc.
Palatable, nutrient dense, highly digestible
Maintain integrity of product
Readily available, sustainable
Decreased cost of production
Safer products?
REPLACING FISH MEAL…PRODUCTION EFFECTS
Case study with soy protein concentrate in HSB feeds

Feed Intake (%/day) Weight Gain (%)

4 500
3
* * * 400

2
300 *
200
1 100
0 0
10% FM 6.7% FM 3.3% FM 0% FM 10% FM 6.7% FM 3.3% FM 0% FM

Fish meal sparing can reduce the palatability of

feeds, especially for carnivorous fish

Blaufuss and Trushenski 2011

REPLACING FISH MEAL…PRODUCTION EFFECTS
Case study with soybean meal in HSB feeds

FCR (dry matter) Weight Gain (%)

2 500
400
1.5 * 300 *
1
200
0.5 100
0 0
30% 20% 15% 10% 5% FM 0% FM 30% 20% 15% 10% 5% FM 0% FM
FM FM FM FM FM FM FM FM

Even when intake is good, EAA deficiencies and utilization

problems can still develop with reduced fish meal feeds

Laporte and Trushenski 2011

REPLACING FISH MEAL…STRESS EFFECTS
Case study with soybean meal in HSB feeds

Plasma Glucose (mg/dL)

300
Plasma Cortisol (ng/mL)
UNSTRESSED
300
Diet P < 0.001 Diet P = 0.40
STRESSED 250
Stress P < 0.001 Stress P = 0.10
250
Interaction P < 0.001 Interaction P = 0.31
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
0 30% FM 20% FM 15% FM 10% FM 5% FM 0% FM
30% FM 20% FM 15% FM 10% FM 5% FM 0% FM

Fish meal sparing may lead to

unintended consequences in terms
of livestock resilience
Laporte and Trushenski 2011
FISH MEAL REPLACEMENT…SOLUTIONS
Case study with PepSoyGen in HSB feeds

Weight Gain (%) FCR

400 a 1.50 a
a
350 ab ab
abc 1.25 ab ab
ab b b
300 bc
c 1.00
250
200 0.75
d
150
0.50
100
0.25
50
0 0.00
30% FM 10% FM 10% FM 5% FM 5% FM 0% FM 0% FM 30% FM 10% FM 10% FM 5% FM 5% FM 0% FM 0% FM
SBM PSG SBM PSG SBM PSG SBM PSG SBM PSG SBM PSG

Fermented soybean meal outperformed traditional

soybean meal at all levels of inclusion in HSB feeds
Rombenso et al. 2013
FISH MEAL REPLACEMENT…SOLUTIONS
Case study with Asian carp meal in aquafeeds

Weight Gain (%)

400

300 HSB
RBT
200
Cobia
100
LMB
0
CM FM 20 40 60
Type Inclusion

Results show excellent utilization, high

value of Asian carp meal in aquafeeds
Bowzer et al. 2013, in press, in preparation
REPLACING FISH OIL…PRODUCTION EFFECTS
Case study with canola oil in HSB feeds

Weight Gain (%) FCR

1000 1.5

*
750
* 1 *
500 *
0.5
250

0 0
100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% FO 0% 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% FO 0%
FO FO FO FO FO FO* FO FO FO FO FO FO*

EFA deficiencies associated with fish oil

replacement can lead to impaired production

Lewis and Kohler 2008

REPLACING FISH OIL…FILLET EFFECTS
Case study with soy oil in cobia feeds

Fish oil sparing

affects fillet
composition and
associated
nutritional value

Trushenski et al. 2011

 REPLACING FISH OIL…SOLUTIONS
Case study defining EFA requirements of cobia
Weight Gain (%)
400
a
ab ab
300 b
bc
200 c c c

100

FCR (dry matter)

DHA is crucial, EPA is 3
a a ab
dispensable for growth 2
bc
c
c c
c
performance of cobia
1

0.8-1.2% DHA required to

maintain growth 0
FISH SOY SOY + SOY + SOY + SOY + SOY + SOY +
ONLY ONLY 50% 100% 50% 100% 50% 100%
EPA EPA DHA DHA BOTH BOTH
Trushenski et al. 2012
 REPLACING FISH OIL…SOLUTIONS
Using SFA-rich oils to spare fish oil in white seabass feeds

30
y = 0.228x + 24.751
r² = 0.553

25 Fish fed SFA-rich

soybean oil maintain high
Fillet 22:6n-3 (% FAME)

20 levels of 22:6n-3

15 y = 1.313x + 11.516
r² = 0.940

10 Fish fed C18-rich soybean

oil accumulate 22:6n-3
5 in a predictable fashion

0
0 5 10 15 20

Trushenski et al. 2013

Diet 22:6n-3 (% FAME)
POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS FROM RECENT STUDIES

No growth effects
n-3 Substantial LC-PUFA loss
MC-PUFA Trushenski and Boesenberg 2009

No growth effects
Limited LC-PUFA loss
Trushenski et al. 2008
SFA

MUFA/SFA No growth effects

Limited LC-PUFA loss
Trushenski 2009
THE CHALLENGES…
Fish meal and oil are finite resources which aquaculture
increasingly monopolizes

Sources of amino acids abound, but may be improperly

balanced, unpalatable
Alternative proteins impact production performance,
livestock resilience
Sources of essential fatty acids
can be limiting
Alternative lipids affect fillet
nutritional value, reproductive
performance
THE OPPORTUNITIES…
Seafood demand continues to rise
Roughly half of seafood consumed is farm-raised
Food security for 9 billion people by 2050
Seafood provides 1/3 of the population with 15% or more of
daily protein—aquaculture grows by 7-9% annually
Aquaculture produces protein efficiently

Swine Beef Cattle Poultry Fish

3 to 1 8 to 1 2 to 1 1-2 to 1
Strategic use of resources solves problems