URBN ISSUES

Course Report
Subject Code: BAP 513

WHAT ARE CITIES?

URBAN AREAS
GENERAL ISSUES OF URBAN ISSUES

Bhoomika Mehta (01606142015)

Ishika (02606142015)
Jyoti Meena (03506142015)
Priyanka Singh (03706142015)

Faculty Coordinator: Ar. Kshitij Sinha

Department of Architecture and Planning

Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
Chapter 2: What are the cities? 5
Chapter 3: Urban Areas 6
Chapter 4: Urban Issues 9
Chapter 5: Conclusion 13

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Abstract
Urbanization is pervasive and recent phenomenon. In the present global atmosphere, all nations undergo
with the challenges of environment, social, transportation, economy in their respective cities. These issues
are commonly occurred in developing countries due to the difference of development in cities and villages
(Latif Fauzi, 2007). Most countries focus on the development of cities instead of rural areas. Consequently,
the urban areas are equipped with infrastructure, public facilities as well as provide employment
opportunities compared to the rural areas.

The topics covered in this study are cities,which includes the function and services available in the city and
the category of cities based on population density. Then the next subject is urban areas that include the
identification of urban areas by population density. It also contains the urban agglomeration, outgrowth,
and urban villages information. The final topic is general urban area issues. Cities and urban areas are
associated with various issues, such as congestion, migration, housing, unemployment, slum and squatter
settlements, transportation, water, waste disposal, urbanization-related health problems, crime and
pollution.

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List of Tables

S.No. Table Title Page Number

Table – 1 Number of UAs/Towns and Out Growths (OGs) 8

Table – 2 Classification of Urban Areas 9
Table - 3 Hierarchy of Urban Areas 10

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Chapter 1: Introduction

The Guest for the lecture was Professor Awadhendra Sharan who is trained as a historian at Delhi University
and subsequently at the University of Chicago where his doctoral thesis was on ‘The Question of
Untouchability in Colonial Bihar, 1860s to 1950s’. Professor Sharan has delivered guest lecture at the
School of Planning and Architecture, Delhi and at Delhi University. his works have been published in
various research journals and in the Sarai Reader series.

In the lecture, Professor Sharan discussed about what all elements combine to form an Urban Area. He
discussed about socio nature of cities and said that cities are sites of conflicts. He talked about the issues of
urban areas like pollution, migration, infrastructure, etc. While, discussing about migration he also talked
about urban villages “Aabadi” and how they gradually became high density areas with lack of infrastructure
facilities.

Chapter 2: What are the cities?

A town is a large community of people. It can be categorized as a permanent and densely settled area with
administratively defined boundaries whose members mainly work on non-agricultural activities. Cities have
housing, transport, sanitation, utilities, land use, and communication systems. Population density facilitates
interaction between individuals, government organizations, and businesses, benefiting various parties in the
process at times.

A town is distinct from other human settlements because of its relatively large scale, but also because of its
functions and its unique symbolic status, which a central authority may grant. The word may also apply to
either the city's physical streets and buildings or the collection of people living there, and may be used to
describe residential rather than rural territory in a

Approximately half of the world's population now lives in cities after two centuries of unprecedented and
rapid urbanization, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability. Current cities usually
form the core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas— creating numerous commuters for
employment, entertainment, and building to city centers. In a world of increasing globalization, however,
all cities are also connected globally beyond these regions in different degrees.

Towns with population of 1,00,000 and above are called cities.

Cities are divided into many parts depending on the population-

 Class I Towns
 Million Plus Towns
 Mega-cities
 Metropolitan cities
 Class I Towns: The Towns which have at least 1,00,000 persons as population are
categorized as Class I Town.
 Million Plus Towns: Towns which have a population of one million (10 Lakh) or above each
are known as Million Plus Cities.
 Metropolitan cities- cities having a population of more than 10 lakhs or one million and above.
these are also known as metro cities
 Mega-cities- A megacity is a very large city metropolitan area with population over 10
million.
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Chapter 3: Urban Areas

Urban

The build-up of the central city and the suburban realm – the city and the surrounding environs
connected to the city (a general term for towns, cities and suburban areas).

Urban Areas

For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;

1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc.

2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria:

i) A minimum population of 5,000;

ii) At least 75 percent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and

iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

The first category of urban units is known as Statutory Towns. These towns are notified under law by
the concerned State/UT Government, and have local bodies like municipal corporations, municipalities,
municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their demographic characteristics as reckoned on 31st
December 2009.
Examples: Vadodara (M Corp.), Shimla (M Corp.) etc.

The second category of Towns (as in item 2 above) is known as Census Town. These were identified
on the basis of Census 2001 data.

Urban Agglomeration (UA):

An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining outgrowths
(OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such towns.
An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town and its total population (i.e. all the
constituents put together) should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census. In varying local
conditions, there were similar other combinations which have been treated as urban agglomerations
satisfying the basic condition of contiguity. Examples: Greater Mumbai UA, Delhi UA, etc.

Out Growths (OG):

An Out Growth (OG) is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an enumeration block made up of
such village or hamlet and clearly identifiable in terms of its boundaries and location. Some of the
examples are railway colony, university campus, port area, military camps, etc., which have come up
near a statutory town outside its statutory limits but within the revenue limits of a village or villages
contiguous to the town.

While determining the outgrowth of a town, it has been ensured that it possesses the urban features in
terms of infrastructure and amenities such as pucca roads, electricity, taps, drainage system for disposal
of waste water etc. educational institutions, post offices, medical facilities, banks etc. and physically
contiguous with the core town of the UA. Examples: Central Railway Colony (OG), Triveni Nagar
(N.E.C.S.W.) (OG), etc. Each such town together with its outgrowth(s) is treated as an integrated urban
area and is designated as an ‘urban agglomeration’.

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In the 2011 Census, 475 places with 981 OGs have been identified as Urban Agglomerations as against
384 UAs with 962 OGs in 2001 Census.

Number of UAs/Towns and Out Growths (OGs):

Type of Towns/UAs/OGs Number of towns

2011 Census 2001 Census

1 Statutory Towns 4,041 3,799

2 Census Towns 3,894 1,362
3 Urban Agglomerations 475 384
4 Out Growths 981 962
Table – 1: Number of UAs/Towns and Out Growths (OGs)
Source: Census of India, 2011

At the Census 2011 there are 7,935 towns in the country. The number of towns has increased by
2,774 since last Census. Many of these towns are part of UAs and the rest are independent towns. The
total number of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, which constitutes the urban frame, is 6166 in the
country.

Population of UAs/Towns:

1. The total urban population in the country as per Census 2011 is more than 377 million constituting
31.16% of the total population.

2. Class I UAs/Towns: The UAs/Towns are grouped on the basis of their population in Census. The
UAs/Towns which have at least 1,00,000 persons as population are categorised as Class I UA/Town.
At the Census 2011, there are 468 such UAs/Towns. The corresponding number in Census 2001 was
394.

3. 264.9 million persons, constituting 70% of the total urban population, live in these Class I
UAs/Towns. The proportion has increased considerably over the last Census. In the remaining classes
of towns the growth has been nominal.

4. Million Plus UAs/Towns: Out of 468 UAs/Towns belonging to Class I category, 53 UAs/Towns
each has a population of one million or above each. Known as Million Plus UAs/Cities, these are the
major urban centres in the country. 160.7 million persons (or 42.6% of the urban population) live in
these Million Plus UAs/Cities.18 new UAs/Towns have been added to this list since the last Census.

5. Mega Cities: Among the Million Plus UAs/Cities, there are three very large UAs with more than 10
million persons in the country, known as Mega Cities. These are Greater Mumbai UA (18.4 million),
Delhi UA (16.3 million) and Kolkata UA (14.1 million). The largest UA in the country is Greater
Mumbai UA followed by Delhi UA. Kolkata UA which held the second rank in Census 2001 has been
replaced by Delhi UA. The growth in population in the Mega Cities has slowed down considerably
during the last decade. Greater Mumbai UA, which had witnessed 30.47% growth in population during
1991-2001 has recorded 12.05% during 2001-2011. Similarly Delhi UA (from 52.24% to 26.69% in
2001-2011) and Kolkata UA (from 19.60% to 6.87% in 2001-2011) have also slowed down
considerably.

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CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN AREAS

Table - 2: Classification of Urban Areas

Note: Names of local authorities may vary as per states’ traditions and laws.
Source: Modifications for the UDPFI Guidelines based on census classification and State experiences.
*Any urban centres even having less than 5,000 population may be given a statutory status and be called as a Statutory
Town and Census of India follows 6-fold classification as per the population size.

Small towns can be referred as ‘transitional towns’ mentioned in the 74th CAA where a Nagar
Panchayat (as a municipality) is to be formed for an area in transition from a rural area to an urban area.

Agglomeration of urban nodes along with its peri-urban and rural areas are currently observed in the
Metropolitan cities II (like n Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad) and in Megapolis.
However, ‘Conurbation’ of settlements is on much larger scale, which may develop accounting for
population more than 5 crore and with adjoining several large cities and few metropolitan cities.

The URDPFI Guidelines focus on the statutory towns. However, the concepts stated in these Guidelines
can be easily made applicable to all human settlements, whether notified as a municipality, cantonment,
special economic zone, port trust area or even a village.

HIERARCHY OF URBAN AREAS

A planned city for an environment of convenience should have a hierarchical structure; with each unit
planned for basic self‐sufficiency.

● The smallest planning unit is conceived as Housing Area for 5000 population with convenience
shopping, open area, Anganwadi and milk booth as minimum infrastructure provision.

● The higher level of additional facilities is to be provided at Neighbourhood, Community, District,

Zonal, Sub‐city and Regional levels. The hierarchy of development on the basis of population is given
in the following table:

S. No. Planning Unit Population

1 Housing Cluster/ Neighbourhood 5000

2 Neighbourhood 5000-15,000

3 Community Up to 100,000

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4 District* 5 Lakh

5 Zonal 10 Lakh

6 Sub City Centre 25 Lakh - 50 Lakh

7 City 50 Lakh +
Table - 3: Hierarchy of Urban Areas
Source: UDPFI Guidelines, 1996; MPD, 2021, Jaipur Master Plan. *Ward at 3-lakh population.

Chapter 4: Urban Issues

It is observed that increasingly growing urbanization level demands further development in new areas
for housing, public amenities, industrial and other uses of urban land. Nevertheless, the lack of clear
urban boundaries has resulted in urban slumping affecting environmentally sensitive areas, large
agricultural areas and areas that are not suitable for development (TCPD, 2006). In addition, the high
demand of land use at strategic areas also has led to land use variances. These situations led to various
urbanization issues such as environmental pollution, traffic congestion, depletion of green areas and
degradation in the quality of urban living.

Problems caused by rapid urbanization

Urbanization issues in the Indian context: India is known around 73 percent of its population living in
rural villages for its rural population in the world. Urban population development as well as
urbanization rate has typically been slow compared to most other Asian countries.

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When evaluating the urbanization process from an Indian perspective, it is observed that Urban Sprawl,
Overcrowding, Housing, Unemployment, Slums and Squatter Settlements, Transport, Water, Sewerage
Problems, Trash Disposal, Urban Crimes, and Urban Pollution Problem are major problems in this
nation.

While urbanization was a mechanism for economic, social and political progress, it could pose serious
socio-economic problems. The absolute magnitude of urban population, random and unplanned urban
growth, and lack of infrastructure due to urbanization are major issues in India. The rapid growth of
both natural and migratory urban population has put enormous strain on public utilities such as housing,
sanitation, transportation, food, power, nutrition, and education.

Poverty, homelessness, and underemployment were wild between rural refugees, beggars, robberies,
dacoities, burglaries, and other social sins. The urban slump invades the valuable farmland. India's urban
inhabitants were over 285 million, according to demographic estimates in 2001. It is estimated that more
than 50% of the population of India will be living in urban areas by 2030. There are many things that need
to be addressed.

Urban sprawl, or real urban development, of rapidly growing cities, both in population and geography, is
the main cause of urban disorder. Financial support in most cities is unable to address the issues generated
by their growth. Huge immigration from rural areas as well as from small towns to large towns has occurred
almost consistently and as a consequence the size of the town is increased. Historical records indicate that
the initial large flow of migration from rural to urban areas was during the late 1930s "depression" when
people moved to seek work. Subsequently, another one million people migrated to urban areas during the
decade 1941-51, in response to the period of war industrialization and country division in 1947. Over 20
million people migrated to urban areas during 1991-2001.
It is commonly observed that such large cities attracted most people to gain job opportunities and live in
modern style. Such hyper-urbanization leads to higher sizes of cities that challenge imagination. Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore are examples of urban slump due to huge migration of people from
the nearby places.
Migration consequences:

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● Overcrowding: Overcrowding is a situation where there is too little space for many people to live
in. Overcrowding in urban areas is a consistent result of overpopulation. Obviously, due to the
massive movement of people from undeveloped ar-eas, cities are expected to increase their size,
but it squeezed in a small space due to overcrowding.

● Housing: It's another intense issue because of India's urbanization. Overcrowding in urban areas
leads to a constant problem of housing scarcity. This issue is particularly severe in those urban
areas where there is a large invasion of unemployed or underemployed immigrants who have been
unable to find a place to live when coming from nearby cities and towns.
Lack of building materials and financial resources, inadequate extension of public utilities into
suburban areas, deprivation and urban indian jobs, deep caste and family ties, and lack of sufficient
roads to suburban areas where most of the land available for new construction is to be found are
the main factors for housing problems.

● Unemployment: Like the housing problem, the problem of unemployment is also serious. Urban
unemployment is estimated at 15-25% of the labor force in India. This percentage among educated
people is even higher. Around half of all qualified urban unemployed youth live in four
metropolitan cities namely Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai.
Furthermore, while urban income is higher than rural income, due to high living costs in urban
areas, it is terribly low. The major causes of urban unemployment are the enormous movement of
people from rural to urban areas.

● Slums and Squatter Settlements: The normal progress of unregulated, unpredictable and
spontaneous urban growth is the rise and spread of slums and unlawful resident settlements that are
prominent in Indian cities ' environmental architecture, particularly urban centres. The rapid
urbanization combined with industrialization led to the expansion of slums.
The explosion of slums is caused by many factors, such as the lack of developed land for housing,
the high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor, a large influx of rural migrants in search of
jobs into the cities.

● Transport: Urbanization faces a major transportation infrastructure problem. Nearly all India's
cities and towns are suffering from severe transport issues with road blockage.
Transport problem is growing and becoming more complicated as the scale of the town increases.
With its growth, the town performs varied and complex functions and more people move to work
or shop.

● Water: Water is one of nature's most essential elements to preserve life and from the very start of
human society. Nonetheless, water supply has begun to fall short of demand as the cities have
grown in size and weight.

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● Sewerage Problems: Urban centers in India are equipped with inadequate sewage facilities almost
consistently. Two major causes of this pitiable state of affairs are the financial shortage faced by
the municipalities and the illicit expansion of the cities. Many cities do not have appropriate
treatment facilities for sewage waste and it is discharged into a river or sea as in Mumbai, Kolkata
and Chennai, and these practices are polluting the water bodies.

● Trash Disposal: Urbanization has pushed Indian cities to grow in numbers and sizes, resulting in
people facing the alarming issue of waste disposal. Huge quantities of trash from Indian cities are
creating a serious health problem. Most cities have inadequate garbage disposal arrangements and
the existing landfills are filled to the edge. These landfills are disease breeding grounds and
numerous poisons that leak into their surroundings.
Waste putrefies in the open inviting disease that carries flies and rats and a filthy, poisonous liquid
called leachate that leaks from below and contaminates groundwater. People living near the
decomposing waste and raw sewage become victims of various diseases including dysentery,
malaria, influenza, jaundice, diarrhoea, and typhoid.

● Health problems due to urbanization: Economic conditions, social conditions, living

environment, public health facilities access and use, hidden / unlisted slums, and increasing
migration are factors affecting health in slums.Environmental problems can cause many other
problems, such as poor air quality, which can cause asthma and allergies and lead to physical
inactivity. Impure water supply can allow infectious diseases to spread through water supply or
through food, such as waterborne diseases or food-borne diseases. Overall, poor quality of the
environment contributes to 25â€"33% of global ill health.
Living conditions affect physical, mental and social health. There are numerous examples that
affect human health such as exposure to lead, pollution, asbestos, fungus production, crowding,
respiratory disease, and infectious disease transmission, injuries, and mental illness. The health
impacts of inadequate housing conditions are a complex issue involving a variety of exposures
(physical, chemical, biological, building and social factors) and various health outcomes such as
asthma and allergies, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular effects, injuries, poisoning, mental
illnesses. Overcrowding problems, lack of resources, homelessness, unemployment, and lack of
education and social services can contribute to numerous social concerns such as crime, abuse,
substance use, drop-out rates in high school, and mental health issues.

● Urban Crimes: In India's developed cities, people connect with different types of individuals who
are not similar to each other. With the increase in urbanization, the crime problem is increasing. In
fact the increasing trend in urban crimes tends to upset peace and tranquillity of the cities and make
them insecure to live in mainly for the women. The problem of urban crime is becoming more
complicated in current situation because criminals often get shelter from politicians, bureaucrats
and leaders of the urban society. Dutt and Venugopal (1983) reported that violent urban crimes like
murder, assassination, abduction, dacoity, theft are more common in the nation's northern-central
parts. In the north-central region, even economic crimes such as stealing, fraud, and breach of trust
are concentrated. Crimes related to poverty are common in Patna, Darbhanga, Gaya and Munger
cities. This may be due to this area's deprivation.

● Problem of Urban Pollution: Increasing urbanization in the current situation has resulted in out
of proportion industry and transport systems being developed. These developments are primarily
responsible for environmental contamination, especially in the urban environment. Urban pollution
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is primarily the collection of city-created impurities that would certainly shock urban residents. It
includes air, water, all of the ground. Due to urbanization, air pollution has dangerous
consequences. Cities are the source of several hazardous gases, especially vehicles such as
passenger cars, lorries, carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrous
oxides (Nox), benzene, ozone as well as fine particles released by diesel engines that pose a serious
threat to human health. Heating systems use fossil fuels that also contaminate city center soil.
However, in numerous urban agglomerations, the main source of the worsening of air quality is
from industrial facilities which emit veritable poisons into the air, which is then inhaled by the
riverside dwellers.
Water is also source of pollution in urban areas.Cities have drawn millions of rural residents to
their familiar coasts since earlier times. Each of these people needed food to survive and eat for
other basic needs. Cities under continuous development need to expand their potential for water
resources and water treatment. This has created seemingly insoluble challenges in many countries,
where millions of people are not given regular access to clean water. So far so sewage is concerned,
the lack of reliable storage and disposal systems means that wastewater is often merely poured back
into nature, often into the ocean, creating significant and long-lasting pollution problems.

Chapter 5: Conclusion

Cities offer opportunities, connect people, and often make life more realistic in everyday life. Therefore, a
city should be built with regard to the everyday life that takes place there and it is important that the city
binds us to our individual and collective identity in order to create a more just and sustainable urban
development. Good connections improve selection, promote social cohesion, make places lively and secure,
and encourage interaction between people. Quality urban design reflects how transportation infrastructure
and services can connect and promote sustainable neighborhoods and cities. Cities will always keep
growing therefore, issues that occur in Urban Area needs to be resolved in its initial phase by learning from
past and considering future growth and possibilities to prevent it to become a major problem and discomfort
for people living in cities.

References

[1] Dave Cohen and Carlos Matos. Third Year Projects – Rules and Guidelines. Royal Holloway,
University of London, 2013.

[2] Census of India, 2011.

[3] Ministry of Urban Development. “Urban and Regional Development Plans Formulation &
Implementation (URDPFI) Guidelines 2014”. 2014. Volume 1. Nirman Bhavan, New Delhi.

[4] https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/General-Studies/notes/urbanization-their-problems-
and-their-remedies.html

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