MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

Concept 1 Biomolecules have unique properties that determine how they contribute to the structure and function of cells and how they
participate in the processes necessary to maintain life.
Structure and function of proteins and their constituent amino acids
1. Amino Acids
Amino Acids – organic molecules containing a 1) carboxyl group 2) amino groups;
attached to a alpha carbon (chiral centre), Hydrogen atom and a side chain R
(determines the properties of the amino acids and its function)
 Optically active (rotates the plane of plan polarized light, except for Glycine)
 20 alpha-amino acids encoded by the human genetic code – proteinogenic amino
acids
 Chiral (except for Glycine)
 Naturally occurring proteins are L amino acids

In aqueous solution, amino acid and carboxylic groups will ionize to give zwitterionic
form (dipolar ion) [carboxyl group loses H+, while NH2 gains H+]

1A. Classification of Amino Acids

Classified based on their side structures – 1) charge 2) Hydrogen bonding 3) acidic / basic
Non-Polar, Hydrophobic Polar, Hydrophilic
Reaction with Water Do not react with water Reacts with water
Side Chains Alkyl (contains alkyl side group, + glycine which Neutral – Side chains that contain an oxygen or
behaves like an alkyl) sulfur atom – creates a localised negative charge
over the rest of the side chain – polar enough to
Glycine interact with water but not strongly polar enough
Alanine, Valine, Leucine and Isoleucine – alkyl side to be an acid or base
chains containing 1-4 carbons
Methionine – one of the two amino acids with a Acidic – have a carboxylic acid as part of their side
sulfur attached to it; sulfur does not induce polarity chain  strong hydrogen donor  donate to form
since it has a methyl group attached to it an anion form
Proline – cyclic amino acid; amino nitrogen
becomes a part of the side chain Basic

Aromatic (Phenylalanine and Tryptophan)

Tyrosine (OH added to phenylalanine -> polar)

Side Chains at Neutral pH Acidic (Negatively Charged) Basic (Positively Charged)

Amino Acids  2 – Aspartate (Asp) and Glutamate (Glu)  3 = Arginine (Arg), Lysine (Lys) and Histidine
 Sides chains have Carboxylic Acid groups (His)
whose pKa are low enough to lose enough  Contains nitrogen and resembles ammonia
to lose protons, becoming negatively (base)
charged in the process  High pKa – bind protons, gaining positive
charge

1B. Reactions of Amino Acids

a) Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
Cystine = side chain with a thiol group (--SH)
Cystine = 2 cysteine forming a disulfide bond
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

b) Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins

Amino acids form polypeptide chains via peptide bonds, which are formed when the amine of one amino acid forms a covalent amide bond
with the carbonyl carbon on the 2nd amino acid, releasing H20 in the process (dehydration synthesis)

c) Hydrolysis – breaking a peptide bond with an addition of hydrogen to one AA’s amine group and a hydroxyl to the other AA’s carbonyl
carbon
Peptide bonds are strong  requires a strong base (or biological enzyme) to hydrolyze

2. Protein Structure
Protein consists of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into specific conformations
Protein Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
Structure
Sequence of amino acids Formation of alpha helices Folding of the protein to a Shape produced by
and beta pleated sheets compact 3-dimensional combination of polypeptides
Encodes information shape of a polypeptide
required for folding
Stabilized Covalent (amide/peptide) Hydrogen bonds (H with O) 5 forces Same as tertiary but between
by bonds between amino acids between groups along the 1/ Covalent Disulfide Bond two or more polypeptides
peptide backbone between cysteines
2/ Hydrogen Bonds
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
H is attached a N atom (hence3/ Electrostatic Interactions
having strong affinity for O)(between Acidic and Basic)
4/ Van der Waals
5/ Hydrophobic Packing –
hydrophobic and hydrophilic
interactions between the R
groups of amino acid
Alpha helix – coil like structure held together by hydrogen bonding between every forth amino acid; rolls clockwise around a central axis

Beta Sheets – polypeptide chain connected by H bonds between parts of the 2 parallel polypeptide backbones
 Can be parallel or anti-parallel
 Reinforced by H-bonds between carbonyl oxygen of one amino acid and the hydrogen on the amino acid of another
role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
Conformational stability
Conformation refers to the protein’s 3D structure -> active form of the protein
Solvent Shell – layer of solvent surrounding a protein which stabilises the protein

Conformational stability depends not only the interactions that contributes to the primary to quaternary structures; but also the external
environment
Denaturation occurs when the protein becomes unfolded or inactive
 Protein loses 3D structure
 Often irreversible and cannot catalyse reactions
 Solutes denatures proteins by directly interfering with the forces that holds the protein together  disrupts the tertiary and
quaternary structures by breaking the disulphide bridges or by overcoming hydrogen bonds and other side chain interactions
 Can be denatured by altering:
o 1) Temperature – increasing temp -> protein gains energy -> vibration breaks the bonds between the amino acids -> protein
unfolds -> affects secondary to quaternary structures
o 2) pH – breaks the ionic bonds  affects tertiary and quaternary structures
o 3) Enzymes
o 4) Chemicals – disrupts H-bond -> affects secondary to quarternary structures
Separation techniques
Isoelectric point - The isoelectric point for a polypeptide is the pH at which the molecule does not have a net charge.
 Influenced by the anionic or cationic character of the protein’s amino acid side chains at certain pH

Separation – performed by the movement of proteins over a pH gradient in a gel electrophoresis

 Proteins at their isoelectric point also have lower solubility and may precipitate out of solution
 Cathode (negative) is a high pH end, while anode (positive) is at the low pH end
 Proteins moving from left to right get their protons stripped off and become more negative.
 Negatively charged acidic proteins would be found towards the left, closer to lower pH’s (they have lower
isoelectric points)
 Positively charged basic protons will be found towards the right, closer to higher pH’s (they have higher isoelectric
points.

Electrophoresis

Polypeptides – polymers constructed from the same set of 20 amino acids

Non-Enzymatic Protein Functions

Binding
Immune System
Motors

Enzymes
Structure and Functions
Enzyme – biological catalyst, that accelerates chemical reactions in a biological system by interacting with the reactants (enzyme’s substrates)
which stabilises their transition state, which in turn lowers the activation energy for the reaction, an a lower activation energy which allows for
the reaction to proceed faster.
 Enzymes are reusable and are not consumed in the reactions
Enzyme Classification by Reaction Type
Oxidoreductase Oxidation of a hydrogen (or electron) donor (loses) and reduction of
the acceptor (gains)
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Transferases Move a functional group from a donor molecule to an acceptor
molecule
Hydrolases Couple breaking a bond with hydrolytic cleavage
Lyases Breaking a bond with elimination to form a double bond (or ring) or
adding a double bond
Isomerases Alter the geometry or structure of the reactant molecule
Ligases Couple forming a bond (joining 2 molecules) with ATP hydrolysis
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Concept 3A Structure and Functions of Nervous and Endocrine Systems; Coordination of Organ Systems
Nervous and Endocrine systems work together to detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and maintain
homeostasis
Nervous System: Structure and Function
Structure and Organisation of Nervous System
1/ Central Nervous System (Brain/ Spinal Cord) – integrates sensory information and responds accordingly
Brain – integrates most sensory information and coordinates body functions (both consciously and unconsciously)
Spinal Cord – conduit for signals between the brain and the rest of the body; also controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes without the input
from the brain
- Encased in bone – brain (within cranium); spinal cord (within a canal through the vertebrae)
- Bathed with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) – provides special chemical environment for the nervous tissue and as a buffer against physical
damage.
- 2 tissues – gray matter and white matter
The Spinal Cord
Structure
 Long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the medulla oblongata of the brain to the level of
lumbar region
 Encased by vertebral column (the spine)

Peripheral region displays neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor neurons; while internal is the grey, butterfly shaped
central region made up of nerve cell bodies.

Protected by 3 layers of tissue called meninges (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater) and divided into 3 regions (cervical, thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae).
 Dura Mater – outermost layer of spinal cord tissue, forming a tough protective coating. Epidural space is between dura mater and
surrounding bone
 Arachnoid Mater – middle layer
 Pia Mater – innermost protective layer; subarachnoid space is between the pia and arachnoid mater, and is where the cerebral
spinal fluid (CSF) is located – CFS fluid is obtained in a spinal tap from this location at the level of the lumbar area
 Cervical – neck and arms ; Thoracic – thorax and abdomen; lumbosacral – pelvic region, legs and feet

Function of Spinal Cord – 1) transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body (both directions) 2) independent control
of certain reflexes (reflex arc)

2/ Peripheral Nervous System (all parts outside of Brain / Spinal Cord) – network of spinal and cranial nerves that are linked to the brain.
Consist of sensory receptors which processes changes in internal/external environment.  Information is sent to CNS via afferent sensory
nerves
Subdivided into
1) Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – carries signals to and from skeletal muscles; voluntary; usually in response to external stimuli.
2) Automatic Nervous System (ANS) – regulates the internal environment by controlling smooth and cardiac muscles and the
organs of the digestive, cardiovascular, excretory, and endocrine systems; involuntary; efferent neurons
Two neurons to transmit messages from the spinal cord – preganglionic and postganglionic
 Sympathetic – ‘fight or flight’ response to stress, danger, excitement, exercise, emotions and embarrassment. – Increase
respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline and other stress hormones, and decreases digestion.
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

 Parasympathetic – ‘rest and digest’ response when the body is relaxed, resting and feeding. Decrease respiration, and heart
rate, increase digestion and permit elimination of waste.
Both systems have opposing influences on the same organs and
thus exert antagonistic control
Major Functions (S,I,M)
1. Sensory (Input) - detect external/internal signals
from sensory receptors that monitors internal and external
conditions. Signals are passed on to the Central Nervous System
(CNS) for processing by afferent neurons (and nerves)
2. Integration – processing of sensory signals passed
into the CNS. Occurs in the gray matter of the brain and spinal
cord and is performed by the interneurons.
3. Motor (Output) – carry signals from the gray matter
of the CNS through the nerves of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) to effector cells via the efferent neurons.

Sensory Neurons – senses, carries sensory signals from the body to the CNS
Efferent Neurons – causes an effect; carries motor signals from the CNS to the body
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

Reflexes
Feedback Loop
Positive – to reinforce initial event
 Uterine contraction leads to oxytocin release  causes more uterine contraction
 Blood clotting platelets activated at wound site will result in more platelet activation and clumping
Negative – to counteract initial event
 Drop in blood pressure causes ADH release, which increase BP
Reflex Arc – a neural pathway that controls an action reflex.
 Do not pass through the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord in higher animals
 Allows reflex actions to occur relatively quickly by activating spinal motor neurons without delay of routing signals through the brain
 Two types of Reflex Arcs – 1) Automatic – affecting inner organs 2) somatic reflex – affecting muscles

Most involves 3 neurons – sensory, relay and motor

Sensory – convey information from receptor to the spinal cord
Motor – convey information from the spinal cord to the effector
Relay – in between sensory input & motor output; allowing the sensory neuron to communicate with the motor neurons

Monosynaptic – single synapse between the sensory neuron that receives stimulus and the motor neuron that responds to it. (knee jerk
reflex); Polysynaptic – at least one interneuron between the sensory and motor neuron (withdrawal reflex – stepping on nail)

Supraspinal circuits – involves input from the brain or brain stem

Brain can override spinal reflex
Integration with Endocrine System
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

Nerve Cells

Nerves conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (nerve impulses / action potential) carried by individual neurons.
Types of nerves -
1) Afferent – conducts signals from sensory neurons to the CNS
2) Efferent – conducts signals away from the CNS to the target muscles/gland
3) Mixed - both afferent and efferent axons, and thus conduct both incoming sensory information and outgoing muscle commands in
the same nerve bundle.
Cluster of neurons – nucleus (CNS); ganglion (PNS)
Cell body - site of nucleus
Dendrites - branched extensions of cell body which revives signals from other neutrons
Axon
 longer extension of the cell body and transmits signals to other cells (neurons or effector cells)
 Divides into several branches, each with ends in a synaptic terminal
 Bundle of Axons – called tracts (in CNS); nerves in (PNS)
Myelin Sheath
 Axons can be myelinated or un-myelinated
 Contains Layer of fatty insulating substance (Glia) which Insulates and surrounds the axon
 Does not allow Na+/K+ to pass through it – which allows fast propagation of action potentials along neurons in the nervous system
(Saltatory Conduction)
Grey Matter – Un-myelinated neurons and other cells of the CNS such as glial cells & dendrites
White Matter – composed mainly of bundles of myelinated axons, with a few neuronal bodies and connects the various grey matter regions
of the nervous system to each other and carries nerve impulse between neuron
Synapse - Site of impulse propagation between a synaptic terminal of an axon of a neuron and another cell; Information is passed from the
transmitting neuron (presynaptic cell) to the receiving cell (postsynaptic cells) by means of neurotransmitter (transmitter molecule)
Nodes of Ranvier – Microscopic gaps found within the myelinated axon which speeds up propagation of action potentials along the axon via
saltatory conduction
Glia/ Neuroglia – supporting cells that are essential for the structural integrity of the nervous system and the normal functioning of the
neurons; do not convey electrical signals; capable of cell division
6 Types of glia cells (MESAOS)
 Microglia – macrophages of the CNS
 Ependymal Cells – epithelial cells that line the space containing the cerebrospinal fluid
 Satellite cells – supports ganglia
 Astrocytes – provide structural support for neurones and regulate the extracellular concentrations of ions and neurotransmitters
 Oligodendrocytes – form myelin in CNS
 Schwann Cells – myelin in PNS
Glia that form the myelin sheaths around the axons (wraps them in many layers of membrane); mostly lipid (poor conductor of electrical
currents thus providing electrical insulation of the axon)
Neuron Communciation and Biosignalling
Neuronal Charged Membrane
 Neurons has a charged cellular membrane
 Change in response to neurotransmitter molecule released from other neurons and environmental stimuli
 Lipid bilayer membrane that surrounds neuron is impermeble to charged molecules or ions
 More permeable to K+ -> K+ leaks out through potassium leakage channels (holes in cell wall)
 Partially permeable to Na+  sodium leaks slowly through sodium leakage channels
Types of Membrane Potential
 Membrane potential – electrical potential difference across their plasma membrane caused by the differences in the concentration
of ions inside and outside the cell.
 Equilibrium Potential – membrane voltage at equilibrium when the electrical gradient balances the concentration gradient
 Resting Potential – membrane potential when the neurons are not transmitting signals
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems Framework
o -60 and -80mV: more Na+ outside than inside the neurons and more K+ inside than outside the neuron
o Na+ and K+ gradients maintained by the sodium-potassium pump as the Na+ and K+ ions leaks out through the K+/Na+
leakage channels
o Results from the diffusion of Na+ and K+ through ion channels that are always open
 Action Potential – membrane potential during transmission of a signal within a neuron

Sodium Potassium Pump

 Functions to maintain or re-establish chemical gradient that is lost by diffusion
 Prevents equilibrium and replenishes concentration gradients of the ions so that resting potential is constant when neuron is at rest

Nerst Equation

Action Potential – releases neurotransmitter by presynpatic axon terminal and picked up by receptor of postsynaptic neuron
 initiated at the beginning of the axon
 ‘all-or-none’ – either the membrane reaches treshold and everything occurs or the membrane does not reach and nothing happens
 All peak at same voltage  intensity of stimuli can be initiated by frequency of action potential or the numer and type of receptors
that respond but signals are not stronger

1. Resting – cell at rest, sodium-potassium pump maintaining resting

potential (-70mV). Ion channels are closed so the established ion gradient won’t
leak.
2. Depolarisation – Na+ channel opens in response to a stimuli  Na+
enters nto the a nerve cell  polarity reverses; concentration gradient for Na+
is strong enough that Na+ continues to enter even after equilibrium potential.
3. Repolarisation – electric gradient reaches treshold. Na+ channels closes
up, but K+ opens. K+ exits membrane  membrane potential drops.
4. Hyperpolarisation – occurs when the K+ channels are open and delayed
closing which results in overshooting beow the resting potential
Refractory Period – when an action potential is in progress and another one
cannot be intiated.
At Absolute Refractory Period – voltage gated Na+ channels are inactivated

Concentration cell: direction of electron flow, Nernst equation

Synaptic Activity
Communication between neurons occurs in the synapse.
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

Electrical Synapse
Direct physical connection between the presynaptic neuron and
the postsynpatic neuron
Connection takes form of gap junction – which allows current –
ion to flow directly from one cell to another
Do not involve diffusion of chemicals and transmits signals more
rapidly than chemical synapse
Signals are propagated bidirectionally – meaning both cells
involved in the synapse can send and receive signals

Chemical Synapse
- Neurotransmitter are released and carries information from
presynaptic to post-synaptic cell
- Unidirectional
When neurotransmitter binds to its receptor – causes ion
channels to open or close, producing a localised change in the membrane potential

1. Action potential depolarises the plasma membrane of the synaptic terminal

2. Opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in the membrane  triggers influx of Ca2+
3. Elevated Ca2+ concentration in the terminal causes synaptic vesicles (containing neurotransmittor) to fuse with the presynpatic
membrane
4. Vesicle release neurotransmitter into the synpatic cleft
5. Neurotransmitter binds to the repor portion of the ligant gated ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane, opening the channels.
6. Synaptic transmission ends when the neurotransmitter diffuses out of the synpatic cleft, is taken up by the synaptic terminal or
another cell, or degraded by an enzyme.

 Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP) – depolarising which brings membrane potential toward the tresholds; single EPSP may
not be large enough to bring neuron to treshold but a sum of EPSP can trigger an action potential
 Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) – hyperpolarising, and brings membrane potential below treshold

Spatial Summation – integration of postsynaptic potential that occurs in different location, but at about the same time
Temporation Summation – integration of postsynaptic potential that occur in the same location, but at slightly different times.
Gated Ion Channel – ion channels are gated and do not always freely allow ions to diffuse across the membrane.

Voltage Gated Channel - responds to changes in the electrical properties of the membrane in which it is embeded.

Ligand Gated Ion Channel – opens when a signaling molecule (ligand) binds to the extracellular region.
1. The ligand (neurotransmitter) binds to the extracellular region of the channel
2. Induces a conformational change of the protein -> channel opens, allowing certain ions to pass through (reverse case is also true
where channel is always open, and ligand binding causes it to open)

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR)

- Only found in eukayrotes; 7 transmembrane alpha-helices; G-proteins have the ability to bind with GTP (Guanosine Trisphosphate)
and GDP (Guanosine Diphosphate)
- G-proteins in GPCR are heterotrimeric – three sections (alpha, beta, gamma subunits)
- Inactive (binds with GDP at alpha subunit), Active (GTP)
1. Binding of Ligand at the receptor of the CPCR
2. Conformational change of the protein occurs – alpha subunit exchanges GDP for GTP
3. Alpha subunit dissociates from beta and gamma subunit, and regulates target protein
4. Target protein relays signal
5. GTP is hydrolysed into GDP (loss of phosphate)
6. Ligand leaves

Enzyme Linked Receptors – receives signals from chemical messengers + function as enzymes
1. Extracellular side binds with ligand
2. Causes intracellular side to act as an enzyme

Example: Receptor Tyrosine Kinase

MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

Lipids
Biological molecules that are nonpolar (hydrophobic); made up of mostly hydrocarbon chains, soluble in organic solvent – alcohols & ester.

Function – 1) store energy for long term use in the form of fat 2) insulation from environment 3) make up cell membrane and provide building
blocks for hormones.

Steroids – formed from the cyclization of squalene (a terpene)

Terpenes – organic compounds characterised by the presence of the repeating carbon skeleton of isoprene (C5H8)

Terpenoids
dd
 MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Endocrine System: Hormones and Their Sources
Endocrine System – consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secretes hormones to control and regulate body processes (specific chemical
control at cell, tissue and organ level)
Endocrine Gland – ductless glands which secretes hormones directly into the surrounding fluids
Hormones
Signalling molecule released by endocrine glands into the blood stream to target cells to explicit a response, in response to specific stimuli.
- Highly specific – requires specific binding sites (receptor proteins)
- Affect target cell at cellular level by – 1) change cell membrane permeability 2) alter metabolic pathway 3) change rate of cell division
- Most cells have receptors for more than one type of hormones and hormones can interact with one another
-
3 mechanisms: 1) humoral – due to change in chemicals in blood 2) neural – direct nervous stimulation 3) hormonal

Endocrine Gland – ductless glands which secretes hormones directly into the surrounding fluids.

Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland

Hypothalamus – structure of the diencephalon of the brain located anterior and inferior to the thalamus.
Pituitary Gland – consists of an anterior and posterior lobe and secretes hormones in responds to signals
from the hypotha
 MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Releasing Hormone (Hypothalamas) Pituitary Hormone Target Effects
1) Posterior Pituitary Gland
Anti-Diuretic Hormone Both hormones are stored in Kidneys, Sweat Glands and Circulatory System Facilitate re-absorption of water
Oxytocin the posterior pituitary gland Female Reproduction System Stimulates contraction of uterine and dilation of cervix, milk secretion
2) Anterior Pituitary Gland
Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Thyroid Gland Triggers secretion of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) which regulates metabolism
(TRH)
Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone Gonadotropin – Includes two glycoproteins which regulates function of gonads.
(GnRH) Follicle-stimulating horrmones Reproduction System Production and maturation of sex cells – ova / sperm
(Regulated through a negative Promotes follicular growth which releases estrogen in female ovareis
feedback loop) Luteinizing Hormone Females – triggers ovulation
Males – production of testosterone
Growth Hormone Releasing Growth Hormone or a) Glucose Sparing Effect – stimulates lipolysis (breakdown of adipose tissue to breakdown store fat to stimulate growth)
Hormone (GHRH) or Somatostatin Somatotropin b) Diabetogenic effect – stimulates liver to breakdown glycogen into glucose -> liver releases IGF-1 which stimulates (c)
c) Growth Effects – growth, protein synthesis by triggering liver/bones/muscles to produce insulin-like growth factors  incr. body growth and higher metabolic rate
Corticotropin Releasing Hormone Adrenocoricotropic Hormone / Adrenal Cortex Release glucocorticoids via the second messenger system using cAMP
(CRH) Coricotropin

Endocrine Gland Hormone Target & Effects

3) Parathyroid Gland Parathryoid Hormone (PTH) Raises blood calcium levels by:
 Embedded in the posterior  Stimulating osteoclasts -> secretes enzymes that degrade bone and release calcium into the interstitial fluid.
surface of the thyroid gland  Inhibits osteoblasts (bone deposition)  sparing blood calcium.
 Most people have 4  increased reabsorption of calcium (and magnesium) in the kidney tubules from the urine filtrate.
parathyroid gland  Initiates the production of the steroid hormone calcitriol (kidneys) -> stimulates increased absorption of dietary calcium by the
 Chief Cells – epithelial; intestines.
primary function cell
4) Thryoid Gland Triidothryonine (T3), Thyroxine (T4)  Increased basal metabolic rate of body cells: T3, T4 binds to intracellular receptors on the mitochondria – causing increased nutrient
 Located anterior to the breakdown and the use of oxygen to produce ATP
trachea, just inferior to the  Initiate transcription of genes involved in glucose oxidation
larynx.  Heat is byproduct - > increase in body temperature
 Hormones are produced in Calcitonin – secreted by the parafollicular cells of the Decreases blood calcium levels by:
the colloid thryoid; released in response to rise in blood calcium  Inhibiting activity of osteoclasts (Bone cell that release calcium into the circulation by degrading bone matrix)
level  Increasing osteoblastic activity and calcium loss in urine. decreasing calcium absorption in the intestines
5) Adrenal Gland – Wedges of glandular and neuroendocirne tissue adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule
a) Adrenal Cortex Cortisol – stimulated by ACTH Increase blood glucose levels: Promote catabolism of glygogen -> glucose, triglycerides -> fatty acids/glycerol, muscle proteins -> Amino Acids
Aldosterone Increase blood sodium level
b) Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Stress response -> Responsible for sympathetic (fight-or-flight) responses in the body.
6) Pineal Gland – located inferiror and Melatonin – secreted by pinealocyte in response to Regulates circadian rhythm
interior of the thalamus changes in light (phontons which stimulates retinas) Light inc-> impulse sent to suprachiamatic nucleus (SCN) -> production of melatonin inhibited -> promotes wakefulness
Light dec. -> melatonin inc. -> boosting blood levels and causing drowsiness
7) Testes Testosterone Development of testes and prostate, Promotes secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, body hair.
8) Ovaries Estrogens – secreted by ovaries during the menstrual  sexual and reproductive development, mainly in women.
cycle  Develop the endometrium of the uterus
Progesterone – secreted by the corpus letum during Maintain the endometrium (uterine lining) of the uterus and maintain pregnancy
menstrual cycle
9) Placenta – develops during pregnancy HCG (Human Chrionic Gonadotropin) Estrogen and HCG stimulates corpus luteum to grow and release estrogen and progesterone
Progesterone Estrogen (enlargement of mother’s sex organs; stimulates prolactin secretion).
10) Pancreas – pancreatic islets Insulin (beta) Reduces blood glucose level 
Glucagon (alpha) Decrease blood glucose lelve
Somatostatin (delta) Inhibits insulin and glucagon release
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP cells) Role in appetite
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems

T3 and T4 (Negative Feedback)

1/ pKa – Dissociation constant; indicates the strength of an acid.

2/ Alkyl side group – organic chemical that contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms
MCAT – Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Concept 3B: Structure and Integrative Functions of the Main Organ Systems