1

LESSON
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Introduction
Electrochemistry deals with the study of equilibrium and kinetic properties of ions in solution, the
production of electrical energy from the energy released during spontaneous chemical reactions or
the processes where the electrical energy is used to bring about non-spontaneous chemical reactions.

Conductance of Electrolytic Solution

Basic Quantities of electrochemistry
• Resistance - The resistance, ‘R’, of a sample of an electrolytic solution (solution that gives ions
l
when dissolved in water) as in case of metallic conductors is defined by the expression: Rρ=
A
, where l is the length of a sample of electrolyte and A is the cross sectional area.
• Resistivity or Specific Resistance- The symbol ρ , is the proportionality constant. It is a
property of an electrolytic solution. This property is called resistivity or specific resistance.
• Conductivity or Specific conductance κ - The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity or
1 l
specific conductance, (kappa) κ where κ = =
ρ RA
• Conductance(G)- The inverse of resistance, R, is called conductance, G and can be expressed
1
as G = .
R
S.I. units
The SI units of above quantities are:
1. Unit of Resistance(R) is ‘ Ω ’
2. Unit of Resistivity ( ρ ) is ‘ohm meter ( Ω m)’
3. Unit of Conductivity( κ ) is ‘siemens per meter or ( Ω -1m-1 or Sm-1)
4. Unit of Conductance(G) is ‘siemens or S’ or Ω -1

Factors affecting the conductivity of electrolytic solutions:

The conductivity of the electrolytic solutions depends upon:
(i) the nature of the electrolyte added
(ii) the size of the ions produced and their hydration
(iii) the nature of the solvent and its viscosity
(iv) the concentration of the electrolyte
(v) temperature (affects the kinetic energy of the ions)

Factors affecting the conductivity of metals

Electrical conductance through metals is called metallic or electronic conductance and is due to the
movement of electrons. This is different from electrolytic conductance. The electronic conductance
depends on:
(i) the nature and structure of the metal
(ii) the number of valence electrons per atom
(iii) temperature (it decreases with increase of temperature).
As the electrons enter at one end and go out through the other end, the composition of the metallic
conductor remains unchanged. The mechanism of conductance through semiconductors is more
complex.
Electrochemistry 2
Measurement of Conductivity of Ionic Solutions
Conductivity of ionic solutions
As in case of our metallic conductors we cannot use the Wheatstone bridge for finding the resistance
of ionic solution. This is because of the following reasons:
(i) Firstly, passing direct current (DC) changes the composition of the solution.
(ii) Secondly, a solution cannot be connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or other solid
conductor.
The first difficulty is resolved by using an alternating current (AC) source of power. The second
problem is solved by using a specially designed vessel called conductivity cell. It is available in
several designs and two simple ones are shown in the figure:

Conductivity Cell
Conductivity cell is used for measuring
conductivity of solutions. The solution that
is to be measured for its conductivity is
taken in a special cell called conductivity
cell. The conductivity cell has two
platinum electrodes coated with platinum
black of surface area A and are separated
by a distance l. The solution confined
between these electrodes is a column of
length l and area of cross section A. The resistance of such a column of solution is then given by the
l l l
equation: R = ρ = The ratio is constant, called the cell constant and is denoted by G*.
A κA A

Measurement of conductivity using Conductivity Cell

Conductivity can be measured in the following way:
• The solution for which the conductivity is to be known is
l
taken in a conductivity cell of known cell constant ( ).
A
• We can know the resistance of the solution using a
Wheatstone bridge (as shown in the figure) with two known
resistances R1 and R4, and a variable resistance R2, as shown
in the figure. The resistance of the solution (unknown
R1R 4
resistance R 3 ) is given by R 3 = when the bridge is
R2
balanced using the variable resistance R2.
• Conductance (conductivity) can be estimated by substituting
1 l
the value of R3 for R in the expression κ = = .
ρ RA
Note: The Wheatstone Bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current flow through the A.C.
detector headphone or other electronic device

Molar Conductivity
Molar conductivity is defined as the conductivity of a solution per unit concentration Thus we have:
κ
Molar conductivity = Λ m =
c
 3

In the above equation, if κ is expressed in S m–1 and the concentration, c in mol m–3 then the units of
Λm are in S m2 mol–1.

Unit Conversion
It may be noted that: 1 mol m–3 = 1000(L/m3) × molarity (mol/L), and hence

2 –1
κ(Sm −1 )
Λm(S m mol ) =
1000Lm −3 × molarity(mol L−1 )
If we use S cm–1 as the units for κ and mol cm–3, the units of concentration, then the units for Λm are
S cm2 mol–1. It can be calculated by using the equation:
2 –1
κ(Scm −1 ) × 1000(cm3 / L)
Λm(S cm mol ) =
molarity(mol / L)

Both type of units are used in literature and are related to each other by the equations:
1 S m2mol–1 = 104 S cm2mol–1 or
1 S cm2mol–1 =10–4 S m2mol–1.

Variation of Conductivity with Concentration

As we now understand the conductivity of a solution at any given concentration is the conductance
of one unit volume of solution kept between two platinum electrodes with unit area of cross section
κA
and at a distance of unit length. This is clear from the equation: G = =κ
l
Both conductivity and molar conductivity change with the concentration of the electrolyte.
Variation of conductivity with decrease in concentration
Conductivity always decreases with decrease in concentration both, for weak and strong electrolytes.
This can be explained by the fact that the number of ions per unit volume that carry the current in a
solution decreases on dilution.

Variation of Molar Conductivity with Concentration

Molar conductivity of a solution at a given concentration is the conductance of the volume V of
solution containing one mole of electrolyte kept between two electrodes with area of cross section A
κA
and distance of unit length. Therefore, Λ m = =κ;
l
Since l = 1 and A = V (volume containing 1 mole of electrolyte) Λm = κV.
Variation of molar conductivity with decrease in concentration
Here we can say molar conductivity increases with decrease in concentration since the total volume,
V, of solution containing one mole of electrolyte also increases. It has been found that decrease in κ
on dilution of a solution is more than compensated by increase in its volume.

Note: Physically Λm can be seen as the conductance of the electrolytic solution kept between the
electrodes of a conductivity cell at unit distance but having area of cross section large enough to
accommodate sufficient volume of solution that contains one mole of the electrolyte.

Limiting Molar Conductivity

When concentration approaches zero, the molar conductivity is known as limiting molar
&& o . The variation in Λm with concentration is
conductivity and is represented by the symbol E m

different for strong and weak electrolytes.

Electrochemistry 4
Molar conductivity for Strong Electrolytes
For strong electrolytes, Λm increases slowly with dilution.
Kohlrausch determined the empirical relationship for
molar conductivity Λm and the concentration of the
&& 0 − A c
solution c, as Λ m = E m

where the molar conductivity at infinite dilution, E&& 0 , is

m

arrived at by plotting the molar conductivity at various

concentrations Λ m v/s concentration and extrapolating
it to zero concentration. The value of the constant A for a
given solvent and temperature depends upon the type of
electrolyte (e.g.- 1-1 for NaCl, 2-1 CaCl2 or 2-2 MgSO4,
etc.), rather than its specific chemical identity.
Kohlrausch’s Law of the Independent Migration of Ions
Experimental values of A have been carefully determined for many salts as a function of
concentration in very dilute solutions, and the intercept values of the resulting plots obtained. In
examining such data, it was discovered that E && 0 for any electrolyte can be expressed as the sum of
m

independent contributions from the constituent cations and anions present. This is known as
Kohlrausch’s Law of the Independent Migration of Ions which states that limiting molar
conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the individual contributions of the
anion and cation of the electrolyte.
Mathematically it may be expressed as:
&& 0 =ν λ 0 +ν λ 0 (where ν + and ν - refer to the cations and anions respectively). Here λ 0 and λ 0 are
E m + + − − + −

limiting molar conductivities of the cation and anion respectively.

Weak Electrolytes
Weak electrolytes have lower degree of dissociation at higher concentration. Therefore in case of
weak electrolytes E && 0 cannot be obtained by simple extrapolation of Λ m on the plot of Λ m v/s c .
m

The weak electrolytes dissociate to a greater extent with increasing dilution.

For dissociation of ethanoic acid we have we have CH 3 COOH ƒ CH 3 COO + H
- +

If α is the degree of dissociation, the concentrations of the dissociated species expressed as C and
that of the un-dissociated acid as (1-α)C. The dissociation constant can be expressed as:
[CH 3COO- ][H + ] α 2 C
Ka = =
[CH 3COOH] 1− α
Λm
Arrehenius showed that α = 0 ; where the limiting molar conductivity is Λ m .
0
Λm
Thus we have
Cα 2 CΛ 2
Ka = = 0 0 m
(1 − α ) Λ m (Λ m − Λ m )

Application of Kohlrausch law

ƒ Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions is useful in calculating Λ m from the λ 0 of
0

individual ions.
ƒ In case of weak electrolytes it is possible to determine the value of its degree of dissociation α
once we know the Λ m and Λ m at a given concentration c.
0
 5

Cα 2 Λ
ƒ Dissociation constant K a = as α = 0m
(1 − α ) Λm

Electrochemical Cells
Any electrochemical cell uses an oxidation-reduction reaction to generate an electric current
For e.g.- Consider the cell with the following reaction
Zn(s) + Cu2+ ⎯⎯ → Zn2+ + Cu(s).
This can be seen as two half reactions,
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ⎯⎯ → Cu(s)
Zn(s) ⎯⎯ → Zn (aq)+ 2e-
2+

Electrochemical cells can be classified into two types:

(i) which convert chemical energy of a spontaneous reaction to electrical energy (Galvanic or
Voltaic cell).
(ii) that make use of electric energy to carry non-spontaneous chemical changes (Electrolytic cell).

Voltaic Cells
Voltaic cell makes use of Gibbs energy of spontaneous chemical reaction into electrical work.

Half cell
Reactions in cells can be seen as oxidation at anode and reduction at cathode. These oxidation and
reduction reactions individually are known as half cell reactions. The electrode at which oxidation
takes place in an electrochemical cell is called the anode. The electrode at which reduction occurs is
called the cathode. The identity of the cathode and anode can be remembered by recognizing that
positive ions, or cations, flow toward the cathode, while negative ions, or anions, flow toward the
anode.

Notation for Voltaic Cells

Voltaic cells can be described by a line notation based on the following conventions:
ƒ A single vertical line indicates a change in state or phase.
ƒ Within a half-cell, the reactants are listed before the products.
ƒ Concentrations of aqueous solutions are written in parentheses after the symbol for the ion or
molecule.
ƒ A double vertical line is used to indicate the junction between the half-cells.
Electrochemistry 6
ƒ The line notation for the anode (oxidation) is written before the line notation for the cathode
(reduction).
The line notation for a standard-state Daniell cell is written as follows.
Zn(s) | Zn2+(1.0 M) || Cu2+(1.0 M) | Cu(s)
anode (oxidation) cathode (reduction)
Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode in a voltaic cell (They flow from the electrode at which
they are given off to the electrode at which they are consumed). Reading from left to right, this line
notation therefore corresponds to the direction in which electrons flow.
Note: The overall reaction in electrochemical cells is spontaneous and the electrical energy is the
manifestation of the decrease in the Gibbs’ free energy of the reaction.

The Electrode Potential

The potential of an element, which can be used as an electrode, is defined as the relative tendency of
this element to undergo oxidation/reduction w.r.t another electrode that may be arbitrarily taken as a
reference zero.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is one such
electrode selected to have a zero potential at all
temperatures. Potential of various elements can be
measured by making SHE the anode and the potential
of cathode (as measured by a voltmeter) is potential
of the element. If the measurements of electrode
potential for a particular element is made against the
SHE, under standard conditions of temperature and
concentrations, measured potential is called Standard
Potential ( E Θ ).
Note:
• A negative E Θ means that the redox
couple is a stronger reducing agent than the
H+/H2 couple.
• A positive E Θ means that the redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H+/H2
couple.
• The arrangement of elements in their increasing reducing power is called Electrochemical
Series.
• The difference in the potentials of two electrodes of a cell is called the cell potential and is
given by
E Θ cell = E Θ cathode − E Θ anode
The Table for Standard Electrode Potentials at 298K is given at the end of the chapter.

Electrolytic cell
In an electrolytic cell external source of voltage is used to bring about a chemical reaction.
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
Faraday gave two laws of electrolysis (for electrolytic cell)
(i) First Law – The amount of chemical decomposition produced during electrolysis by a current
is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte (solution or
molten), where the quantity of charge Q, passed, is given by Q = It
Q is in coloumbs when I is in ampere and t is in second.
(ii) Second Law – The amounts (in weight) of different substances liberated by the same quantity
of electricity passing through the electrolytic solution is proportional to their chemical
 7

equivalent weights.
Modern version of Faraday’s Laws – The amount of charge required for oxidation or reduction
depends on the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction.
Note:
• Charge on one electron is 1.6021× 10−19 C .
Therefore charge on one mole of electron is –
N A × 1.6021× 10−19 C = 6.02 × 1023 mol-1 × 1.6021× 10−19 C
= 96487 C ≅ 96500C
• The charge on the one mole of electrons is called the Faraday’s constant and its
approximate value can be taken as 96500C.

A study of typical electrolytic process:

The products of electrolysis depend upon the state of material being electrolyzed and the type of
electrode used.
(i) Electrolysis of molten NaCl
The electrode reactions can be summarized as:
Cathode: Na+ + e- → Na
Anode: Cl- → 1/2Cl2 + e-
(ii) Electrolysis of aqueous NaCl
The electrode reactions may be summarized as:
NaCl(aq) ⎯⎯⎯ H 2O
→ Na+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
Cathode: H2O(l) + e- → ½ H2(g) + OH- (aq)
Anode: Cl- (aq) → ½ Cl2(g) + e-
Overall reaction: NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) + ½ H2(g) + ½ Cl2(g)
(iii) Electrolysis of H2SO4
During the electrolysis of sulphuric acid, the following processes are possible at the anode:
For dilute H2SO4
2H2O(l )→ O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– E Θ(cell) = +1.23 V (1)
For concentrated H2SO4
2SO 24− (aq) → S2 O82− (aq) + 2e − E Θ(cell) = 1.96 V (2)
For dilute sulphuric acid, reaction (1) is preferred but at higher concentrations of H2SO4 process,
reaction (2) is preferred.

The Nernst Equation

Nernst showed that the potential for an electrochemical reaction is described by the following
equation.
RT
E = EΘ − ln Qc ; where E is the cell potential at some moment, E Θ is the cell potential when the
nF
reaction is at standard-state conditions, R is the ideal gas constant in units of joules per kelvin per
mole, T is the temperature in kelvin, n is the number of moles of electrons transferred in the
balanced equation for the reaction, F is the charge on a mole of electrons, and Qc is the reaction
quotient at that moment in time.
• The standard electrode potentials are replaced by electrode potentials given by Nernst equation
to take into account the concentration effects.
Electrochemistry 8

Note:
• The symbol ln indicates a natural logarithm, which is the log to the base e, where e is an
irrational number equal to 2.71828...
• For standard condition three terms in the equation are constants: R, T, and F. The ideal gas
constant is 8.314 J/mol-K. The temperature is taken as 298K. The charge on a mole of electrons
can be taken to be 96500 C.
• Substituting this information into the Nernst equation gives the following equation.
0.0256 0.059
E = EΘ − ln Qc (For base 10 equation becomes E = E Θ − log10 Qc )
n n
• Three of the remaining terms in this equation are characteristics of a particular reaction: n, E Θ ,
and Qc.
• The standard-state potential for the Daniell cell is 1.10 V. Two moles of electrons are
transferred from zinc metal to Cu2+ ions in the balanced equation for this reaction, so n is 2 for
this cell. As we never include the concentrations of solids in either reaction quotient or
equilibrium constant expressions, Qc for this reaction is equal to the concentration of the Zn2+
ion divided by the concentration of the Cu2+ ion.
[Zn 2+ ]
Qc =
[Cu 2+ ]
Substituting what we know about the Daniell cell into the equation gives the following result,
which represents the cell potential for the Daniell cell at 298K (25oC) at any moment in time.
0.0256 [Zn 2+ ]
E = EΘ − ln
2 [Cu 2+ ]

Using the Nernst Equation to Measure Equilibrium Constants

The Nernst equation can be used to measure the equilibrium constant for a reaction. To understand
how this is done, we have to recognize what happens to the cell potential as an oxidation-reduction
reaction comes to equilibrium. As the reaction approaches equilibrium, the driving force behind the
reaction decreases, and hence the cell potential approaches zero.
Θ RT
Thus at equilibrium: 0 = E − ln K c
nF
Rearranging this equation and substituting for E Θ from Nernst equation we have
Θ
At equilibrium: nFE = RT ln K c
According to this equation, we can calculate the equilibrium constant for any oxidation-reduction
reaction from its standard-state cell potential:
nFE Θ
Kc = e RT or taking natural log we have
nFE Θ nFE Θ
ln K c = or 2.303log10 K c =
RT RT

Electrochemical cells and Gibbs Energy of the reaction

The reversible work done by a galvanic cell is equal to decrease in its Gibbs energy and therefore, if
the emf (it is the potential of the cell when no current is drawn) of the cell is E and nF is the amount
of charge passed and ∆rG is the Gibbs energy of the reaction then ∆rG = -nFE, where
Electrical work done in one second is equal to electrical potential multiplied by total charge passed.
 9

If the activity of all the reacting species is unity, then E = E Θ and we have
∆rG Θ = -nFE Θ
From the standard Gibbs energy we can calculate equilibrium constant using equation ∆rG Θ = -RT
ln Kc.
Note:
It may be remembered that E(cell) is an intensive parameter but ∆rG is an extensive thermodynamic
property and the value depends on n. Thus, if we write the reaction
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
∆rG = - 2FE(cell)
but when we write the reaction
2 Zn(s) + 2 Cu2+(aq) → 2 Zn2+ (aq) + 2 Cu (s)
∆rG = -4FE(cell)

Batteries
Any battery (it may have one or more than one cell connected in series) or cell that we use as a
source of electrical energy is basically a galvanic cell where the chemical energy of the redox
reaction is converted into electrical energy. However, for a battery to be of practical use it should be
reasonably light, compact and its voltage should not vary appreciably during its use. There are
mainly two types of batteries.
1. Primary Batteries
In the primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and battery then
becomes dead after use over a period of time and cannot be reused
again.
(i) Dry cell
The most familiar example of this type is the dry cell (known as
Leclanche cell after its discoverer) which is used commonly in our
transistors and clocks. The cell consists of a zinc container that also
acts as anode and the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded
by powered manganese dioxide and carbon. The space between the
Dry cell
electrodes is filled by a moist paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2. The
electrode reactions are complex, but they can be written
approximately as follows:
Anode : Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e-
Cathode : MnO2 + NH4+ +e- → MnO(OH) + NH3
In the reaction at cathode, manganese is reduced from the +4 oxidation state to the +3 state,
ammonia produced in the reactions forms complex with Zn2+ to give [Zn(NH3)4]2+. The cell
has a potential of nearly 1.5 V.

(ii) Mercury cell

Mercury cell is suitable for the low current devices like hearing
aids and camera, etc. consists of zinc – mercury amalgam as
anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the cathode. The
electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO. The electrode reactions
for the cell are given below:
Anode : Zn(Hg) + 2OH- → ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e-
Cathode : HgO +H2O +2e- → Hg(l) +2OH-
Mercury cell

The overall reaction is represented by

Electrochemistry 10
Zn(Hg)+ HgO(s) → ZnO(s) + Hg(l)
The cell potential is approximately 1.35 V and remains constant during its life as the overall
reaction does not involve any ion in solution whose concentration can change during its life
time.

2. Secondary Batteries
A good secondary cell can undergo a large number of discharging and charging cycles.
(i) Lead Storage Battery: The most important secondary cell is the lead
storage battery commonly used in automobiles and invertors. It
consists of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide
(PbO2) as cathode. A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an
electrolyte.
The cell reactions when the battery is in use are given below:
Anode : Pb(s)+ SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s) +2e-
Cathode : PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
i.e., overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
On charging the battery the reaction is reversed and PbSO4(s) on anode
and cathode is converted into Pb and PbO2, respectively. Lead storage battery

(ii) Nickel Cadmium Cell: Another important secondary

cell is the nickel - cadmium cell, which has longer life
than the lead storage cell but more expensive to
manufacture. The overall reaction during discharge is:
Cd (s) + 2Ni(OH)3 (s) → CdO (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) +
H2O(l )

Fuel Cells
Galvanic cells that are designed to convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen,
methane, methanol etc. directly into electrical energy are
called fuel cells. One of the most successful fuel cells uses
the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water. In the
cell, hydrogen and oxygen are bubbled through porous carbon
electrodes into concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution. Catalysts like finely divided platinum or palladium
metal are incorporated into the electrodes for increasing the
rate of electrode reactions. The electrode reactions are given
below:

Anode : 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) → 4H2O(l) + 4e-

 11

Cathode : O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- → 4OH-(aq)

Overall reaction being:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

Corrosion
Corrosion slowly coats the surfaces of metallic objects with oxides or other salts of the metal. The
rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, development of green coating on copper and bronze are some of
the examples of corrosion.
Rusting
Corrosion of iron (commonly known as rusting) occurs in presence of water and air. Corrosion may
be considered essentially as an electrochemical phenomenon (though the chemistry of corrosion is
quite complex).
At a particular spot of an object made of iron, oxidation takes place and that spot behaves as an
anode and we can write the reaction:
Anode : 2Fe(s) → 2Fe2+ + 4e-
E Θ (Fe2+, Fe) = -0.44V

Electrons released at anodic spot move

through the metal and go to another spot on
the metal and reduce oxygen in presence of
H+ (which is believed to be available from
H2CO3 formed due to dissolution of carbon
dioxide from air into water. Hydrogen ion in
water may also be available due to
dissolution of other acidic oxides from the
atmosphere). This spot behaves as a cathode with the reaction:
Cathode: O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2O(l) [ E Θ = 1.23 V]
The over all reaction being:
2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) → 2Fe2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l) [ E Θ (cell) = 1.67V]
The ferrous ions are further oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to ferric ions which come out as rust in
the form of hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O) and with further production of hydrogen ions.
2Fe2+ + 2H2O + ½ O2(g) → Fe2O3 + 4H+

Prevention of Corrosion
One of the simplest methods of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface of the metallic object
to come in contact with atmosphere. This can be done by:
1. Covering the surface by paint or by some chemicals (e.g. bisphenol).
2. Other simple method is to cover the surface by other metals (Sn, Zn etc.) that are either inert or
react to save the object.
3. An electrochemical method is to provide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn
etc.) which corrodes itself but saves the object.
Electrochemistry 12
 13

SOLVED PROBLEMS
*Example 1: Resistance of a conductivity cell filled with 0.1M KCl solution is 100 Ω . If the
resistance of the same cell when filled with 0.02 M KCl solution is 520 Ω , calculate the
conductivity and molar conductivity of 0.02 M KCl solution. The conductivity of 0.1 M KCl
solution is 1.29 S/m.
Solution: The cell constant is given by the equation:
Cell constant = G* = conductivity × resistance = 1.29 S/m × 100 Ω = 129 m-1 = 1.29 cm-1
Conductivity of 0.02 M KCl solution = cell constant / resistance
= G* / R = 129 m-1 / 520 Ω = 0.248 S m-1
Concentration = 0.02 mol / L
= 1000 × 0.02 mol / m3
= 20 mol / m3
Molar conductivity = Λ m = κ / c
= 248 × 10-3 S m-1 / 20 mol m-3
= 124 × 10-4 S m2 mol-1
Alternatively, κ = 1.29 cm −1 / 520Ω
= 0.248 × 10-2 S cm-1
3 −1
and Λ m = κ ×1000 cm L / molarity
= (0.248 × 10-2 S cm-1 × 1000 cm3 L-1)/ 0.02 mol L-1
= 124 S cm2 mol-1

*Example 2: The electrical resistance of a column of 0.05 M NaOH solution of diameter 1 cm and
length 50 cm is 5.55 × 103 ohm. Calculate its resistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity.
Solution: A = π r2 = 3.14 × 0.52 cm2 = 0.785 cm2 or
0.785 × 10-4 m2 and l = 50 cm or 0.5 m
R = ρl / A or
ρ = RA / l = 5.55 × 103 Ω × 0.785cm 2 / 50 cm
= 87.135 Ω cm
Conductivity = κ = 1/ ρ = (1/ 87.135)Scm −1
= 0.01148 S cm-1
3 −1
Molar conductivity, Λ m = κ ×1000 cm L / molarity
= 0.01148 S cm-1 × 1000 cm3L-1/0.05 mol L-1
= 229. 6 S cm2 mol-1
If we want to calculate the values of different quantities in terms of ‘m’ instead of ‘cm’,
ρ = RA / l
= 5.55 × 103 Ω × 0.785 × 10-4 m2 / 0.5 m
= 87.135 × 10-2 Ω m
κ = 1/ ρ = 100 / 87.135 Ωm = 1.148S m −1
and Λ = κ / c = (1.148S m −1 ) / 50 mol m −3
= 229.6 × 10-4 S m2 mol-1.

*Example 3: Calculate Λ m for CaCl2 and MgSO4. ( Λ m for various cations are Ca2+ = 119.0, Mg2+ =
0 0

2−
106.0, Cl- = 76.3, SO 4 = 160.0)
Electrochemistry 14
2+ −
Solution: We know from Kohlrausch law that Λ (CaCl2 ) = λ (Ca ) + 2λ (Cl )
0 o o
m

= 119.0 S cm2 mol-1 + 2(76.3) S cm2 mol-1

= (119.0 + 152.6) S cm2 mol-1
= 271.6 S cm2 mol-1
Λ 0m (MgSO 4 ) = λ o (Mg 2+ ) + λ o (SO 4 2− )
= 106.0 S cm2 mol-1 + 160.0 S cm2 mol-1
= 266 S cm2 mol-1.

*Example 4: Λ m for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126.4, 425.9 and 91.0 S cm2 mol-1 respectively.
0

Calculate Λ m for HAc.

0

+ −
Solution: Λ m (HAc) = λ (H ) + λ (Ac )
0 o o

= λ o (H + ) + λ o (Cl− ) + λ o (Ac − ) + λ o (Na + ) − λ o (Cl− ) − λ o (Na + )

= Λ o (HCl) + Λ o (NaAc) − Λ o (NaCl)
= (425.9 + 91.0 − 126.4)Scm 2 mol−1
= 390.5Scm 2 mol−1 .

*Example 5: The molar conductivity of KCl solution at different concentrations at 298 K are given
below:
c/mol L–1 Λ m / S cm 2 mol−1
0.000198 148.61
0.000309 148.29
0.000521 147.81
0.000989 147.09
Show that a plot between Λ m and c is a straight line. Determine the values of Λ m and A for KCl.
1/2 o

Solution: Taking the square root of concentration we obtain:

–1 1/2
c1/ 2 / (mol L ) Λ m /S cm2 mol–1
0.01407 148.61
0.01758 148.29
0.02283 147.81
0.03145 147.09
A plot of Λ m (y-axis) and c1/ 2 (x-axis) is shown in Fig.
It can be seen that it is nearly a straight line. From the
intercept ( c1/ 2 = 0), we find that
Λ om =150.0 S cm2 mol–1 and
A = – slope = 87.46 S cm2 mol–1/(mol/L–1)1/2
[NCERT, P.No.80, Ex.3.6]

*Example 5: The conductivity of 0.001028 M acetic acid is 4.95 × 10-5 S cm-1. Calculate its
dissociation constant if Λ m for acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol-1.
0

κ 4.95 × 10−5 Scm −1 1000 cm3

Solution: Λ m = = ×
c 0.001028 molL−1 L
= 48.15 S cm2 mol-1
 15

Λ m 48.15Scm 2 mol−1
α= 0 = = 0.1233
Λ m 390.5Scm 2 mol−1
cα 2 0.001028 × (0.1233) 2
Ka = = = 1.78 × 10−5
(1 − α ) 1 − 0.1233

*Example 6: A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of 1.5 amperes.
What is the mass of copper deposited at the cathode?
Solution: t = 600 s
Charge = current × time
= 1.5 A × 600 s = 900 C
According to the reaction:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- = Cu(s)
We require 2F or 2 × 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu.
For 900 C, the mass of Cu deposited
= (63 g mol-1 × 900 C) / (2 × 96487 C mol-1)
= 0.2938 g.

*Example 7: Represent the cell in which the following reaction takes place
Mg(s) + 2Ag + (0.0001M) → Mg 2+ (0.130M) + 2Ag(s)
Calculate its E if E Θ = 3.17 V.
Solution: The cell can be written as
Mg | Mg 2+ (0.130M) || Ag + (0.0001M) | Ag.
RT [Ag + ]2
E = E Θ (cell) + ln
2F [Mg 2+ ]
0.059V (0.0001) 2
= 3.17 V + log = 3.17V − 0.21V
2 0.130
= 2.96 V.

*Example 8: Calculate the equilibrium constant of the reaction:

Cu(s) + 2Ag + (aq) → Cu 2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s)
E Θ = 0.46 V
Θ 0.059V
Solution: E (cell) = log K C or
2
0.46V × 2
log K C = = 15.6
0.059V
K C = 3.92 × 1015.

*Example 9: The standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1.1V. Calculate the standard Gibbs
energy for the reaction:
Zn(s) + Cu 2+ (aq) → Zn 2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
Θ Θ
Solution: ∆ r G = − nFE
∆ r G Θ = −2 × 1.1V × 96497 C mol−1
Electrochemistry 16
= −21229 J mol−1
= −21.229 kJ mol−1 .

Example 10: The potential of the following cell is 0.34 volt. Calculate the standard potential of the
copper half-cell.
Pt | H 2(l atm) | H (l+ M ) || Cu (l2+M ) | Cu
Solution:
Here the copper electrode is cathode.
E Θcell = E Θoxi(anode) − E oxi(cathode)
Θ

∴ E Θcell = E Θ1 − E Θcu / cu +2
H 2 |H +
2

∴ 0.34 volt = 0.00 volt − E ΘCu|Cu 2 +

E ΘCu|Cu 2 + = −0.34 volt
Θ
The standard reduction potential E Cu 2 + |Cu = +0.34 volt.

Example 11: The standard oxidation potentials of the half cells Co|Co2+ and Ni|Ni2+ are +0.28 volt
and +0.23 volt respectively. Calculate the equilibrium constant of the reaction occurring by
combining these two half cells at 25°C
Solution:
The oxidation potential of half-cell Co | Co 2+ is higher it will function as anode and Ni will function
as cathode. Hence, the total reaction occurring in the cell will be
2+ 2+
Co (s) + Ni (aq) ƒ Co (Aq ) + Ni (s)

E Θcell = E ΘCo|Co2 + − E ΘNi|Ni2 + = 0.28 − 0.23 = 0.05 volt

Θ 0.0592 ⎡⎣Co 2+ ⎤⎦
E cell = E cell − log
n ⎡⎣ Ni 2+ ⎤⎦
When the cell reaction attains the equilibrium state the value of E cell becomes equal 0.00 and under
these circumstances, ⎡⎣ Co ⎤⎦ / ⎡⎣ Ni ⎤⎦ = K c
2+ 2+

0.0592
∴ 0.00 = 0.05 − log K c ∴− 0.05 = −0.0296 log K c
2
0.05
∴ log K c = = 1.69
0.0296
∴ K c = Anti log (1.69) = 48.98

Example 12: The potential of the following cell is 1.04 volt at 25°C. Calculate the pH of the HCl
solution. (E ΘAg / Ag+ = −0.80 volt)
Pt | H 2(l atm) | HCl( xM) || Ag + (0.01M) | Ag
Solution:
E Θcell = E Θ1 − E ΘAg|Ag + = 0.00 − (−0.80) = 0.80 volt
H 2 |H +
2

Cell reaction:
 17

1 + +
H 2(g) + Ag (aq) ƒ H (Aq) + Ag (s)
2
Here n = 1
Θ 0.0592 ⎡⎣ H + ⎤⎦ 0.0592 ⎡⎣ H + ⎤⎦
E cell = E − log ;1.04 = 0.80 − log
cell
n ⎡⎣ Ag + ⎤⎦ 1 [ 0.01]
∴1.04 − 0.80 = 0.0592(log H + − log 0.01)
0.24
∴ = − log ⎣⎡ H + ⎦⎤ + (−2.0000) ∴ 4.50 + 2.00 = − log ⎣⎡ H + ⎦⎤
0.0592
∴ − log ⎡⎣ H + ⎤⎦ = pH = 6.50

Example 13: The potential of the following given cell is 0.59 volt. Calculate ionic product of water
(Kw).
Pt | H 2(l atm) | KOH (0.01M ) || HCl(0.001H) | H 2(l atm) | Pt
Solution : Cell reaction:
1 + −
Anode: H 2(l atm) ƒ H (xM ) + e (oxidation)
2
+ − 1
Cathode: H (0.01M) + e ƒ H 2(l atm) (reduction)
2
+ +
Cell reaction: H (0.01M ) ƒ H ( xM)
Θ
The H+ ion concentration change only in the cell ∴ E cell in the cell will be 0.00 volt

The concentration of OH- in solution of KOH is equal to 0.01 M. In aqueous solution, the existence
of H+ and OH- ions is always there and their concentration product becomes equal to K w. Hence, for
KOH solution,
⎡⎣ H + ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ OH − ⎤⎦ = K w , but ⎡⎣ OH − ⎤⎦ = 0.01M
Kw
∴ ⎡⎣ H + ⎤⎦ In solution KOH =
0.01
Θ 0.0592 concentration of H + in KOH solution
E cell = E cell − log
1 concentration of H + in HClsolution
0.0592 K / 0.01
∴ 0.59 = 0.00 − log w
1 0.01
0.59 Kw
∴ = − log = − log K w + log(0.01) 2
0.0592 ⎡⎣(0.01) ⎤⎦
2

∴ 9.968 = − log K w − 4.00

∴ log K w = −9.968 − 4.00 = −13.968
∴ K w = Anti log14.032 = 1.076 × 10−14

Example 14: Two cells containing NiSO4 and CuSO4 are combined in the series and electricity is
passed. How much nickel metal will be deposited if 1.00 gram, copper is deposited on copper
electrode? If cell-containing NiSO4 is replaced by cell containing AgNO3, how many grams of silver
Electrochemistry 18
will be obtained? (At. wt.: Cu = 63.5, Ni = 58.7, Ag = 108)
Weight of copper ( in gram ) 1.0
Solution: Moles of 1 gram of copper = = = 0.01575 mole
At.wt.of Cu ( gram / mole ) 63.5
The same quantity of electricity is passed through each cell.
The chemical reactions at cathode in each cell:

Cu (2aq+ ) + 2e − → Cu ( s ) ( 2 moles e −
,1 mole Cu )
Ni(2aq+ ) + 2e − → Ni( s ) ( 2 moles e − ,1 mole Ni )
2Ag (+aq ) + 2e − → 2Ag (s ) ( 2 moles e − , 2 mole Ag )

Observing the above reactions, 1 mole Cu, 1 mole Ni and 2 moles Ag are deposited by 2 moles of e-
According to the second law of Faraday, proportion of moles of metals.

Cu: Ni: Ag = 1: 1: 2

In experiment 0.01575 mole from 1g. of Cu are obtained. As a result, the proportion of the moles
of the metals produced are

Cu: Ni: Ag = 0.01575: 0.01575: (2 × 0.01575).

Weight of nickel metal = moles of Ni × at. wt. (gram/mole) of Ni

= 0.01575 × 58.7 = 0.9245 gram nickel will be obtained.

Weight of Ag metal = moles of Ag × at. wt. (gram/mole) of Ag.

= (2 × 0.01575) × 108 = 3.402 gram Ag will be obtained.

Example 15: An acidic solution of Cu+2 salt containing 0.4 g of Cu+2 is electrolysed until all the Cu
is deposited. The electrolysis is continued for seven more minute with the volume of solution kept at
100 mL and the current at 1.2 ampere. Calculate volume of gases evolved at N.T.P. during entire
electrolysis. At. Wt. of Cu = 63.6.
Solution. For I part of electrolysis
Anode: 2H2O → 4H+ + O2 + 4e−
Cathode: Cu+2 + 2e → Cu
∴ Eq. of O2 formed = Eq. of Cu
0.4 × 2
= = 12.58 × 10−3
63.6
For II part of electrolysis: Since Cu+ ions are discharged completely and thus further passage of
current through solution will lead the following changes.
Anode: 2H2O → 4H+ + O2 + 4e
Cathode: 2H2O + 2e → H2 + 2OH−
I.t 1.2 × 7 × 60
Eq. of H2 = Eq. of O2 = = = 5.22 × 10−3
96500 96500
∴ Total Eq. of O2 Eq. of H2 = 5.22 × 10−3
= 5.22 × 10−3 + 12.58 × 10−3 Q 2 Eq. of H2 at NTP
×
= 17.8 10 −3
= 22.4 litre
 19

Q 4 Eq. O2 at NTP = 22.4 litre ∴ 5.22 × 10−3 Eq. at NTP

22.4 × 5.22 × 10−3
∴ 17.8 × 10−3 Eq. O2 at NTP = litre
2
22.4 × 17.8 × 10−3
= litre = 58.46 mL
4
= 99.68 mL
∴ Total volume of O2 + H2 = 99.68 + 58.46 = 158.14 mL

Example 16: Dissociation constant for Ag ( NH 3 )2 into Ag+ and NH3 is 6 × 10−14. Calculate E Θ for
+

the half reaction.

Ag ( NH 3 )2 + e → Ag + 2NH3
+

Given, Ag+ + e → Ag has E Θ = 0.799 V.

Solution: Use
Ag → Ag + + e; E ΘOP = 0.799 V
Ag ( NH 3 )2 + e → Ag + 2NH 3 ;
+
E ΘRP = ?
Ag(NH 3 ) 2+ ƒ Ag + + 2NH 3
⎡ Ag ( NH 3 )+ ⎤
Θ 0.059 ⎣ 2⎦
and E cell = E + log10
⎡⎣ Ag ⎤⎦ [ NH 3 ]
cell 2
1 +

Also E Θcell = 0 and E Θcell = E ΘOP + E ΘRP

Ag / Ag + Ag ( NH3 )+ / Ag
2

Θ 0.059 0.059
∴ E cell = log10 K C = log10 6 × 10−14 = −0.780V
1 1
∴ E ΘAg NH + = − 0.780 + 0.799
( )
3 2 / Ag

= + 0.019 V

Example 17: Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction,

Fe + CuSO4 ƒ FeSO4 + Cu at 25o C.
o Θ
Given E OPFe = 0.44 V; E OPCu = − 0.337 V
Solution. In the change Fe is oxidized and Cu2+ is reduced
∴ E cell = E OP 2 + + E RP 2 +
Fe / Fe Cu / Cu

0.059 0.059
= E OP 2 + − log10 ⎡⎣ Fe 2+ ⎤⎦ + E RP 2 + + log10 ⎡⎣Cu 2+ ⎤⎦
Fe / Fe 2 Cu / Cu 2
0.059 ⎡⎣Cu 2+ ⎤⎦
E cell = E OP 2+ + E RP 2+ + log10 (1)
Fe / Fe Cu / Cu 2 ⎡⎣ Fe 2+ ⎤⎦
For Fe + CuSO4 ƒ FeSO4 + Cu
⎡⎣ Fe 2+ ⎤⎦
Kc = and at equilibrium Ecell = 0
⎡⎣Cu 2+ ⎤⎦
∴ By Equation (1)
Electrochemistry 20
0.059 1
0 = 0.44 + 0.337 + log10
2 Kc
∴ Kc = 2.18 × 1026

Example 18: Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction:

Fe2+ + Ce4+ ƒ Fe3+ + Ce3+
Θ Θ
Given E Ce4 + / Ce3+ = 1.44 V and E Fe3+ / Fe2 + = 0.68 V
0.059
Solution. E Θcell = log10 K c
1
E Θcell = E ΘOP + E ΘRP 4+ 3+ = −0.68 + 1.44
Fe2+ / Fe3+ Ce / Ce

= 0.76 V
0.76
∴ log10 K c = =12.8814
0.059
∴ Kc = 7.6 × 1012

+2 +
Example 19: For the cell Mg(s) | Mg ( aq ) | | Ag ( aq ) | Ag(s), calculate the equilibrium constant at 25o C
and the maximum work that can be obtained during operation of cell. Given
E ΘMg / Mg +2 = +2.37V and E ΘAg+ / Ag = +0.80V , R = 8.314 J
Solution. For the given cell, at equilibrium, the reaction is
Mg + 2Ag+ ƒ Mg+2 + 2Ag
E cell = 0 = E OP +2 + E RP +
Mg / Mg Ag / Ag

0.059 0.059 2
Θ
0 = E OP − log10 ⎡⎣ Mg +2 ⎤⎦ + E ΘRP + + log10 ⎡⎣ Ag + ⎤⎦
Mg / Mg +2 2 Ag / Ag 2
2
Θ 0.059 ⎡⎣ Ag + ⎤⎦
0 = E OP + E ΘRP + log10
Mg / Mg +2 Ag + / Ag 2 ⎡⎣ Mg +2 ⎤⎦
1
0.059
0 = 2.37 + 0.80 + 2 log10 K c
1
∴ log10 = − 107.457
Kc
or log10 Kc = 107.457 and E Θcell = 2.37 + 0.80 = 3.17 V
Now maximum work that can be obtained by cell is given by
−∆G Θ = Wmax
∴ Wmax = −∆G Θ
= n E Θ F = 2 × 96500 × 3.17
= 6.118 × 105 joule
= 6.118 × 102 kJ

Example 20: The potential of a standard electrochemical cell is 1.10 volt at 25°C temperature.
Calculate the equilibrium constant and free energy change of the following given reaction:
Zn ( s ) + Cu (2aq+ ) ƒ Zn (2aq+ ) + Cu (s )
 21

Solution: For this reaction n = 2

∆G Θ = −nFE Θcell = − RT ln K
= - 2.303 RT log K
nFE cell
∴ log K =
2.303RT
( R = 8.314 JK −1mol−1 )
2 × 96500 × 1.1
= = 37.2074
2.303 × 8.314 × 298
∴ K = 1.61 × 1037
∆G Θ = − nFE Θcell = - 2 × 96500 × 1.1 coulomb-volt or joule
= - 212300.0 joule
4.184 joule = 1 calorie
212300
∴− = - 50740.9 calorie = - 50.7409 kcal
4.184
Electrochemistry 22

PROBLEMS

Exercise I
Theoretical Questions
Q.1 Arrange the following metals in the order in which they displace each other from the solution
of their salts.
Al, Cu, Fe, Mg and Zn.

Q.2 Given the standard electrode potentials,

K+/K = –2.93V, Ag+/Ag = 0.80V,
Hg2+/Hg = 0.79V
Mg2+/Mg = –2.37 V, Cr3+/Cr = – 0.74V
Arrange these metals in their increasing order of reducing power.

Q.3 Depict the galvanic cell in which the reaction Zn(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) takes
place. Further show:
(i) Which of the electrode is negatively charged?
(ii) The carriers of the current in the cell.
(iii) Individual reaction at each electrode.

Q.4 Define conductivity and molar conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte. Discuss their
variation with concentration.

Q.5 Predict the products of electrolysis in each of the following:

(i) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with silver electrodes.
(ii) An aqueous solution of AgNO3with platinum electrodes.
(iii) A dilute solution of H2SO4with platinum electrodes.
(iv) An aqueous solution of CuCl2 with platinum electrodes.

Numerical Problems
Q.6 Calculate the standard cell potentials of galvanic cell in which the following reactions take
place:
(i) 2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cd
(ii) Fe2+(aq) + Ag+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + Ag(s)
Calculate the ∆rGΘ and equilibrium constant of the reactions.

Q.7 Write the Nernst equation and emf of the following cells at 298 K:
(i) Mg(s)|Mg2+(0.001M)||Cu2+(0.0001 M)|Cu(s)
(ii) Fe(s)|Fe2+(0.001M)||H+(1M)|H2(g)(1bar)| Pt(s)
(iii) Sn(s)|Sn2+(0.050 M)||H+(0.020 M)|H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s)
(iv) Pt(s)|Br2(l)|Br–(0.010 M)||H+(0.030 M)| H2(g) (1 bar)|Pt(s).

Q.8 In the button cells widely used in watches and other devices the following reaction takes
place:
Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) → Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) + 2OH–(aq)
Determine ∆rGΘ and EΘ for the reaction.
 23

Q.9 The conductivity of 0.20 M solution of KCl at 298 K is 0.0248 S cm–1. Calculate its molar
conductivity.

Q.10 The resistance of a conductivity cell containing 0.001M KCl solution at 298 K is 1500 Ω.
What is the cell constant if conductivity of 0.001M KCl solution at 298 K is 0.146 × 10 –3 S
cm–1.

Q.11 The conductivity of sodium chloride at 298 K has been determined at different
concentrations and the results are given below:
Concentration/M 0.001 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100
2 –1
10 × κ/S m 1.237 11.85 23.15 55.53 106.74
Calculate Λm for all concentrations and draw a plot between Λm and c . Find the value of Λ m .
½ 0

Q.12 Conductivity of 0.00241 M acetic acid is 7.896 × 10–5 S cm–1. Calculate its molar
conductivity. If Λ m for acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol–1, what is its dissociation constant?
0

Q.13 How much charge is required for the following reductions:

(i) 1 mol of Al3+ to Al.
(ii) 1 mol of Cu2+ to Cu.
(iii) 1 mol of MnO4– to Mn2+.

Q.14 How much electricity in terms of Faraday is required to produce

(i) 20.0 g of Ca from molten CaCl2.
(ii) 40.0 g of Al from molten Al2O3.

Q.15 How much electricity is required in coulomb for the oxidation of

(i) 1 mol of H2O to O2. (ii) 1 mol of FeO to Fe2O3.

Q.16 A solution of Ni(NO3)2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a current of 5

amperes for 20 minutes. What mass of Ni is deposited at the cathode?

Q.17 Three electrolytic cells A,B,C containing solutions of ZnSO4, AgNO3 and CuSO4,
respectively are connected in series. A steady current of 1.5 amperes was passed through
them until 1.45 g of silver deposited at the cathode of cell B. How long did the current
flow? What mass of copper and zinc were deposited?

Q.18 Using the standard electrode potentials, predict if the reaction between the following is
feasible:
(i) Fe3+(aq) and I–(aq)
(ii) Ag+ (aq) and Cu(s)
(iii) Fe3+ (aq) and Br– (aq)
(iv) Ag(s) and Fe3+ (aq)
(v) Br2 (aq) and Fe2+ (aq).

Exercise II
Theoretical Questions
Q.1 What is meant by Faraday constant?
Electrochemistry 24
Q.2 Explain with examples the terms weak and strong electrolytes. How can these be
distinguished?

Q.3 Why do we get different products at cathode during the electrolysis of molten NaCl and
aqueous sodium chloride?

Q.4 (i) State Kohlrausch’s law of independent migration of ions.

(ii) How can the law be applied for calculating degree of dissociation of weak electrolytes?

Q.5 Define conductivity and molar conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte. Discuss their
variation with concentration. What is the effect of temperature on the molar conductivity?

Q.6 What are the factors effecting the conductivity of electrolytic solutions?

Q.7 Why is it not possible to determine Λ o for a weak electrolyte? Explain.

Q.8 What is corrosion?

Q.9 What are primary cells? How does a dry cell function?

Q.10 Giving suitable examples explain the difference between galvanic cell and electrolytic cell.

Q.11 Write down the expression for molar conductance. State the meaning of symbols used. What
are its units?

Q.12 Can we store copper sulphate in iron vessel? Why?

E Θ : Cu2+ | Cu = 0.34 V, E Θ :Fe2+ | Fe = - 0.44 V.

Q.13 How is electrical energy obtained in fuel cells?

Q.14 How does the molar conductance of the electrolyte vary upon dilution?

Numerical Problems
Q.15 How much charge is required for the following reductions:
(i) 1 mol of Cu2+ to Cu.
(ii) 1 mol of MnO4- to Mn2+

Q.16 How many faradays of charge would be required to reduce 21.0 g of Na2[CdCl4] to metallic
cadmium? If current strength is 7.5 ampere, how much time will be needed?(At. Wt. of Cd =
112.4)

Q.17 In an electrolytic cell, how many moles of copper will be deposited from a solution of CuSO4
by 24125C of electricity?

Q.18 In a simple electrochemical cell, the half cell reaction with their standard electrode potentials
are:
Pb(s) - 2e- → Pb2+(aq) ; E Θ = - 0.13 V Ag(s) – e- → Ag+(aq) ; E Θ = + 0.80 V
Which of the following reactions take place? Also calculate the e.m.f. of cell:
 25

(i) Pb2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) → 2Ag+(aq) + Pb(s)

(ii) Pb2+(aq) + Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + Pb(s)
(iii) Ag+(aq) + Pb(s) → Ag(s) + Pb2+(aq)
(iv) 2Ag+(aq) + Pb(s) → 2Ag(s) + Pb2+(aq)

Q.19 Write the Nernst equation and e.m.f. of the following cells at 298 K:
(i) Mg(s) | Mg2+ (0.001M) || Cu2+ (0.0001 M) | Cu(s)
(ii) Fe(s) | Fe2+ (0.001 M) || H+(1M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt (s)
(iii) Sn(s) | Sn2+ (0.050 M) || H+(0.020 M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt(s).
Given data-
Mg(s)/ Mg2+(aq) ; E Θ = -2.38 V Cu2+(aq)/Cu(s) ; E Θ = 0.34 V
Θ
2+
Fe(s)/ Fe (aq) ; E = 0.41V H+(aq)/H2(g) ; E Θ = 0V
Sn(s)/Sn2+ ; E Θ = 0.14V

Q.20 Calculate the emf of a cell operating with the following reaction at 25°C, in which [MnO4-] =
0.010 M, [Br -] = 0.010 M, [Mn2+] = 0.15 M, and [H+] = 1.0 M.
2MnO4 (aq) + 10Br -(aq) + 16H+ (aq) → 2Mn2+ (aq) + 5Br2(l) + 8H2O(l)
-

Given data-
Mn O 4 → Mn2+ ; E Θ = 1.49V Br -(aq) → Br2(l) ; E Θ = 1.07V
−

Q.21 In the commercial preparation of aluminum, aluminum oxide, Al2O3, is electrolyzed at

1000°C. (The mineral cryolite is added as a solvent.) Assume that the cathode reaction is
Al3+ + 3e - → Al
How many coulombs of electricity are required to give 5.12 kg of aluminum?

Q.22 Consider the given standard potential (in volts) in 1 M solution:

Fe2+ → Fe ; E Θ = - 0.4 V, Fe3+ → Fe2+ ; E Θ = +0.8 V
Mn2+ → Mn ; E Θ = - 1.2V, Mn3+ → Mn2+ ; E Θ = + 1.5 V
(i) Comment on the relative stabilities of + 2 and + 3 oxidation states of iron and manganese.
(ii) Which of the two metals may be more easily oxidized to + 2 state?

Q.23 Calculate the emf of the following cell at 25°C.

Cr(s)|Cr3+(1.0 × 10-2 M) || Ni2+ (2.0 M) | Ni(s)
Given data –
Cr(s)/Cr3+(aq) ; E Θ = 0.74 V; Ni2+(aq)/ Ni(s) ; E Θ = 0.23V;

Flashback
CBSE 2002
Q.1 How does a fuel cell operate?
(1 out of 70)
-3
Q.2 The measured resistance of a conductance cell containing 7.5 x 10 M solution of KCl at 25°
C was 1005 ohms. Calculate (i) specific conductance (ii) molar conductance of the solution.
Cell constant = 1.25 cm-1.
(3 out of 70)

CBSE 2003
Electrochemistry 26
Q.1 Why does the molar conductance increase on diluting the solution of a weak electrolyte?
Electrolytic conductivity of 0.30 M solution of KCl at 298 K is 3.72 × 10-2 S cm-1. Calculate
its molar conductivity.
(2 out of 70)
Q.2 (i) State the factors that influence the value of cell potential of the following cell :
Mg (s) | Mg2+ (aq) || Ag+ (aq) | Ag (s)
(ii) Write Nernst equation to calculate the cell potential of the above cell.
(2 out of 70)
CBSE 2004
Q.1 How does molar conductivity vary with concentration for (i) weak electrolyte and for (ii)
strong electrolyte? Give reasons for these variations.
(2 out of 70)
Q.2 Write the Nernst equation and calculate the e.m.f. of the following cell at 298 K:
Cu (s) | Cu2+ (0.130 M) || Ag+ (1.00 × 10-4 M) | Ag (s)
Θ
Given: Ε Cu 2+ /Cu = +0.34 V and E Ag + /Ag = +0.80 V.
Θ

(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2005
Q.1 Predict the products of electrolysis obtained at the electrodes in each case when the
electrodes used are of platinum:
(i) An aqueous solution of AgNO3
(ii) An aqueous solution of H2SO4.
(2 out of 70)
Θ
Q.2 The E values at 298 K corresponding to the following two reduction electrode processes
are:
(i) Cu+/Cu = + 0.52 V
(ii) Cu2+/Cu+ = + 0.16 V
Formulate the galvanic cell for their combination. What will be the cell potential? Calculate
Θ
the ∆ r G for the cell reaction. (F = 96500 C mol-1)
(3 out of 70)
Q.3 The half-reactions are
(i) Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+, E Θ = 0.76 V
(ii) Ag+ + e- → Ag, E Θ = 0.80 V
Calculate Kc for the following reaction at 25o C:
Ag+ + Fe2+ → Fe3+ + Ag
(F = 96500 C mol-1)
(5 out of 70)
CBSE 2006
Q.1 (a) State two advantages of H2 –O2 fuel cell over ordinary cell.
(2 out of 70)
2
(b) Silver is electrodeposited on a metallic vessel of total surface area 900 cm by passing a
current of 0.5 amp for two hours. Calculate the thickness of silver deposited.
[Given: Density of silver = 10.5 g cm–3, Atomic mass of silver = 108 amu, F = 96,500 C
mol–1]
(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2007
 27

Q.1 On the basis of the standard electrode potential values stated for acid solution, predict
whether Ti4+ species may be used to oxidized FeII to FeIII.
Reaction Eo/ V
IV – → 3+
Ti + e Ti : + 0.01
3+ – → 2+
Fe + e Fe : + 0.77
(2 out of 70)
Q.2 Define conductivity and molar conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte.
(2 out of 70)
Q.3 Calculate the standard cell potential of the galvanic cell in which the following reaction takes
place:
2 Cr (s) + 3 Cd2+ (aq.) ⎯⎯ → 2 Cr3+ (aq.) + 3 Cd (s)
Θ
Also calculate the ∆ r G value of the reaction.
(Given: E Θ Cr3+ / Cr = −0.74 V; E Θ Cd 2+ / Cd = −0.40 V and F = 96500 C mol−1 )
(3 out of 70)
CBSE 2008
Q.1 Express the relation between the conductivity and the molar conductivity of a solution.
(1 out of 70)
Q.2 Depict the galvanic cell in which the reaction
Zn (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) 2Ag (s)
takes place, Further indicate what are the carriers of the current inside and outside the cell.
State the reaction at each electrode.
(2 out of 70)
Q.3 The resistance of a conductivity cell containing 0.001 M KCl solution at 298 K is 1500Ω.
What is the cell constant if the conductivity of 0.001 M KCl solution at 298 K is 0.146×10-3 S
cm-1?
(2 out of 70)
CBSE 2009
Q.1 What type of cell is a lead storage battery ? Write the anode and the cathode reactions and the
overall cell reaction occurring in the use of a lead storage battery.
OR
Two half cell reactions of an electrochemical cell are given below :
MnO 4− (aq) + 8H + (aq) + 5e − → Mn 2+ (aq) + 4H 2 O(l), E o = +1.51V
Sn 2+ (aq) → Sn 4+ (aq) + 2e − , E o = +0.15V
Construct the redox equation from the two half cell reactions and predict if this reaction
favours formation of reactants or product shown in the equation.
(2 out of 70)
Q.2 A copper-silver cell is set up. The copper ion concentration in it is 0.10 M. The concentration
of silver ion is not known. The cell potential measured 0.422 V. Determine the concentration
of silver ion in the cell.
Given : E Ag + / Ag = +0.80 V, E Cu 2+ / Cu = +0.34 V
o o

(3 out of 70)

CBSE 2010
Electrochemistry 28
Q.1 Express the relation among the cell constant, the resistance of the solution in the cell and the
conductivity of the solution. How is the conductivity of a solution related to its molar
conductivity ?
(2 out of 70)
Q.2 Given that the standard electrode potentials (Eo) of metals are :
K+ / K = –2.93 V, Ag+ / Ag = 0.80 V, Cu2+ / Cu = 0.34V, Mg2+ / Mg = –2.37 V,
Cr3+ / Cr = –0.74 V, Fe2+ / Fe = –0.44 V.
Arrange these metals in an increasing order of their reducing power.
OR
Two half-reactions of an electrochemical cell are given below :
MnO 4− (aq) + 8H + (aq) + 5e − → Mn 2+ (aq) + 4H 2 O(l), Eo = + 1.51V,
Sn 2+ (aq) → Sn 4+ (aq) + 2e − ,
Eo = + 0.15 V
Construct the redox reaction equation from the two half-reactions and calculate the cell
potential from the standard potentials and predict if the reaction is reactant or product
favoured.
(2 out of 70)
Q.3 Express the relation among the cell constant, the resistance of the solution in the cell and the
conductivity of the solution. How is the conductivity of a solution related to its molar
conductivity?
(2 out of 70)
CBSE 2011
Q.1 (a) What type of a battery is lead storage battery? Write the anode and cathode reactions
and the overall cell reaction occurring in the operation of a lead storage battery.

(b) Calculate the potential for half-cell containing

0.10 M K2Cr2O7 (aq), 0.20 M Cr3+ (aq) and 1.0 × 10–4 M H+ (aq)
The half-cell reaction is
Cr2 O 72− (aq) + 14H + (aq) + 6e − → 2Cr 3+ (aq) + 7H 2 O(l),
and the standard electrode potential is given as Eo = 1.33V.
OR
(a) How many moles of mercury will be produced by electrolysing 1.0M Hg(NO 3)2
solution with a current of 2.00 A for 3 hours?
[Hg(NO3− ) 2 = 200.6 g mol−1 ]
(b) A voltaic cell is set up at 25oC with the following half-cells Al3+(0.001 M) and Ni2+
(0.50 M). Write an equation for the reaction that occurs when the cell generates an
electric current and determine the cell potential.
(Given E Ni2+ / Ni = −0.25V, E Al3+ / Al = −1.66V )
o o

(5 out of 70)

ANSWERS
 29

Exercise I
Numerical Problems
Q.6 (i) EΘ = 0.34V, ∆rGΘ = –196.86 kJ mol–1, K = 3.16 × 1034,
(ii) EΘ = 0.03V, ∆rGΘ = – 2.895 kJ mol–1, K = 3.2
Q.7 (i) 2.68 V (ii) 0.53 V (iii) 0.08 V (iv) –1.315 V
Q.8 1.105 V Q.9 124.0 S cm2 mol–1 Q.10 0.210 cm–1
Q.12 1.85 × 10–5 Q.13 3F, 2F, 5F Q.14 1F, 4.44 F
Q.15 2F, 1F Q.16 1.803 g
Q.17 14.40 min, Copper 0.427g, Zinc 0.437 g

Exercise II
Theoretical Questions
Q.1 It represents 96500 C of charge
κ
Q.11 Λ= where c, the concentration of the electrolyte is expressed in mol m-3.The units of κ
c
thus take the form Sm-2mol-1.
Numerical Problems
1
Q.15 (i) 2F, (ii) 5F Q.16 0.140 F, 29.98 min Q.17 mol
8
Q.18 +0.93V Q.19 (i) 2.68V (ii) 0.53 V (iii) 0.08V (iv) -1.315V
Q.20 0.29V Q.21 5.49 x 107
Q.22 (i) Mn2+ is more stable than Fe2+ but Fe3+ is more stable than Mn3+
(ii) Mn will be oxidized to Mn2+ more readily as compared to Fe to Fe2+
Q.23 0.56V

Flashback
CBSE 2002
Q.2 (i) 0.001243 ohm-1 cm-1 (ii) 165.73 ohm-1 cm2 mol-1

CBSE 2003
Q.1 124 S cm2 mol-1
Θ 2.303RT [Mg 2+ (aq)]
Q.2 (ii) E cell − log
2F [Ag + (aq)]2

CBSE 2004
0.059 [Cu 2+ (aq)]
Q.2 E cell = E Θ Ag+ / Ag − E Θ Cu + / Cu − log , 0.251V
2 [Ag + (aq)]2

CBSE 2005
Q.2 E Θ cell = 0.36V, ∆ r G Θ = − 34740 J mol−1 Q.3 KC = 4.746

CBSE 2006
Q.1 (b) 4.2 × 10-4cm
CBSE 2007
Q.1 Ti4+ would not oxidize Fe+2 Q.3 196.86 Kjmol-1
Electrochemistry 30

CBSE 2008
Q.3 0.219 cm-1

CBSE 2009
Q.2 0.069M

CBSE 2010
Q.2 E o = 1.46V

CBSE 2011
Q.1 (b) E cell = 0.78V OR (a) 0.112 moles of Hg (b) E cell = 1.46V