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Numbers and more in Python!
In this lecture, we will learn about numbers in Python and how to use them.
We'll learn about the following topics:
1.) Types of Numbers in Python
2.) Basic Arithmetic
3.) Differences between classic division and floor division
4.) Object Assignment in Python
Types of numbers
Python has various "types" of numbers (numeric literals). We'll mainly focus on integers and floating point
numbers.
Integers are just whole numbers, positive or negative. For example: 2 and -2 are examples of integers.
Floating point numbers in Python are notable because they have a decimal point in them, or use an exponential
(e) to define the number. For example 2.0 and -2.1 are examples of floating point numbers. 4E2 (4 times 10 to
the power of 2) is also an example of a floating point number in Python.
Throughout this course we will be mainly working with integers or simple float number types.
Here is a table of the two main types we will spend most of our time working with some examples:
Examples Number "Type"
1,2,-5,1000 Integers
1.2,-0.5,2e2,3E2 Floating-point numbers
Now let's start with some basic arithmetic.
Basic Arithmetic
In [1]:
2+1
Out[1]:
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In [2]:
2-1
Out[2]:
In [3]:
# Multiplication
2*2
Out[3]:
In [4]:
# Division
3/2
Out[4]:
1.5
In [5]:
# Floor Division
7//4
Out[5]:
Whoa! What just happened? Last time I checked, 7 divided by 4 equals 1.75 not 1!
The reason we get this result is because we are using "floor" division. The // operator (two forward slashes)
truncates the decimal without rounding, and returns an integer result.
So what if we just want the remainder after division?
In [6]:
# Modulo
7%4
Out[6]:
4 goes into 7 once, with a remainder of 3. The % operator returns the remainder after division.
Arithmetic continued
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In [7]:
# Powers
2**3
Out[7]:
In [8]:
# Can also do roots this way
4**0.5
Out[8]:
2.0
In [9]:
# Order of Operations followed in Python
2 + 10 * 10 + 3
Out[9]:
105
In [10]:
# Can use parentheses to specify orders
(2+10) * (10+3)
Out[10]:
156
Variable Assignments
Now that we've seen how to use numbers in Python as a calculator let's see how we can assign names and
create variables.
We use a single equals sign to assign labels to variables. Let's see a few examples of how we can do this.
In [11]:
# Let's create an object called "a" and assign it the number 5
a = 5
Now if I call a in my Python script, Python will treat it as the number 5.
In [12]:
# Adding the objects
a+a
Out[12]:
10
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What happens on reassignment? Will Python let us write it over?
In [13]:
# Reassignment
a = 10
In [14]:
# Check
a
Out[14]:
10
Yes! Python allows you to write over assigned variable names. We can also use the variables themselves when
doing the reassignment. Here is an example of what I mean:
In [15]:
# Check
a
Out[15]:
10
In [16]:
# Use A to redefine A
a = a + a
In [17]:
# Check
a
Out[17]:
20
The names you use when creating these labels need to follow a few rules:
1. Names can not start with a number.
2. There can be no spaces in the name, use _ instead.
3. Can't use any of these symbols :'",<>/?|\()!@#$%^&*~-+
4. It's considered best practice (PEP8) that names are lowercase.
5. Avoid using the characters 'l' (lowercase letter el), 'O' (uppercase letter o
h),
or 'I' (uppercase letter eye) as single character variable names.
6. Avoid using words that have special meaning in Python like "list" and "str"
Using variable names can be a very useful way to keep track of different variables in Python. For example:
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In [18]:
# Use object names to keep better track of what's going on in your code!
my_income = 100
tax_rate = 0.1
my_taxes = my_income*tax_rate
In [19]:
# Show my taxes!
my_taxes
Out[19]:
10.0
So what have we learned? We learned some of the basics of numbers in Python. We also learned how to do
arithmetic and use Python as a basic calculator. We then wrapped it up with learning about Variable Assignment
in Python.
Up next we'll learn about Strings!
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Variable Assignment
Rules for variable names
names can not start with a number
names can not contain spaces, use _ intead
names can not contain any of these symbols:
:'",<>/?|\!@#%^&*~-+
it's considered best practice (PEP8 (https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/#function-and-variable-
names)) that names are lowercase with underscores
avoid using Python built-in keywords like list and str
* avoid using the si
ngle characters `l` (lowercase letter el), `O` (uppercase letter oh) and `I` (u
ppercase letter eye) as they can be confused with `1` and `0`
Dynamic Typing
Python use
s *dynamic typing*, meaning you can reassign variables to different data types. Th
is makes Python very flexible in assigning data types; it differs from other langu
ages that are *statically typed*.
In [1]:
In [2]:
my_dogs
Out[2]:
In [3]:
my_dogs = ['Sammy', 'Frankie']
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In [4]:
my_dogs
Out[4]:
['Sammy', 'Frankie']
Pros and Cons of Dynamic Typing
Pros of Dynamic Typing
very easy to work with
faster development time
Cons of Dynamic Typing
may result in unexpected bugs!
you need to be aware of type()
Assigning Variables
Variable assignment follows name = object , where a single equals sign = is an assignment operator
In [5]:
a = 5
In [6]:
Out[6]:
Here we assigned the integer object 5 to the variable name a .
Let's assign a to something else:
In [7]:
a = 10
In [8]:
Out[8]:
10
You can now use a in place of the number 10 :
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In [9]:
a + a
Out[9]:
20
Reassigning Variables
Python lets you reassign variables with a reference to the same object.
In [10]:
a = a + 10
In [11]:
Out[11]:
20
There's actually a shortcut for this. Python lets you add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers with
reassignment using += , -= , *= , and /= .
In [12]:
a += 10
In [13]:
Out[13]:
30
In [14]:
a *= 2
In [15]:
Out[15]:
60
Determining variable type with type()
You can check what type of object is assigned to a variable using Python's built-in type() function. Common
data types include:
int (for integer)
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float
str (for string)
list
tuple
dict (for dictionary)
set
bool (for Boolean True/False)
In [16]:
type(a)
Out[16]:
int
In [17]:
a = (1,2)
In [18]:
type(a)
Out[18]:
tuple
Simple Exercise
This shows how variables make calculations more readable and easier to follow.
In [19]:
my_income = 100
tax_rate = 0.1
my_taxes = my_income * tax_rate
In [20]:
my_taxes
Out[20]:
10.0
Great! You should now understand the basics of variable assignment and reassig
nment in Python.<br>Up next, we'll learn about strings!
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Advanced Strings
String objects have a variety of methods we can use to save time and add functionality. Let's explore some of
them in this lecture:
In [1]:
s = 'hello world'
Changing case
We can use methods to capitalize the first word of a string, or change the case of the entire string.
In [2]:
# Capitalize first word in string
s.capitalize()
Out[2]:
'Hello world'
In [3]:
s.upper()
Out[3]:
'HELLO WORLD'
In [4]:
s.lower()
Out[4]:
'hello world'
Remember, strings are immutable. None of the above methods change the string in place, they only return
modified copies of the original string.
In [5]:
Out[5]:
'hello world'
To change a string requires reassignment:
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In [6]:
s = s.upper()
s
Out[6]:
'HELLO WORLD'
In [7]:
s = s.lower()
s
Out[7]:
'hello world'
Location and Counting
In [9]:
s.count('o') # returns the number of occurrences, without overlap
Out[9]:
In [10]:
s.find('o') # returns the starting index position of the first occurence
Out[10]:
Formatting
The center() method allows you to place your string 'centered' between a provided string with a certain
length. Personally, I've never actually used this in code as it seems pretty esoteric...
In [11]:
s.center(20,'z')
Out[11]:
'zzzzhello worldzzzzz'
The expandtabs() method will expand tab notations \t into spaces:
In [12]:
'hello\thi'.expandtabs()
Out[12]:
'hello hi'
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is check methods
These various methods below check if the string is some case. Let's explore them:
In [13]:
s = 'hello'
isalnum() will return True if all characters in s are alphanumeric
In [14]:
s.isalnum()
Out[14]:
True
isalpha() will return True if all characters in s are alphabetic
In [15]:
s.isalpha()
Out[15]:
True
islower() will return True if all cased characters in s are lowercase and there is at least one cased character
in s, False otherwise.
In [16]:
s.islower()
Out[16]:
True
isspace() will return True if all characters in s are whitespace.
In [17]:
s.isspace()
Out[17]:
False
istitle() will return True if s is a title cased string and there is at least one character in s, i.e. uppercase
characters may only follow uncased characters and lowercase characters only cased ones. It returns False
otherwise.
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In [18]:
s.istitle()
Out[18]:
False
isupper() will return True if all cased characters in s are uppercase and there is at least one cased character
in s, False otherwise.
In [19]:
s.isupper()
Out[19]:
False
Another method is endswith() which is essentially the same as a boolean check on s[-1]
In [20]:
s.endswith('o')
Out[20]:
True
Built-in Reg. Expressions
Strings have some built-in methods that can resemble regular expression operations. We can use split() to
split the string at a certain element and return a list of the results. We can use partition() to return a tuple
that includes the first occurrence of the separator sandwiched between the first half and the end half.
In [21]:
s.split('e')
Out[21]:
['h', 'llo']
In [22]:
s.partition('l')
Out[22]:
('he', 'l', 'lo')
Great! You should now feel comfortable using the variety of methods that are built-in string objects!
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Strings
Strings are used in Python to record text information, such as names. Strings in Python are actually a
sequence, which basically means Python keeps track of every element in the string as a sequence. For
example, Python understands the string "hello' to be a sequence of letters in a specific order. This means we
will be able to use indexing to grab particular letters (like the first letter, or the last letter).
This idea of a sequence is an important one in Python and we will touch upon it later on in the future.
In this lecture we'll learn about the following:
1.) Creating Strings
2.) Printing Strings
3.) String Indexing and Slicing
4.) String Properties
5.) String Methods
6.) Print Formatting
Creating a String
To create a string in Python you need to use either single quotes or double quotes. For example:
In [1]:
# Single word
'hello'
Out[1]:
'hello'
In [2]:
# Entire phrase
'This is also a string'
Out[2]:
'This is also a string'
In [3]:
# We can also use double quote
"String built with double quotes"
Out[3]:
'String built with double quotes'
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In [4]:
# Be careful with quotes!
' I'm using single quotes, but this will create an error'
File "<ipython-input-4-da9a34b3dc31>", line 2
' I'm using single quotes, but this will create an error'
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
The reason for the error above is because the single quote in I'm stopped the string. You can use
combinations of double and single quotes to get the complete statement.
In [5]:
"Now I'm ready to use the single quotes inside a string!"
Out[5]:
"Now I'm ready to use the single quotes inside a string!"
Now let's learn about printing strings!
Printing a String
Using Jupyter notebook with just a string in a cell will automatically output strings, but the correct way to display
strings in your output is by using a print function.
In [6]:
# We can simply declare a string
'Hello World'
Out[6]:
'Hello World'
In [7]:
# Note that we can't output multiple strings this way
'Hello World 1'
'Hello World 2'
Out[7]:
'Hello World 2'
We can use a print statement to print a string.
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In [8]:
print('Hello World 1')
print('Hello World 2')
print('Use \n to print a new line')
print('\n')
print('See what I mean?')
Hello World 1
Hello World 2
Use
to print a new line
See what I mean?
String Basics
We can also use a function called len() to check the length of a string!
In [9]:
len('Hello World')
Out[9]:
11
Python's built-in len() function counts all of the characters in the string, including spaces and punctuation.
String Indexing
We know strings are a sequence, which means Python can use indexes to call parts of the sequence. Let's
learn how this works.
In Python, we use brackets [] after an object to call its index. We should also note that indexing starts at 0 for
Python. Let's create a new object called s and then walk through a few examples of indexing.
In [10]:
# Assign s as a string
s = 'Hello World'
In [11]:
#Check
s
Out[11]:
'Hello World'
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In [12]:
# Print the object
print(s)
Hello World
Let's start indexing!
In [13]:
# Show first element (in this case a letter)
s[0]
Out[13]:
'H'
In [14]:
s[1]
Out[14]:
'e'
In [15]:
s[2]
Out[15]:
'l'
We can use a : to perform slicing which grabs everything up to a designated point. For example:
In [16]:
# Grab everything past the first term all the way to the length of s which is len(s)
s[1:]
Out[16]:
'ello World'
In [17]:
# Note that there is no change to the original s
s
Out[17]:
'Hello World'
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In [18]:
# Grab everything UP TO the 3rd index
s[:3]
Out[18]:
'Hel'
Note the above slicing. Here we're telling Python to grab everything from 0 up to 3. It doesn't include the 3rd
index. You'll notice this a lot in Python, where statements and are usually in the context of "up to, but not
including".
In [19]:
#Everything
s[:]
Out[19]:
'Hello World'
We can also use negative indexing to go backwards.
In [20]:
# Last letter (one index behind 0 so it loops back around)
s[-1]
Out[20]:
'd'
In [21]:
# Grab everything but the last letter
s[:-1]
Out[21]:
'Hello Worl'
We can also use index and slice notation to grab elements of a sequence by a specified step size (the default is
1). For instance we can use two colons in a row and then a number specifying the frequency to grab elements.
For example:
In [22]:
# Grab everything, but go in steps size of 1
s[::1]
Out[22]:
'Hello World'
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In [23]:
# Grab everything, but go in step sizes of 2
s[::2]
Out[23]:
'HloWrd'
In [24]:
# We can use this to print a string backwards
s[::-1]
Out[24]:
'dlroW olleH'
String Properties
It's important to note that strings have an important property known as immutability. This means that once a
string is created, the elements within it can not be changed or replaced. For example:
In [25]:
Out[25]:
'Hello World'
In [26]:
# Let's try to change the first letter to 'x'
s[0] = 'x'
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-26-976942677f11> in <module>()
1 # Let's try to change the first letter to 'x'
----> 2 s[0] = 'x'
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
Notice how the error tells us directly what we can't do, change the item assignment!
Something we can do is concatenate strings!
In [27]:
Out[27]:
'Hello World'
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In [28]:
# Concatenate strings!
s + ' concatenate me!'
Out[28]:
'Hello World concatenate me!'
In [29]:
# We can reassign s completely though!
s = s + ' concatenate me!'
In [30]:
print(s)
Hello World concatenate me!
In [31]:
Out[31]:
'Hello World concatenate me!'
We can use the multiplication symbol to create repetition!
In [32]:
letter = 'z'
In [33]:
letter*10
Out[33]:
'zzzzzzzzzz'
Basic Built-in String methods
Objects in Python usually have built-in methods. These methods are functions inside the object (we will learn
about these in much more depth later) that can perform actions or commands on the object itself.
We call methods with a period and then the method name. Methods are in the form:
object.method(parameters)
Where parameters are extra arguments we can pass into the method. Don't worry if the details don't make
100% sense right now. Later on we will be creating our own objects and functions!
Here are some examples of built-in methods in strings:
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In [34]:
Out[34]:
'Hello World concatenate me!'
In [35]:
# Upper Case a string
s.upper()
Out[35]:
'HELLO WORLD CONCATENATE ME!'
In [36]:
# Lower case
s.lower()
Out[36]:
'hello world concatenate me!'
In [37]:
# Split a string by blank space (this is the default)
s.split()
Out[37]:
['Hello', 'World', 'concatenate', 'me!']
In [38]:
# Split by a specific element (doesn't include the element that was split on)
s.split('W')
Out[38]:
['Hello ', 'orld concatenate me!']
There are many more methods than the ones covered here. Visit the Advanced String section to find out more!
Print Formatting
We can use the .format() method to add formatted objects to printed string statements.
The easiest way to show this is through an example:
In [39]:
'Insert another string with curly brackets: {}'.format('The inserted string')
Out[39]:
'Insert another string with curly brackets: The inserted string'
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We will revisit this string formatting topic in later sections when we are building our projects!
Next up: Lists!
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String Formatting
String formatting lets you inject items into a string rather than trying to chain items together using commas or
string concatenation. As a quick comparison, consider:
player = 'Thomas'
points = 33
'Last night, '+player+' scored '+str(points)+' points.' # concatenation
f'Last night, {player} scored {points} points.' # string formatting
There are three ways to perform string formatting.
The oldest method involves placeholders using the modulo % character.
An improved technique uses the .format() string method.
The newest method, introduced with Python 3.6, uses formatted string literals, called f-strings.
Since you will likely encounter all three versions in someone else's code, we describe each of them here.
Formatting with placeholders
You can use %s to inject strings into your print statements. The modulo % is referred to as a "string formatting
operator".
In [1]:
print("I'm going to inject %s here." %'something')
I'm going to inject something here.
You can pass multiple items by placing them inside a tuple after the % operator.
In [2]:
print("I'm going to inject %s text here, and %s text here." %('some','more'))
I'm going to inject some text here, and more text here.
You can also pass variable names:
In [3]:
x, y = 'some', 'more'
print("I'm going to inject %s text here, and %s text here."%(x,y))
I'm going to inject some text here, and more text here.
Format conversion methods.
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It should be noted that two methods %s and %r convert any python object to a string using two separate
methods: str() and repr() . We will learn more about these functions later on in the course, but you should
note that %r and repr() deliver the string representation of the object, including quotation marks and any
escape characters.
In [4]:
print('He said his name was %s.' %'Fred')
print('He said his name was %r.' %'Fred')
He said his name was Fred.
He said his name was 'Fred'.
As another example, \t inserts a tab into a string.
In [5]:
print('I once caught a fish %s.' %'this \tbig')
print('I once caught a fish %r.' %'this \tbig')
I once caught a fish this big.
I once caught a fish 'this \tbig'.
The %s operator converts whatever it sees into a string, including integers and floats. The %d operator
converts numbers to integers first, without rounding. Note the difference below:
In [6]:
print('I wrote %s programs today.' %3.75)
print('I wrote %d programs today.' %3.75)
I wrote 3.75 programs today.
I wrote 3 programs today.
Padding and Precision of Floating Point Numbers
Floating point numbers use the format %5.2f . Here, 5 would be the minimum number of characters the
string should contain; these may be padded with whitespace if the entire number does not have this many
digits. Next to this, .2f stands for how many numbers to show past the decimal point. Let's see some
examples:
In [7]:
print('Floating point numbers: %5.2f' %(13.144))
Floating point numbers: 13.14
In [8]:
print('Floating point numbers: %1.0f' %(13.144))
Floating point numbers: 13
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In [9]:
print('Floating point numbers: %1.5f' %(13.144))
Floating point numbers: 13.14400
In [10]:
print('Floating point numbers: %10.2f' %(13.144))
Floating point numbers: 13.14
In [11]:
print('Floating point numbers: %25.2f' %(13.144))
Floating point numbers: 13.14
For more information on string formatting with placeholders visit
https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#old-string-formatting
(https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#old-string-formatting)
Multiple Formatting
Nothing prohibits using more than one conversion tool in the same print statement:
In [12]:
print('First: %s, Second: %5.2f, Third: %r' %('hi!',3.1415,'bye!'))
First: hi!, Second: 3.14, Third: 'bye!'
Formatting with the .format() method
A better way to format objects into your strings for print statements is with the string .format() method. The
syntax is:
'String here {} then also {}'.format('something1','something2')
For example:
In [13]:
print('This is a string with an {}'.format('insert'))
This is a string with an insert
The .format() method has several advantages over the %s placeholder
method:
1. Inserted objects can be called by index position:
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In [14]:
print('The {2} {1} {0}'.format('fox','brown','quick'))
The quick brown fox
2. Inserted objects can be assigned keywords:
In [15]:
print('First Object: {a}, Second Object: {b}, Third Object: {c}'.format(a=1,b='Two',c=12.3)
First Object: 1, Second Object: Two, Third Object: 12.3
3. Inserted objects can be reused, avoiding duplication:
In [16]:
print('A %s saved is a %s earned.' %('penny','penny'))
# vs.
print('A {p} saved is a {p} earned.'.format(p='penny'))
A penny saved is a penny earned.
A penny saved is a penny earned.
Alignment, padding and precision with .format()
Within the curly braces you can assign field lengths, left/right alignments, rounding parameters and more
In [17]:
print('{0:8} | {1:9}'.format('Fruit', 'Quantity'))
print('{0:8} | {1:9}'.format('Apples', 3.))
print('{0:8} | {1:9}'.format('Oranges', 10))
Fruit | Quantity
Apples | 3.0
Oranges | 10
By default, .format() aligns text to the left, numbers to the right. You can pass an optional < , ^ , or > to
set a left, center or right alignment:
In [18]:
print('{0:<8} | {1:^8} | {2:>8}'.format('Left','Center','Right'))
print('{0:<8} | {1:^8} | {2:>8}'.format(11,22,33))
Left | Center | Right
11 | 22 | 33
You can precede the aligment operator with a padding character
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In [19]:
print('{0:=<8} | {1:-^8} | {2:.>8}'.format('Left','Center','Right'))
print('{0:=<8} | {1:-^8} | {2:.>8}'.format(11,22,33))
Left==== | -Center- | ...Right
11====== | ---22--- | ......33
Field widths and float precision are handled in a way similar to placeholders. The following two print statements
are equivalent:
In [20]:
print('This is my ten-character, two-decimal number:%10.2f' %13.579)
print('This is my ten-character, two-decimal number:{0:10.2f}'.format(13.579))
This is my ten-character, two-decimal number: 13.58
This is my ten-character, two-decimal number: 13.58
Note that there are 5 spaces following the colon, and 5 characters taken up by 13.58, for a total of ten
characters.
For more information on the string .format() method visit
https://docs.python.org/3/library/string.html#formatstrings
(https://docs.python.org/3/library/string.html#formatstrings)
Formatted String Literals (f-strings)
Introduced in Python 3.6, f-strings offer several benefits over the older .format() string method described
above. For one, you can bring outside variables immediately into to the string rather than pass them as
arguments through .format(var) .
In [21]:
name = 'Fred'
print(f"He said his name is {name}.")
He said his name is Fred.
Pass !r to get the string representation:
In [22]:
print(f"He said his name is {name!r}")
He said his name is 'Fred'
Float formatting follows "result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"
Where with the .format() method you might see {value:10.4f} , with f-strings this can become {value:
{10}.{6}}
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In [23]:
num = 23.45678
print("My 10 character, four decimal number is:{0:10.4f}".format(num))
print(f"My 10 character, four decimal number is:{num:{10}.{6}}")
My 10 character, four decimal number is: 23.4568
My 10 character, four decimal number is: 23.4568
Note that with f-strings, precision refers to the total number of digits, not just those following the decimal. This
fits more closely with scientific notation and statistical analysis. Unfortunately, f-strings do not pad to the right of
the decimal, even if precision allows it:
In [24]:
num = 23.45
print("My 10 character, four decimal number is:{0:10.4f}".format(num))
print(f"My 10 character, four decimal number is:{num:{10}.{6}}")
My 10 character, four decimal number is: 23.4500
My 10 character, four decimal number is: 23.45
If this becomes important, you can always use .format() method syntax inside an f-string:
In [25]:
num = 23.45
print("My 10 character, four decimal number is:{0:10.4f}".format(num))
print(f"My 10 character, four decimal number is:{num:10.4f}")
My 10 character, four decimal number is: 23.4500
My 10 character, four decimal number is: 23.4500
For more info on formatted string literals visit https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings
(https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings)
That is the basics of string formatting!
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7/21/2018 04-Lists
Lists
Earlier when discussing strings we introduced the concept of a sequence in Python. Lists can be thought of the
most general version of a sequence in Python. Unlike strings, they are mutable, meaning the elements inside a
list can be changed!
In this section we will learn about:
1.) Creating lists
2.) Indexing and Slicing Lists
3.) Basic List Methods
4.) Nesting Lists
5.) Introduction to List Comprehensions
Lists are constructed with brackets [] and commas separating every element in the list.
Let's go ahead and see how we can construct lists!
In [1]:
# Assign a list to an variable named my_list
my_list = [1,2,3]
We just created a list of integers, but lists can actually hold different object types. For example:
In [2]:
my_list = ['A string',23,100.232,'o']
Just like strings, the len() function will tell you how many items are in the sequence of the list.
In [3]:
len(my_list)
Out[3]:
Indexing and Slicing
Indexing and slicing work just like in strings. Let's make a new list to remind ourselves of how this works:
In [4]:
my_list = ['one','two','three',4,5]
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In [5]:
# Grab element at index 0
my_list[0]
Out[5]:
'one'
In [6]:
# Grab index 1 and everything past it
my_list[1:]
Out[6]:
['two', 'three', 4, 5]
In [7]:
# Grab everything UP TO index 3
my_list[:3]
Out[7]:
['one', 'two', 'three']
We can also use + to concatenate lists, just like we did for strings.
In [8]:
my_list + ['new item']
Out[8]:
['one', 'two', 'three', 4, 5, 'new item']
Note: This doesn't actually change the original list!
In [9]:
my_list
Out[9]:
['one', 'two', 'three', 4, 5]
You would have to reassign the list to make the change permanent.
In [10]:
# Reassign
my_list = my_list + ['add new item permanently']
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In [11]:
my_list
Out[11]:
['one', 'two', 'three', 4, 5, 'add new item permanently']
We can also use the * for a duplication method similar to strings:
In [12]:
# Make the list double
my_list * 2
Out[12]:
['one',
'two',
'three',
4,
5,
'add new item permanently',
'one',
'two',
'three',
4,
5,
'add new item permanently']
In [13]:
# Again doubling not permanent
my_list
Out[13]:
['one', 'two', 'three', 4, 5, 'add new item permanently']
Basic List Methods
If you are familiar with another programming language, you might start to draw parallels between arrays in
another language and lists in Python. Lists in Python however, tend to be more flexible than arrays in other
languages for a two good reasons: they have no fixed size (meaning we don't have to specify how big a list will
be), and they have no fixed type constraint (like we've seen above).
Let's go ahead and explore some more special methods for lists:
In [14]:
# Create a new list
list1 = [1,2,3]
Use the append method to permanently add an item to the end of a list:
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In [15]:
# Append
list1.append('append me!')
In [16]:
# Show
list1
Out[16]:
[1, 2, 3, 'append me!']
Use pop to "pop off" an item from the list. By default pop takes off the last index, but you can also specify which
index to pop off. Let's see an example:
In [17]:
# Pop off the 0 indexed item
list1.pop(0)
Out[17]:
In [18]:
# Show
list1
Out[18]:
[2, 3, 'append me!']
In [19]:
# Assign the popped element, remember default popped index is -1
popped_item = list1.pop()
In [20]:
popped_item
Out[20]:
'append me!'
In [21]:
# Show remaining list
list1
Out[21]:
[2, 3]
It should also be noted that lists indexing will return an error if there is no element at that index. For example:
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In [22]:
list1[100]
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
IndexError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-22-af6d2015fa1f> in <module>()
----> 1 list1[100]
IndexError: list index out of range
We can use the sort method and the reverse methods to also effect your lists:
In [23]:
new_list = ['a','e','x','b','c']
In [24]:
#Show
new_list
Out[24]:
['a', 'e', 'x', 'b', 'c']
In [25]:
# Use reverse to reverse order (this is permanent!)
new_list.reverse()
In [26]:
new_list
Out[26]:
['c', 'b', 'x', 'e', 'a']
In [27]:
# Use sort to sort the list (in this case alphabetical order, but for numbers it will go as
new_list.sort()
In [28]:
new_list
Out[28]:
['a', 'b', 'c', 'e', 'x']
Nesting Lists
A great feature of of Python data structures is that they support nesting. This means we can have data
structures within data structures. For example: A list inside a list.
Let's see how this works!
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In [29]:
# Let's make three lists
lst_1=[1,2,3]
lst_2=[4,5,6]
lst_3=[7,8,9]
# Make a list of lists to form a matrix
matrix = [lst_1,lst_2,lst_3]
In [30]:
# Show
matrix
Out[30]:
[[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]
We can again use indexing to grab elements, but now there are two levels for the index. The items in the matrix
object, and then the items inside that list!
In [31]:
# Grab first item in matrix object
matrix[0]
Out[31]:
[1, 2, 3]
In [32]:
# Grab first item of the first item in the matrix object
matrix[0][0]
Out[32]:
List Comprehensions
Python has an advanced feature called list comprehensions. They allow for quick construction of lists. To fully
understand list comprehensions we need to understand for loops. So don't worry if you don't completely
understand this section, and feel free to just skip it since we will return to this topic later.
But in case you want to know now, here are a few examples!
In [33]:
# Build a list comprehension by deconstructing a for loop within a []
first_col = [row[0] for row in matrix]
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In [34]:
first_col
Out[34]:
[1, 4, 7]
We used a list comprehension here to grab the first element of every row in the matrix object. We will cover this
in much more detail later on!
For more advanced methods and features of lists in Python, check out the Advanced Lists section later on in
this course!
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7/21/2018 05-Dictionaries
Dictionaries
We've been learning about sequences in Python but now we're going to switch gears and learn about mappings
in Python. If you're familiar with other languages you can think of these Dictionaries as hash tables.
This section will serve as a brief introduction to dictionaries and consist of:
1.) Constructing a Dictionary
2.) Accessing objects from a dictionary
3.) Nesting Dictionaries
4.) Basic Dictionary Methods
So what are mappings? Mappings are a collection of objects that are stored by a key, unlike a sequence that
stored objects by their relative position. This is an important distinction, since mappings won't retain order since
they have objects defined by a key.
A Python dictionary consists of a key and then an associated value. That value can be almost any Python
object.
Constructing a Dictionary
Let's see how we can construct dictionaries to get a better understanding of how they work!
In [1]:
# Make a dictionary with {} and : to signify a key and a value
my_dict = {'key1':'value1','key2':'value2'}
In [2]:
# Call values by their key
my_dict['key2']
Out[2]:
'value2'
Its important to note that dictionaries are very flexible in the data types they can hold. For example:
In [3]:
my_dict = {'key1':123,'key2':[12,23,33],'key3':['item0','item1','item2']}
In [4]:
# Let's call items from the dictionary
my_dict['key3']
Out[4]:
['item0', 'item1', 'item2']
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In [5]:
# Can call an index on that value
my_dict['key3'][0]
Out[5]:
'item0'
In [6]:
# Can then even call methods on that value
my_dict['key3'][0].upper()
Out[6]:
'ITEM0'
We can affect the values of a key as well. For instance:
In [7]:
my_dict['key1']
Out[7]:
123
In [8]:
# Subtract 123 from the value
my_dict['key1'] = my_dict['key1'] - 123
In [9]:
#Check
my_dict['key1']
Out[9]:
A quick note, Python has a built-in method of doing a self subtraction or addition (or multiplication or division).
We could have also used += or -= for the above statement. For example:
In [10]:
# Set the object equal to itself minus 123
my_dict['key1'] -= 123
my_dict['key1']
Out[10]:
-123
We can also create keys by assignment. For instance if we started off with an empty dictionary, we could
continually add to it:
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In [11]:
# Create a new dictionary
d = {}
In [12]:
# Create a new key through assignment
d['animal'] = 'Dog'
In [13]:
# Can do this with any object
d['answer'] = 42
In [14]:
#Show
d
Out[14]:
{'animal': 'Dog', 'answer': 42}
Nesting with Dictionaries
Hopefully you're starting to see how powerful Python is with its flexibility of nesting objects and calling methods
on them. Let's see a dictionary nested inside a dictionary:
In [15]:
# Dictionary nested inside a dictionary nested inside a dictionary
d = {'key1':{'nestkey':{'subnestkey':'value'}}}
Wow! That's a quite the inception of dictionaries! Let's see how we can grab that value:
In [16]:
# Keep calling the keys
d['key1']['nestkey']['subnestkey']
Out[16]:
'value'
A few Dictionary Methods
There are a few methods we can call on a dictionary. Let's get a quick introduction to a few of them:
In [17]:
# Create a typical dictionary
d = {'key1':1,'key2':2,'key3':3}
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In [18]:
# Method to return a list of all keys
d.keys()
Out[18]:
dict_keys(['key1', 'key2', 'key3'])
In [19]:
# Method to grab all values
d.values()
Out[19]:
dict_values([1, 2, 3])
In [20]:
# Method to return tuples of all items (we'll learn about tuples soon)
d.items()
Out[20]:
dict_items([('key1', 1), ('key2', 2), ('key3', 3)])
Hopefully you now have a good basic understanding how to construct dictionaries. There's a lot more to go into
here, but we will revisit dictionaries at later time. After this section all you need to know is how to create a
dictionary and how to retrieve values from it.
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7/21/2018 06-Tuples
Tuples
In Python tuples are very similar to lists, however, unlike lists they are immutable meaning they can not be
changed. You would use tuples to present things that shouldn't be changed, such as days of the week, or dates
on a calendar.
In this section, we will get a brief overview of the following:
1.) Constructing Tuples
2.) Basic Tuple Methods
3.) Immutability
4.) When to Use Tuples
You'll have an intuition of how to use tuples based on what you've learned about lists. We can treat them very
similarly with the major distinction being that tuples are immutable.
Constructing Tuples
The construction of a tuples use () with elements separated by commas. For example:
In [1]:
# Create a tuple
t = (1,2,3)
In [2]:
# Check len just like a list
len(t)
Out[2]:
In [3]:
# Can also mix object types
t = ('one',2)
# Show
t
Out[3]:
('one', 2)
In [4]:
# Use indexing just like we did in lists
t[0]
Out[4]:
'one'
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In [5]:
# Slicing just like a list
t[-1]
Out[5]:
Basic Tuple Methods
Tuples have built-in methods, but not as many as lists do. Let's look at two of them:
In [6]:
# Use .index to enter a value and return the index
t.index('one')
Out[6]:
In [7]:
# Use .count to count the number of times a value appears
t.count('one')
Out[7]:
Immutability
It can't be stressed enough that tuples are immutable. To drive that point home:
In [8]:
t[0]= 'change'
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-8-1257c0aa9edd> in <module>()
----> 1 t[0]= 'change'
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
Because of this immutability, tuples can't grow. Once a tuple is made we can not add to it.
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In [9]:
t.append('nope')
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
AttributeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-9-b75f5b09ac19> in <module>()
----> 1 t.append('nope')
AttributeError: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'append'
When to use Tuples
You may be wondering, "Why bother using tuples when they have fewer available methods?" To be honest,
tuples are not used as often as lists in programming, but are used when immutability is necessary. If in your
program you are passing around an object and need to make sure it does not get changed, then a tuple
becomes your solution. It provides a convenient source of data integrity.
You should now be able to create and use tuples in your programming as well as have an understanding of their
immutability.
Up next Sets and Booleans!!
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Set and Booleans
There are two other object types in Python that we should quickly cover: Sets and Booleans.
Sets
Sets are an unordered collection of unique elements. We can construct them by using the set() function. Let's
go ahead and make a set to see how it works
In [1]:
x = set()
In [2]:
# We add to sets with the add() method
x.add(1)
In [3]:
#Show
x
Out[3]:
{1}
Note the curly brackets. This does not indicate a dictionary! Although you can draw analogies as a set being a
dictionary with only keys.
We know that a set has only unique entries. So what happens when we try to add something that is already in a
set?
In [4]:
# Add a different element
x.add(2)
In [5]:
#Show
x
Out[5]:
{1, 2}
In [6]:
# Try to add the same element
x.add(1)
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In [7]:
#Show
x
Out[7]:
{1, 2}
Notice how it won't place another 1 there. That's because a set is only concerned with unique elements! We can
cast a list with multiple repeat elements to a set to get the unique elements. For example:
In [8]:
# Create a list with repeats
list1 = [1,1,2,2,3,4,5,6,1,1]
In [9]:
# Cast as set to get unique values
set(list1)
Out[9]:
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Booleans
Python comes with Booleans (with predefined True and False displays that are basically just the integers 1 and
0). It also has a placeholder object called None. Let's walk through a few quick examples of Booleans (we will
dive deeper into them later in this course).
In [10]:
# Set object to be a boolean
a = True
In [11]:
#Show
a
Out[11]:
True
We can also use comparison operators to create booleans. We will go over all the comparison operators later
on in the course.
In [12]:
# Output is boolean
1 > 2
Out[12]:
False
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We can use None as a placeholder for an object that we don't want to reassign yet:
In [13]:
# None placeholder
b = None
In [14]:
# Show
print(b)
None
Thats it! You should now have a basic understanding of Python objects and data structure types. Next, go
ahead and do the assessment test!
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7/21/2018 08-Files
Files
Python uses file objects to interact with external files on your computer. These file objects can be any sort of file
you have on your computer, whether it be an audio file, a text file, emails, Excel documents, etc. Note: You will
probably need to install certain libraries or modules to interact with those various file types, but they are easily
available. (We will cover downloading modules later on in the course).
Python has a built-in open function that allows us to open and play with basic file types. First we will need a file
though. We're going to use some IPython magic to create a text file!
IPython Writing a File
This function is specific to jupyter notebooks! Alternatively, quickly create a simple .txt file with sublime
text editor.
In [1]:
%%writefile test.txt
Hello, this is a quick test file.
Overwriting test.txt
Python Opening a file
Let's being by opening the file test.txt that is located in the same directory as this notebook. For now we will
work with files located in the same directory as the notebook or .py script you are using.
It is very easy to get an error on this step:
In [1]:
myfile = open('whoops.txt')
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
FileNotFoundError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-1-dafe28ee473f> in <module>()
----> 1 myfile = open('whoops.txt')
FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'whoops.txt'
To avoid this error,make sure your .txt file is saved in the same location as your notebook, to check your
notebook location, use pwd:
In [2]:
pwd
Out[2]:
'C:\\Users\\Marcial\\Pierian-Data-Courses\\Complete-Python-3-Bootcamp\\00-Py
thon Object and Data Structure Basics'
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Alternatively, to grab files from any location on your computer, simply pass in the entire file path.
For Windows you need to use double \ so python doesn't treat the second \ as an escape character, a file path
is in the form:
myfile = open("C:\\Users\\YourUserName\\Home\\Folder\\myfile.txt")
For MacOS and Linux you use slashes in the opposite direction:
myfile = open("/Users/YouUserName/Folder/myfile.txt")
In [2]:
# Open the text.txt we made earlier
my_file = open('test.txt')
In [3]:
# We can now read the file
my_file.read()
Out[3]:
'Hello, this is a quick test file.'
In [4]:
# But what happens if we try to read it again?
my_file.read()
Out[4]:
''
This happens because you can imagine the reading "cursor" is at the end of the file after having read it. So
there is nothing left to read. We can reset the "cursor" like this:
In [5]:
# Seek to the start of file (index 0)
my_file.seek(0)
Out[5]:
In [6]:
# Now read again
my_file.read()
Out[6]:
'Hello, this is a quick test file.'
You can read a file line by line using the readlines method. Use caution with large files, since everything will be
held in memory. We will learn how to iterate over large files later in the course.
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In [7]:
# Readlines returns a list of the lines in the file
my_file.seek(0)
my_file.readlines()
Out[7]:
['Hello, this is a quick test file.']
When you have finished using a file, it is always good practice to close it.
In [8]:
my_file.close()
Writing to a File
By default, the open() function will only allow us to read the file. We need to pass the argument 'w' to write
over the file. For example:
In [9]:
# Add a second argument to the function, 'w' which stands for write.
# Passing 'w+' lets us read and write to the file
my_file = open('test.txt','w+')
Use caution!
Opening a file with 'w' or 'w+' truncates the original, meaning that anything that was in the original file is
deleted!
In [10]:
# Write to the file
my_file.write('This is a new line')
Out[10]:
18
In [11]:
# Read the file
my_file.seek(0)
my_file.read()
Out[11]:
'This is a new line'
In [12]:
my_file.close() # always do this when you're done with a file
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Appending to a File
Passing the argument 'a' opens the file and puts the pointer at the end, so anything written is appended. Like
'w+' , 'a+' lets us read and write to a file. If the file does not exist, one will be created.
In [13]:
my_file = open('test.txt','a+')
my_file.write('\nThis is text being appended to test.txt')
my_file.write('\nAnd another line here.')
Out[13]:
23
In [14]:
my_file.seek(0)
print(my_file.read())
This is a new line
This is text being appended to test.txt
And another line here.
In [15]:
my_file.close()
Appending with %%writefile
We can do the same thing using IPython cell magic:
In [16]:
%%writefile -a test.txt
This is text being appended to test.txt
And another line here.
Appending to test.txt
Add a blank space if you want the first line to begin on its own line, as Jupyter won't recognize escape
sequences like \n
Iterating through a File
Lets get a quick preview of a for loop by iterating over a text file. First let's make a new text file with some
IPython Magic:
In [17]:
%%writefile test.txt
First Line
Second Line
Overwriting test.txt
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Now we can use a little bit of flow to tell the program to for through every line of the file and do something:
In [18]:
for line in open('test.txt'):
print(line)
First Line
Second Line
Don't worry about fully understanding this yet, for loops are coming up soon. But we'll break down what we did
above. We said that for every line in this text file, go ahead and print that line. It's important to note a few things
here:
1. We could have called the "line" object anything (see example below).
2. By not calling .read() on the file, the whole text file was not stored in memory.
3. Notice the indent on the second line for print. This whitespace is required in Python.
In [19]:
# Pertaining to the first point above
for asdf in open('test.txt'):
print(asdf)
First Line
Second Line
We'll learn a lot more about this later, but up next: Sets and Booleans!
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7/21/2018 09-Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test
Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test
Test your knowledge.
Answer the following questions
Write a brief description of all the following Object Types and Data Structures we've learned about:
Numbers:
Strings:
Lists:
Tuples:
Dictionaries:
Numbers
Write an equation that uses multiplication, division, an exponent, addition, and subtraction that is equal to
100.25.
Hint: This is just to test your memory of the basic arithmetic commands, work backwards from 100.25
In [ ]:
Answer these 3 questions without typing code. Then type code to check your answer.
What is the value of the expression 4 * (6 + 5)
What is the value of the expression 4 * 6 + 5
What is the value of the expression 4 + 6 * 5
In [ ]:
What is the type of the result of the expression 3 + 1.5 + 4?
What would you use to find a number’s square root, as well as its square?
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7/21/2018 09-Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test
In [ ]:
# Square root:
In [ ]:
# Square:
Strings
Given the string 'hello' give an index command that returns 'e'. Enter your code in the cell below:
In [ ]:
s = 'hello'
# Print out 'e' using indexing
Reverse the string 'hello' using slicing:
In [ ]:
s ='hello'
# Reverse the string using slicing
Given the string hello, give two methods of producing the letter 'o' using indexing.
In [ ]:
s ='hello'
# Print out the 'o'
# Method 1:
In [ ]:
# Method 2:
Lists
Build this list [0,0,0] two separate ways.
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In [ ]:
# Method 1:
In [ ]:
# Method 2:
Reassign 'hello' in this nested list to say 'goodbye' instead:
In [ ]:
list3 = [1,2,[3,4,'hello']]
Sort the list below:
In [ ]:
list4 = [5,3,4,6,1]
Dictionaries
Using keys and indexing, grab the 'hello' from the following dictionaries:
In [ ]:
d = {'simple_key':'hello'}
# Grab 'hello'
In [ ]:
d = {'k1':{'k2':'hello'}}
# Grab 'hello'
In [ ]:
# Getting a little tricker
d = {'k1':[{'nest_key':['this is deep',['hello']]}]}
#Grab hello
In [ ]:
# This will be hard and annoying!
d = {'k1':[1,2,{'k2':['this is tricky',{'tough':[1,2,['hello']]}]}]}
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7/21/2018 09-Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test
Can you sort a dictionary? Why or why not?
Tuples
What is the major difference between tuples and lists?
How do you create a tuple?
Sets
What is unique about a set?
Use a set to find the unique values of the list below:
In [ ]:
list5 = [1,2,2,33,4,4,11,22,3,3,2]
Booleans
For the following quiz questions, we will get a preview of comparison operators. In the table below, a=3 and
b=4.
Operator Description Example
== If the values of two operands are equal, then the (a == b) is not true.
condition becomes true.
!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition (a != b) is true.
becomes true.
> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of (a > b) is not true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
< If the value of left operand is less than the value of (a < b) is true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to (a >= b) is not true.
the value of right operand, then condition becomes
true.
<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the (a <= b) is true.
value of right operand, then condition becomes true.
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7/21/2018 09-Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test
What will be the resulting Boolean of the following pieces of code (answer fist then check by typing it in!)
In [ ]:
# Answer before running cell
2 > 3
In [ ]:
# Answer before running cell
3 <= 2
In [ ]:
# Answer before running cell
3 == 2.0
In [ ]:
# Answer before running cell
3.0 == 3
In [ ]:
# Answer before running cell
4**0.5 != 2
Final Question: What is the boolean output of the cell block below?
In [ ]:
# two nested lists
l_one = [1,2,[3,4]]
l_two = [1,2,{'k1':4}]
# True or False?
l_one[2][0] >= l_two[2]['k1']
Great Job on your first assessment!
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7/21/2018 10-Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test-Solution
Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test
Test your knowledge.
Answer the following questions
Write a brief description of all the following Object Types and Data Structures we've learned about:
For the full answers, review the Jupyter notebook introductions of each topic!
Numbers (http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/jmportilla/Complete-Python-Bootcamp/blob/master/Numbers.ipynb)
Strings (http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/jmportilla/Complete-Python-Bootcamp/blob/master/Strings.ipynb)
Lists (http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/jmportilla/Complete-Python-Bootcamp/blob/master/Lists.ipynb)
Tuples (http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/jmportilla/Complete-Python-Bootcamp/blob/master/Tuples.ipynb)
Dictionaries (http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/jmportilla/Complete-Python-
Bootcamp/blob/master/Dictionaries.ipynb)
Numbers
Write an equation that uses multiplication, division, an exponent, addition, and subtraction that is equal to
100.25.
Hint: This is just to test your memory of the basic arithmetic commands, work backwards from 100.25
In [1]:
# Your answer is probably different
(60 + (10 ** 2) / 4 * 7) - 134.75
Out[1]:
100.25
Answer these 3 questions without typing code. Then type code to check your answer.
What is the value of the expression 4 * (6 + 5)
What is the value of the expression 4 * 6 + 5
What is the value of the expression 4 + 6 * 5
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In [2]:
4 * (6 + 5)
Out[2]:
44
In [3]:
4 * 6 + 5
Out[3]:
29
In [4]:
4 + 6 * 5
Out[4]:
34
What is the type of the result of the expression 3 + 1.5 + 4?
Answer: Floating Point Number
What would you use to find a number’s square root, as well as its square?
In [5]:
# Square root:
100 ** 0.5
Out[5]:
10.0
In [6]:
# Square:
10 ** 2
Out[6]:
100
Strings
Given the string 'hello' give an index command that returns 'e'. Enter your code in the cell below:
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In [7]:
s = 'hello'
# Print out 'e' using indexing
s[1]
Out[7]:
'e'
Reverse the string 'hello' using slicing:
In [8]:
s ='hello'
# Reverse the string using slicing
s[::-1]
Out[8]:
'olleh'
Given the string 'hello', give two methods of producing the letter 'o' using indexing.
In [9]:
s ='hello'
# Print out the 'o'
# Method 1:
s[-1]
Out[9]:
'o'
In [10]:
# Method 2:
s[4]
Out[10]:
'o'
Lists
Build this list [0,0,0] two separate ways.
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In [11]:
# Method 1:
[0]*3
Out[11]:
[0, 0, 0]
In [12]:
# Method 2:
list2 = [0,0,0]
list2
Out[12]:
[0, 0, 0]
Reassign 'hello' in this nested list to say 'goodbye' instead:
In [13]:
list3 = [1,2,[3,4,'hello']]
In [14]:
list3[2][2] = 'goodbye'
In [15]:
list3
Out[15]:
[1, 2, [3, 4, 'goodbye']]
Sort the list below:
In [16]:
list4 = [5,3,4,6,1]
In [17]:
# Method 1:
sorted(list4)
Out[17]:
[1, 3, 4, 5, 6]
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In [18]:
# Method 2:
list4.sort()
list4
Out[18]:
[1, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Dictionaries
Using keys and indexing, grab the 'hello' from the following dictionaries:
In [19]:
d = {'simple_key':'hello'}
# Grab 'hello'
d['simple_key']
Out[19]:
'hello'
In [20]:
d = {'k1':{'k2':'hello'}}
# Grab 'hello'
d['k1']['k2']
Out[20]:
'hello'
In [21]:
# Getting a little tricker
d = {'k1':[{'nest_key':['this is deep',['hello']]}]}
In [22]:
# This was harder than I expected...
d['k1'][0]['nest_key'][1][0]
Out[22]:
'hello'
In [23]:
# This will be hard and annoying!
d = {'k1':[1,2,{'k2':['this is tricky',{'tough':[1,2,['hello']]}]}]}
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In [24]:
# Phew!
d['k1'][2]['k2'][1]['tough'][2][0]
Out[24]:
'hello'
Can you sort a dictionary? Why or why not?
Answer: No! Because normal dictionaries are mappings not a sequence.
Tuples
What is the major difference between tuples and lists?
Tuples are immutable!
How do you create a tuple?
In [25]:
t = (1,2,3)
Sets
What is unique about a set?
Answer: They don't allow for duplicate items!
Use a set to find the unique values of the list below:
In [26]:
list5 = [1,2,2,33,4,4,11,22,3,3,2]
In [27]:
set(list5)
Out[27]:
{1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 22, 33}
Booleans
For the following quiz questions, we will get a preview of comparison operators. In the table below, a=3 and
b=4.
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Operator Description Example
== If the values of two operands are equal, then the (a == b) is not true.
condition becomes true.
!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition (a != b) is true.
becomes true.
> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of (a > b) is not true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
< If the value of left operand is less than the value of (a < b) is true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to (a >= b) is not true.
the value of right operand, then condition becomes
true.
<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the (a <= b) is true.
value of right operand, then condition becomes true.
What will be the resulting Boolean of the following pieces of code (answer fist then check by typing it in!)
In [28]:
# Answer before running cell
2 > 3
Out[28]:
False
In [29]:
# Answer before running cell
3 <= 2
Out[29]:
False
In [30]:
# Answer before running cell
3 == 2.0
Out[30]:
False
In [31]:
# Answer before running cell
3.0 == 3
Out[31]:
True
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7/21/2018 10-Objects and Data Structures Assessment Test-Solution
In [32]:
# Answer before running cell
4**0.5 != 2
Out[32]:
False
Final Question: What is the boolean output of the cell block below?
In [33]:
# two nested lists
l_one = [1,2,[3,4]]
l_two = [1,2,{'k1':4}]
# True or False?
l_one[2][0] >= l_two[2]['k1']
Out[33]:
False
Great Job on your first assessment!
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7/21/2018 01-Comparison Operators
Comparison Operators
In this lecture we will be learning about Comparison Operators in Python. These operators will allow us to
compare variables and output a Boolean value (True or False).
If you have any sort of background in Math, these operators should be very straight forward.
First we'll present a table of the comparison operators and then work through some examples:
Table of Comparison Operators
In the table below, a=3 and b=4.
Operator Description Example
== If the values of two operands are equal, then the (a == b) is not true.
condition becomes true.
!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition (a != b) is true
becomes true.
> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of (a > b) is not true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
< If the value of left operand is less than the value of (a < b) is true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to (a >= b) is not true.
the value of right operand, then condition becomes
true.
<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the (a <= b) is true.
value of right operand, then condition becomes true.
Let's now work through quick examples of each of these.
Equal
In [1]:
2 == 2
Out[1]:
True
In [2]:
1 == 0
Out[2]:
False
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Note that == is a comparison operator, while = is an assignment operator.
Not Equal
In [3]:
2 != 1
Out[3]:
True
In [4]:
2 != 2
Out[4]:
False
Greater Than
In [5]:
2 > 1
Out[5]:
True
In [6]:
2 > 4
Out[6]:
False
Less Than
In [7]:
2 < 4
Out[7]:
True
In [8]:
2 < 1
Out[8]:
False
Greater Than or Equal to
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In [9]:
2 >= 2
Out[9]:
True
In [10]:
2 >= 1
Out[10]:
True
Less than or Equal to
In [11]:
2 <= 2
Out[11]:
True
In [12]:
2 <= 4
Out[12]:
True
Great! Go over each comparison operator to make sure you understand what each one is saying. But
hopefully this was straightforward for you.
Next we will cover chained comparison operators
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7/21/2018 02-Chained Comparison Operators
Chained Comparison Operators
An interesting feature of Python is the ability to chain multiple comparisons to perform a more complex test. You
can use these chained comparisons as shorthand for larger Boolean Expressions.
In this lecture we will learn how to chain comparison operators and we will also introduce two other important
statements in Python: and and or.
Let's look at a few examples of using chains:
In [1]:
1 < 2 < 3
Out[1]:
True
The above statement checks if 1 was less than 2 and if 2 was less than 3. We could have written this using an
and statement in Python:
In [2]:
1<2 and 2<3
Out[2]:
True
The and is used to make sure two checks have to be true in order for the total check to be true. Let's see
another example:
In [3]:
1 < 3 > 2
Out[3]:
True
The above checks if 3 is larger than both of the other numbers, so you could use and to rewrite it as:
In [4]:
1<3 and 3>2
Out[4]:
True
It's important to note that Python is checking both instances of the comparisons. We can also use or to write
comparisons in Python. For example:
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In [5]:
1==2 or 2<3
Out[5]:
True
Note how it was true; this is because with the or operator, we only need one or the other to be true. Let's see
one more example to drive this home:
In [6]:
1==1 or 100==1
Out[6]:
True
Great! For an overview of this quick lesson: You should have a comfortable understanding of using and and or
statements as well as reading chained comparison code.
Go ahead and go to the quiz for this section to check your understanding!
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7/21/2018 01-Introduction to Python Statements
Introduction to Python Statements
In this lecture we will be doing a quick overview of Python Statements. This lecture will emphasize differences
between Python and other languages such as C++.
There are two reasons we take this approach for learning the context of Python Statements:
1.) If you are coming from a different language this will rapidly accelerate your
understanding of Python.
2.) Learning about statements will allow you to be able to read other languages mo
re easily in the future.
Python vs Other Languages
Let's create a simple statement that says: "If a is greater than b, assign 2 to a and 4 to b"
Take a look at these two if statements (we will learn about building out if statements soon).
Version 1 (Other Languages)
if (a>b){
a = 2;
b = 4;
}
Version 2 (Python)
if a>b:
a = 2
b = 4
You'll notice that Python is less cluttered and much more readable than the first version. How does Python
manage this?
Let's walk through the main differences:
Python gets rid of () and {} by incorporating two main factors: a colon and whitespace. The statement is ended
with a colon, and whitespace is used (indentation) to describe what takes place in case of the statement.
Another major difference is the lack of semicolons in Python. Semicolons are used to denote statement endings
in many other languages, but in Python, the end of a line is the same as the end of a statement.
Lastly, to end this brief overview of differences, let's take a closer look at indentation syntax in Python vs other
languages:
Indentation
Here is some pseudo-code to indicate the use of whitespace and indentation in Python:
Other Languages
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if (x)
if(y)
code-statement;
else
another-code-statement;
Python
if x:
if y:
code-statement
else:
another-code-statement
Note how Python is so heavily driven by code indentation and whitespace. This means that code readability is a
core part of the design of the Python language.
Now let's start diving deeper by coding these sort of statements in Python!
Time to code!
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7/21/2018 02-if, elif, and else Statements
if, elif, else Statements
if Statements in Python allows us to tell the computer to perform alternative actions based on a certain set of
results.
Verbally, we can imagine we are telling the computer:
"Hey if this case happens, perform some action"
We can then expand the idea further with elif and else statements, which allow us to tell the computer:
"Hey if this case happens, perform some action. Else, if another case happens, perform some other action.
Else, if none of the above cases happened, perform this action."
Let's go ahead and look at the syntax format for if statements to get a better idea of this:
if case1:
perform action1
elif case2:
perform action2
else:
perform action3
First Example
Let's see a quick example of this:
In [1]:
if True:
print('It was true!')
It was true!
Let's add in some else logic:
In [2]:
x = False
if x:
print('x was True!')
else:
print('I will be printed in any case where x is not true')
I will be printed in any case where x is not true
Multiple Branches
Let's get a fuller picture of how far if , elif , and else can take us!
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We write this out in a nested structure. Take note of how the if , elif , and else line up in the code. This
can help you see what if is related to what elif or else statements.
We'll reintroduce a comparison syntax for Python.
In [3]:
loc = 'Bank'
if loc == 'Auto Shop':
print('Welcome to the Auto Shop!')
elif loc == 'Bank':
print('Welcome to the bank!')
else:
print('Where are you?')
Welcome to the bank!
Note how the nested if statements are each checked until a True boolean causes the nested code below it to
run. You should also note that you can put in as many elif statements as you want before you close off with
an else .
Let's create two more simple examples for the if , elif , and else statements:
In [4]:
person = 'Sammy'
if person == 'Sammy':
print('Welcome Sammy!')
else:
print("Welcome, what's your name?")
Welcome Sammy!
In [5]:
person = 'George'
if person == 'Sammy':
print('Welcome Sammy!')
elif person =='George':
print('Welcome George!')
else:
print("Welcome, what's your name?")
Welcome George!
Indentation
It is important to keep a good understanding of how indentation works in Python to maintain the structure and
order of your code. We will touch on this topic again when we start building out functions!
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7/21/2018 03-for Loops
for Loops
A for loop acts as an iterator in Python; it goes through items that are in a sequence or any other iterable
item. Objects that we've learned about that we can iterate over include strings, lists, tuples, and even built-in
iterables for dictionaries, such as keys or values.
We've already seen the for statement a little bit in past lectures but now let's formalize our understanding.
Here's the general format for a for loop in Python:
for item in object:
statements to do stuff
The variable name used for the item is completely up to the coder, so use your best judgment for choosing a
name that makes sense and you will be able to understand when revisiting your code. This item name can then
be referenced inside your loop, for example if you wanted to use if statements to perform checks.
Let's go ahead and work through several example of for loops using a variety of data object types. We'll start
simple and build more complexity later on.
Example 1
Iterating through a list
In [1]:
# We'll learn how to automate this sort of list in the next lecture
list1 = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
In [2]:
for num in list1:
print(num)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Great! Hopefully this makes sense. Now let's add an if statement to check for even numbers. We'll first
introduce a new concept here--the modulo.
Modulo
The modulo allows us to get the remainder in a division and uses the % symbol. For example:
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In [3]:
17 % 5
Out[3]:
This makes sense since 17 divided by 5 is 3 remainder 2. Let's see a few more quick examples:
In [4]:
# 3 Remainder 1
10 % 3
Out[4]:
In [5]:
# 2 Remainder 4
18 % 7
Out[5]:
In [6]:
# 2 no remainder
4 % 2
Out[6]:
Notice that if a number is fully divisible with no remainder, the result of the modulo call is 0. We can use this to
test for even numbers, since if a number modulo 2 is equal to 0, that means it is an even number!
Back to the for loops!
Example 2
Let's print only the even numbers from that list!
In [7]:
for num in list1:
if num % 2 == 0:
print(num)
2
4
6
8
10
We could have also put an else statement in there:
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In [8]:
for num in list1:
if num % 2 == 0:
print(num)
else:
print('Odd number')
Odd number
2
Odd number
4
Odd number
6
Odd number
8
Odd number
10
Example 3
Another common idea during a for loop is keeping some sort of running tally during multiple loops. For
example, let's create a for loop that sums up the list:
In [9]:
# Start sum at zero
list_sum = 0
for num in list1:
list_sum = list_sum + num
print(list_sum)
55
Great! Read over the above cell and make sure you understand fully what is going on. Also we could have
implemented a += to perform the addition towards the sum. For example:
In [10]:
# Start sum at zero
list_sum = 0
for num in list1:
list_sum += num
print(list_sum)
55
Example 4
We've used for loops with lists, how about with strings? Remember strings are a sequence so when we
iterate through them we will be accessing each item in that string.
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In [11]:
for letter in 'This is a string.':
print(letter)
T
h
i
s
i
s
s
t
r
i
n
g
.
Example 5
Let's now look at how a for loop can be used with a tuple:
In [12]:
tup = (1,2,3,4,5)
for t in tup:
print(t)
1
2
3
4
5
Example 6
Tuples have a special quality when it comes to for loops. If you are iterating through a sequence that
contains tuples, the item can actually be the tuple itself, this is an example of tuple unpacking. During the for
loop we will be unpacking the tuple inside of a sequence and we can access the individual items inside that
tuple!
In [13]:
list2 = [(2,4),(6,8),(10,12)]
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In [14]:
for tup in list2:
print(tup)
(2, 4)
(6, 8)
(10, 12)
In [15]:
# Now with unpacking!
for (t1,t2) in list2:
print(t1)
2
6
10
Cool! With tuples in a sequence we can access the items inside of them through unpacking! The reason this is
important is because many objects will deliver their iterables through tuples. Let's start exploring iterating
through Dictionaries to explore this further!
Example 7
In [16]:
d = {'k1':1,'k2':2,'k3':3}
In [17]:
for item in d:
print(item)
k1
k2
k3
Notice how this produces only the keys. So how can we get the values? Or both the keys and the values?
We're going to introduce three new Dictionary methods: .keys(), .values() and .items()
In Python each of these methods return a dictionary view object. It supports operations like membership test
and iteration, but its contents are not independent of the original dictionary – it is only a view. Let's see it in
action:
In [18]:
# Create a dictionary view object
d.items()
Out[18]:
dict_items([('k1', 1), ('k2', 2), ('k3', 3)])
Since the .items() method supports iteration, we can perform dictionary unpacking to separate keys and values
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just as we did in the previous examples.
In [19]:
# Dictionary unpacking
for k,v in d.items():
print(k)
print(v)
k1
1
k2
2
k3
3
If you want to obtain a true list of keys, values, or key/value tuples, you can cast the view as a list:
In [20]:
list(d.keys())
Out[20]:
['k1', 'k2', 'k3']
Remember that dictionaries are unordered, and that keys and values come back in arbitrary order. You can
obtain a sorted list using sorted():
In [21]:
sorted(d.values())
Out[21]:
[1, 2, 3]
Conclusion
We've learned how to use for loops to iterate through tuples, lists, strings, and dictionaries. It will be an
important tool for us, so make sure you know it well and understood the above examples.
More resources (http://www.tutorialspoint.com/python/python_for_loop.htm)
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7/21/2018 04-while Loops
while Loops
The while statement in Python is one of most general ways to perform iteration. A while statement will
repeatedly execute a single statement or group of statements as long as the condition is true. The reason it is
called a 'loop' is because the code statements are looped through over and over again until the condition is no
longer met.
The general format of a while loop is:
while test:
code statements
else:
final code statements
Let’s look at a few simple while loops in action.
In [1]:
x = 0
while x < 10:
print('x is currently: ',x)
print(' x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x')
x+=1
x is currently: 0
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 1
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 2
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 3
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 4
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 5
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 6
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 7
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 8
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 9
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
Notice how many times the print statements occurred and how the while loop kept going until the True
condition was met, which occurred once x==10. It's important to note that once this occurred the code stopped.
Let's see how we could add an else statement:
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In [2]:
x = 0
while x < 10:
print('x is currently: ',x)
print(' x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x')
x+=1
else:
print('All Done!')
x is currently: 0
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 1
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 2
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 3
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 4
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 5
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 6
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 7
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 8
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x is currently: 9
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
All Done!
break, continue, pass
We can use break , continue , and pass statements in our loops to add additional functionality for various
cases. The three statements are defined by:
break: Breaks out of the current closest enclosing loop.
continue: Goes to the top of the closest enclosing loop.
pass: Does nothing at all.
Thinking about break and continue statements, the general format of the while loop looks like this:
while test:
code statement
if test:
break
if test:
continue
else:
break and continue statements can appear anywhere inside the loop’s body, but we will usually put them
further nested in conjunction with an if statement to perform an action based on some condition.
Let's go ahead and look at some examples!
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In [3]:
x = 0
while x < 10:
print('x is currently: ',x)
print(' x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x')
x+=1
if x==3:
print('x==3')
else:
print('continuing...')
continue
x is currently: 0
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 1
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 2
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
x==3
x is currently: 3
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 4
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 5
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 6
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 7
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 8
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 9
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
Note how we have a printed statement when x==3, and a continue being printed out as we continue through the
outer while loop. Let's put in a break once x ==3 and see if the result makes sense:
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In [4]:
x = 0
while x < 10:
print('x is currently: ',x)
print(' x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x')
x+=1
if x==3:
print('Breaking because x==3')
break
else:
print('continuing...')
continue
x is currently: 0
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 1
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
continuing...
x is currently: 2
x is still less than 10, adding 1 to x
Breaking because x==3
Note how the other else statement wasn't reached and continuing was never printed!
After these brief but simple examples, you should feel comfortable using while statements in your code.
A word of caution however! It is possible to create an infinitely running loop with while statements.
For example:
In [ ]:
# DO NOT RUN THIS CODE!!!!
while True:
print("I'm stuck in an infinite loop!")
A quick note: If you did run the above cell, click on the Kernel menu above to restart the kernel!
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7/21/2018 05-Useful-Operators
Useful Operators
There are a few built-in functions and "operators" in Python that don't fit well into any category, so we will go
over them in this lecture, let's begin!
range
The range function allows you to quickly generate a list of integers, this comes in handy a lot, so take note of
how to use it! There are 3 parameters you can pass, a start, a stop, and a step size. Let's see some examples:
In [1]:
range(0,11)
Out[1]:
range(0, 11)
Note that this is a generator function, so to actually get a list out of it, we need to cast it to a list with list().
What is a generator? Its a special type of function that will generate information and not need to save it to
memory. We haven't talked about functions or generators yet, so just keep this in your notes for now, we will
discuss this in much more detail in later on in your training!
In [3]:
# Notice how 11 is not included, up to but not including 11, just like slice notation!
list(range(0,11))
Out[3]:
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
In [4]:
list(range(0,12))
Out[4]:
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]
In [6]:
# Third parameter is step size!
# step size just means how big of a jump/leap/step you
# take from the starting number to get to the next number.
list(range(0,11,2))
Out[6]:
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
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In [7]:
list(range(0,101,10))
Out[7]:
[0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100]
enumerate
enumerate is a very useful function to use with for loops. Let's imagine the following situation:
In [8]:
index_count = 0
for letter in 'abcde':
print("At index {} the letter is {}".format(index_count,letter))
index_count += 1
At index 0 the letter is a
At index 1 the letter is b
At index 2 the letter is c
At index 3 the letter is d
At index 4 the letter is e
Keeping track of how many loops you've gone through is so common, that enumerate was created so you don't
need to worry about creating and updating this index_count or loop_count variable
In [10]:
# Notice the tuple unpacking!
for i,letter in enumerate('abcde'):
print("At index {} the letter is {}".format(i,letter))
At index 0 the letter is a
At index 1 the letter is b
At index 2 the letter is c
At index 3 the letter is d
At index 4 the letter is e
zip
Notice the format enumerate actually returns, let's take a look by transforming it to a list()
In [12]:
list(enumerate('abcde'))
Out[12]:
[(0, 'a'), (1, 'b'), (2, 'c'), (3, 'd'), (4, 'e')]
It was a list of tuples, meaning we could use tuple unpacking during our for loop. This data structure is actually
very common in Python , especially when working with outside libraries. You can use the zip() function to
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quickly create a list of tuples by "zipping" up together two lists.
In [13]:
mylist1 = [1,2,3,4,5]
mylist2 = ['a','b','c','d','e']
In [15]:
# This one is also a generator! We will explain this later, but for now let's transform it
zip(mylist1,mylist2)
Out[15]:
<zip at 0x1d205086f08>
In [17]:
list(zip(mylist1,mylist2))
Out[17]:
[(1, 'a'), (2, 'b'), (3, 'c'), (4, 'd'), (5, 'e')]
To use the generator, we could just use a for loop
In [20]:
for item1, item2 in zip(mylist1,mylist2):
print('For this tuple, first item was {} and second item was {}'.format(item1,item2))
For this tuple, first item was 1 and second item was a
For this tuple, first item was 2 and second item was b
For this tuple, first item was 3 and second item was c
For this tuple, first item was 4 and second item was d
For this tuple, first item was 5 and second item was e
in operator
We've already seen the in keyword durng the for loop, but we can also use it to quickly check if an object is in a
list
In [21]:
'x' in ['x','y','z']
Out[21]:
True
In [22]:
'x' in [1,2,3]
Out[22]:
False
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min and max
Quickly check the minimum or maximum of a list with these functions.
In [26]:
mylist = [10,20,30,40,100]
In [27]:
min(mylist)
Out[27]:
10
In [44]:
max(mylist)
Out[44]:
100
random
Python comes with a built in random library. There are a lot of functions included in this random library, so we
will only show you two useful functions for now.
In [29]:
from random import shuffle
In [35]:
# This shuffles the list "in-place" meaning it won't return
# anything, instead it will effect the list passed
shuffle(mylist)
In [36]:
mylist
Out[36]:
[40, 10, 100, 30, 20]
In [39]:
from random import randint
In [41]:
# Return random integer in range [a, b], including both end points.
randint(0,100)
Out[41]:
25
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In [42]:
# Return random integer in range [a, b], including both end points.
randint(0,100)
Out[42]:
91
input
In [43]:
input('Enter Something into this box: ')
Enter Something into this box: great job!
Out[43]:
'great job!'
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7/21/2018 06-List Comprehensions
List Comprehensions
In addition to sequence operations and list methods, Python includes a more advanced operation called a list
comprehension.
List comprehensions allow us to build out lists using a different notation. You can think of it as essentially a one
line for loop built inside of brackets. For a simple example:
Example 1
In [1]:
# Grab every letter in string
lst = [x for x in 'word']
In [2]:
# Check
lst
Out[2]:
['w', 'o', 'r', 'd']
This is the basic idea of a list comprehension. If you're familiar with mathematical notation this format should
feel familiar for example: x^2 : x in { 0,1,2...10 }
Let's see a few more examples of list comprehensions in Python:
Example 2
In [3]:
# Square numbers in range and turn into list
lst = [x**2 for x in range(0,11)]
In [4]:
lst
Out[4]:
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
Example 3
Let's see how to add in if statements:
In [5]:
# Check for even numbers in a range
lst = [x for x in range(11) if x % 2 == 0]
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In [6]:
lst
Out[6]:
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
Example 4
Can also do more complicated arithmetic:
In [7]:
# Convert Celsius to Fahrenheit
celsius = [0,10,20.1,34.5]
fahrenheit = [((9/5)*temp + 32) for temp in celsius ]
fahrenheit
Out[7]:
[32.0, 50.0, 68.18, 94.1]
Example 5
We can also perform nested list comprehensions, for example:
In [8]:
lst = [ x**2 for x in [x**2 for x in range(11)]]
lst
Out[8]:
[0, 1, 16, 81, 256, 625, 1296, 2401, 4096, 6561, 10000]
Later on in the course we will learn about generator comprehensions. After this lecture you should feel
comfortable reading and writing basic list comprehensions.
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7/21/2018 07-Statements Assessment Test
Statements Assessment Test
Let's test your knowledge!
Use for , .split(), and if to create a Statement that will print out words that start with 's':
In [ ]:
st = 'Print only the words that start with s in this sentence'
In [ ]:
#Code here
Use range() to print all the even numbers from 0 to 10.
In [ ]:
#Code Here
Use a List Comprehension to create a list of all numbers between 1 and 50 that are divisible by 3.
In [ ]:
#Code in this cell
[]
Go through the string below and if the length of a word is even print "even!"
In [ ]:
st = 'Print every word in this sentence that has an even number of letters'
In [ ]:
#Code in this cell
Write a program that prints the integers from 1 to 100. But for multiples of three print "Fizz" instead of
the number, and for the multiples of five print "Buzz". For numbers which are multiples of both three
and five print "FizzBuzz".
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In [ ]:
#Code in this cell
Use List Comprehension to create a list of the first letters of every word in the string below:
In [ ]:
st = 'Create a list of the first letters of every word in this string'
In [ ]:
#Code in this cell
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 08-Statements Assessment Test - Solutions
Statements Assessment Solutions
Use for , .split(), and if to create a Statement that will print out words that start with 's':
In [1]:
st = 'Print only the words that start with s in this sentence'
In [2]:
for word in st.split():
if word[0] == 's':
print(word)
start
s
sentence
Use range() to print all the even numbers from 0 to 10.
In [3]:
list(range(0,11,2))
Out[3]:
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
Use List comprehension to create a list of all numbers between 1 and 50 that are divisible by 3.
In [4]:
[x for x in range(1,51) if x%3 == 0]
Out[4]:
[3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42, 45, 48]
Go through the string below and if the length of a word is even print "even!"
In [5]:
st = 'Print every word in this sentence that has an even number of letters'
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7/21/2018 08-Statements Assessment Test - Solutions
In [6]:
for word in st.split():
if len(word)%2 == 0:
print(word+" <-- has an even length!")
word <-- has an even length!
in <-- has an even length!
this <-- has an even length!
sentence <-- has an even length!
that <-- has an even length!
an <-- has an even length!
even <-- has an even length!
number <-- has an even length!
of <-- has an even length!
Write a program that prints the integers from 1 to 100. But for multiples of three print "Fizz" instead of
the number, and for the multiples of five print "Buzz". For numbers which are multiples of both three
and five print "FizzBuzz".
In [ ]:
for num in range(1,101):
if num % 3 == 0 and num % 5 == 0:
print("FizzBuzz")
elif num % 3 == 0:
print("Fizz")
elif num % 5 == 0:
print("Buzz")
else:
print(num)
Use a List Comprehension to create a list of the first letters of every word in the string below:
In [7]:
st = 'Create a list of the first letters of every word in this string'
In [8]:
[word[0] for word in st.split()]
Out[8]:
['C', 'a', 'l', 'o', 't', 'f', 'l', 'o', 'e', 'w', 'i', 't', 's']
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 09-Guessing Game Challenge
Guessing Game Challenge
Let's use while loops to create a guessing game.
The Challenge:
Write a program that picks a random integer from 1 to 100, and has players guess the number. The rules are:
1. If a player's guess is less than 1 or greater than 100, say "OUT OF BOUNDS"
2. On a player's first turn, if their guess is
within 10 of the number, return "WARM!"
further than 10 away from the number, return "COLD!"
3. On all subsequent turns, if a guess is
closer to the number than the previous guess return "WARMER!"
farther from the number than the previous guess, return "COLDER!"
4. When the player's guess equals the number, tell them they've guessed correctly and how many guesses it
took!
You can try this from scratch, or follow the steps outlined below. A separate Solution notebook has been
provided. Good luck!
First, pick a random integer from 1 to 100 using the random module and assign it to a variable
Note: random.randint(a,b) returns a random integer in range [a, b] , including both end points.
In [ ]:
Next, print an introduction to the game and explain the rules
In [ ]:
Create a list to store guesses
Hint: zero is a good placeholder value. It's useful because it evaluates to "False"
In [ ]:
Write a while loop that asks for a valid guess. Test it a few times to make sure it works.
In [ ]:
while True:
pass
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7/21/2018 09-Guessing Game Challenge
Write a while loop that compares the player's guess to our number. If the player guesses correctly,
break from the loop. Otherwise, tell the player if they're warmer or colder, and continue asking for
guesses.
Some hints:
it may help to sketch out all possible combinations on paper first!
you can use the abs() function to find the positive difference between two numbers
if you append all new guesses to the list, then the previous guess is given as guesses[-2]
In [ ]:
while True:
# we can copy the code from above to take an input
pass
That's it! You've just programmed your first game!
In the next section we'll learn how to turn some of these repetitive actions into functions that can be called
whenever we need them.
Good Job!
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7/21/2018 10-Guessing Game Challenge - Solution
Guessing Game Challenge - Solution
Let's use while loops to create a guessing game.
The Challenge:
Write a program that picks a random integer from 1 to 100, and has players guess the number. The rules are:
1. If a player's guess is less than 1 or greater than 100, say "OUT OF BOUNDS"
2. On a player's first turn, if their guess is
within 10 of the number, return "WARM!"
further than 10 away from the number, return "COLD!"
3. On all subsequent turns, if a guess is
closer to the number than the previous guess return "WARMER!"
farther from the number than the previous guess, return "COLDER!"
4. When the player's guess equals the number, tell them they've guessed correctly and how many guesses it
took!
First, pick a random integer from 1 to 100 using the random module and assign it to a variable
Note: random.randint(a,b) returns a random integer in range [a, b] , including both end points.
In [1]:
import random
num = random.randint(1,100)
Next, print an introduction to the game and explain the rules
In [2]:
print("WELCOME TO GUESS ME!")
print("I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100")
print("If your guess is more than 10 away from my number, I'll tell you you're COLD")
print("If your guess is within 10 of my number, I'll tell you you're WARM")
print("If your guess is farther than your most recent guess, I'll say you're getting COLDER
print("If your guess is closer than your most recent guess, I'll say you're getting WARMER"
print("LET'S PLAY!")
WELCOME TO GUESS ME!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100
If your guess is more than 10 away from my number, I'll tell you you're COLD
If your guess is within 10 of my number, I'll tell you you're WARM
If your guess is farther than your most recent guess, I'll say you're gettin
g COLDER
If your guess is closer than your most recent guess, I'll say you're getting
WARMER
LET'S PLAY!
Create a list to store guesses
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7/21/2018 10-Guessing Game Challenge - Solution
Hint: zero is a good placeholder value. It's useful because it evaluates to "False"
In [3]:
guesses = [0]
Write a while loop that asks for a valid guess. Test it a few times to make sure it works.
In [4]:
while True:
guess = int(input("I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.\n What is your guess? "
if guess < 1 or guess > 100:
print('OUT OF BOUNDS! Please try again: ')
continue
break
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 500
OUT OF BOUNDS! Please try again:
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 50
Write a while loop that compares the player's guess to our number. If the player guesses correctly,
break from the loop. Otherwise, tell the player if they're warmer or colder, and continue asking for
guesses.
Some hints:
it may help to sketch out all possible combinations on paper first!
you can use the abs() function to find the positive difference between two numbers
if you append all new guesses to the list, then the previous guess is given as guesses[-2]
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7/21/2018 10-Guessing Game Challenge - Solution
In [5]:
while True:
# we can copy the code from above to take an input
guess = int(input("I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.\n What is your guess? "
if guess < 1 or guess > 100:
print('OUT OF BOUNDS! Please try again: ')
continue
# here we compare the player's guess to our number
if guess == num:
print(f'CONGRATULATIONS, YOU GUESSED IT IN ONLY {len(guesses)} GUESSES!!')
break
# if guess is incorrect, add guess to the list
guesses.append(guess)
# when testing the first guess, guesses[-2]==0, which evaluates to False
# and brings us down to the second section
if guesses[-2]:
if abs(num-guess) < abs(num-guesses[-2]):
print('WARMER!')
else:
print('COLDER!')
else:
if abs(num-guess) <= 10:
print('WARM!')
else:
print('COLD!')
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 50
COLD!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 75
WARMER!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 85
WARMER!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 92
COLDER!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 80
WARMER!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 78
COLDER!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 82
WARMER!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 83
COLDER!
I'm thinking of a number between 1 and 100.
What is your guess? 81
CONGRATULATIONS, YOU GUESSED IT IN ONLY 9 GUESSES!!
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That's it! You've just programmed your first game!
In the next section we'll learn how to turn some of these repetitive actions into functions that can be called
whenever we need them.
Good Job!
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7/21/2018 01-Methods
Methods
We've already seen a few example of methods when learning about Object and Data Structure Types in
Python. Methods are essentially functions built into objects. Later on in the course we will learn about how to
create our own objects and methods using Object Oriented Programming (OOP) and classes.
Methods perform specific actions on an object and can also take arguments, just like a function. This lecture will
serve as just a brief introduction to methods and get you thinking about overall design methods that we will
touch back upon when we reach OOP in the course.
Methods are in the form:
object.method(arg1,arg2,etc...)
You'll later see that we can think of methods as having an argument 'self' referring to the object itself. You can't
see this argument but we will be using it later on in the course during the OOP lectures.
Let's take a quick look at what an example of the various methods a list has:
In [1]:
# Create a simple list
lst = [1,2,3,4,5]
Fortunately, with iPython and the Jupyter Notebook we can quickly see all the possible methods using the tab
key. The methods for a list are:
append
count
extend
insert
pop
remove
reverse
sort
Let's try out a few of them:
append() allows us to add elements to the end of a list:
In [2]:
lst.append(6)
In [3]:
lst
Out[3]:
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Great! Now how about count()? The count() method will count the number of occurrences of an element in a
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list.
In [4]:
# Check how many times 2 shows up in the list
lst.count(2)
Out[4]:
You can always use Shift+Tab in the Jupyter Notebook to get more help about the method. In general Python
you can use the help() function:
In [5]:
help(lst.count)
Help on built-in function count:
count(...) method of builtins.list instance
L.count(value) -> integer -- return number of occurrences of value
Feel free to play around with the rest of the methods for a list. Later on in this section your quiz will involve
using help and Google searching for methods of different types of objects!
Great! By this lecture you should feel comfortable calling methods of objects in Python!
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7/21/2018 02-Functions
Functions
Introduction to Functions
This lecture will consist of explaining what a function is in Python and how to create one. Functions will be one
of our main building blocks when we construct larger and larger amounts of code to solve problems.
So what is a function?
Formally, a function is a useful device that groups together a set of statements so they can be run more than
once. They can also let us specify parameters that can serve as inputs to the functions.
On a more fundamental level, functions allow us to not have to repeatedly write the same code again and
again. If you remember back to the lessons on strings and lists, remember that we used a function len() to get
the length of a string. Since checking the length of a sequence is a common task you would want to write a
function that can do this repeatedly at command.
Functions will be one of most basic levels of reusing code in Python, and it will also allow us to start thinking of
program design (we will dive much deeper into the ideas of design when we learn about Object Oriented
Programming).
def Statements
Let's see how to build out a function's syntax in Python. It has the following form:
In [1]:
def name_of_function(arg1,arg2):
'''
This is where the function's Document String (docstring) goes
'''
# Do stuff here
# Return desired result
We begin with def then a space followed by the name of the function. Try to keep names relevant, for
example len() is a good name for a length() function. Also be careful with names, you wouldn't want to call a
function the same name as a built-in function in Python (https://docs.python.org/2/library/functions.html) (such
as len).
Next come a pair of parentheses with a number of arguments separated by a comma. These arguments are the
inputs for your function. You'll be able to use these inputs in your function and reference them. After this you put
a colon.
Now here is the important step, you must indent to begin the code inside your function correctly. Python makes
use of whitespace to organize code. Lots of other programing languages do not do this, so keep that in mind.
Next you'll see the docstring, this is where you write a basic description of the function. Using iPython and
iPython Notebooks, you'll be able to read these docstrings by pressing Shift+Tab after a function name.
Docstrings are not necessary for simple functions, but it's good practice to put them in so you or other people
can easily understand the code you write.
After all this you begin writing the code you wish to execute.
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The best way to learn functions is by going through examples. So let's try to go through examples that relate
back to the various objects and data structures we learned about before.
Example 1: A simple print 'hello' function
In [2]:
def say_hello():
print('hello')
Call the function:
In [3]:
say_hello()
hello
Example 2: A simple greeting function
Let's write a function that greets people with their name.
In [4]:
def greeting(name):
print('Hello %s' %(name))
In [5]:
greeting('Jose')
Hello Jose
Using return
Let's see some example that use a return statement. return allows a function to return a result that can
then be stored as a variable, or used in whatever manner a user wants.
Example 3: Addition function
In [6]:
def add_num(num1,num2):
return num1+num2
In [7]:
add_num(4,5)
Out[7]:
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In [8]:
# Can also save as variable due to return
result = add_num(4,5)
In [9]:
print(result)
What happens if we input two strings?
In [10]:
add_num('one','two')
Out[10]:
'onetwo'
Note that because we don't declare variable types in Python, this function could be used to add numbers or
sequences together! We'll later learn about adding in checks to make sure a user puts in the correct arguments
into a function.
Let's also start using break , continue , and pass statements in our code. We introduced these during the
while lecture.
Finally let's go over a full example of creating a function to check if a number is prime (a common interview
exercise).
We know a number is prime if that number is only evenly divisible by 1 and itself. Let's write our first version of
the function to check all the numbers from 1 to N and perform modulo checks.
In [11]:
def is_prime(num):
'''
Naive method of checking for primes.
'''
for n in range(2,num):
if num % n == 0:
print(num,'is not prime')
break
else: # If never mod zero, then prime
print(num,'is prime!')
In [12]:
is_prime(16)
16 is not prime
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In [13]:
is_prime(17)
17 is prime!
Note how the else lines up under for and not if . This is because we want the for loop to exhaust all
possibilities in the range before printing our number is prime.
Also note how we break the code after the first print statement. As soon as we determine that a number is not
prime we break out of the for loop.
We can actually improve this function by only checking to the square root of the target number, and by
disregarding all even numbers after checking for 2. We'll also switch to returning a boolean value to get an
example of using return statements:
In [14]:
import math
def is_prime2(num):
'''
Better method of checking for primes.
'''
if num % 2 == 0 and num > 2:
return False
for i in range(3, int(math.sqrt(num)) + 1, 2):
if num % i == 0:
return False
return True
In [15]:
is_prime2(18)
Out[15]:
False
Why don't we have any break statements? It should be noted that as soon as a function returns something, it
shuts down. A function can deliver multiple print statements, but it will only obey one return .
Great! You should now have a basic understanding of creating your own functions to save yourself from
repeatedly writing code!
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7/21/2018 03-Function Practice Exercises
Function Practice Exercises
Problems are arranged in increasing difficulty:
Warmup - these can be solved using basic comparisons and methods
Level 1 - these may involve if/then conditional statements and simple methods
Level 2 - these may require iterating over sequences, usually with some kind of loop
Challenging - these will take some creativity to solve
WARMUP SECTION:
LESSER OF TWO EVENS: Write a function that returns the lesser of two given numbers if both numbers
are even, but returns the greater if one or both numbers are odd
lesser_of_two_evens(2,4) --> 2
lesser_of_two_evens(2,5) --> 5
In [ ]:
def lesser_of_two_evens(a,b):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
lesser_of_two_evens(2,4)
In [ ]:
# Check
lesser_of_two_evens(2,5)
ANIMAL CRACKERS: Write a function takes a two-word string and returns True if both words begin with
same letter
animal_crackers('Levelheaded Llama') --> True
animal_crackers('Crazy Kangaroo') --> False
In [ ]:
def animal_crackers(text):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
animal_crackers('Levelheaded Llama')
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In [ ]:
# Check
animal_crackers('Crazy Kangaroo')
MAKES TWENTY: Given two integers, return True if the sum of the integers is 20 or if one of the
integers is 20. If not, return False
makes_twenty(20,10) --> True
makes_twenty(12,8) --> True
makes_twenty(2,3) --> False
In [ ]:
def makes_twenty(n1,n2):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
makes_twenty(20,10)
In [ ]:
# Check
makes_twenty(2,3)
LEVEL 1 PROBLEMS
OLD MACDONALD: Write a function that capitalizes the first and fourth letters of a name
old_macdonald('macdonald') --> MacDonald
Note: 'macdonald'.capitalize() returns 'Macdonald'
In [ ]:
def old_macdonald(name):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
old_macdonald('macdonald')
MASTER YODA: Given a sentence, return a sentence with the words reversed
master_yoda('I am home') --> 'home am I'
master_yoda('We are ready') --> 'ready are We'
Note: The .join() method may be useful here. The .join() method allows you to join together strings in a list with
some connector
Loading string. For example, some uses of the .join() method:
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>>> "--".join(['a','b','c'])
>>> 'a--b--c'
This means if you had a list of words you wanted to turn back into a sentence, you could just join them with a
single space string:
>>> " ".join(['Hello','world'])
>>> "Hello world"
In [ ]:
def master_yoda(text):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
master_yoda('I am home')
In [ ]:
# Check
master_yoda('We are ready')
ALMOST THERE: Given an integer n, return True if n is within 10 of either 100 or 200
almost_there(90) --> True
almost_there(104) --> True
almost_there(150) --> False
almost_there(209) --> True
NOTE: abs(num) returns the absolute value of a number
In [ ]:
def almost_there(n):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
almost_there(104)
In [ ]:
# Check
almost_there(150)
In [ ]:
# Check
almost_there(209)
LEVEL 2 PROBLEMS
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FIND 33:
Given a list of ints, return True if the array contains a 3 next to a 3 somewhere.
has_33([1, 3, 3]) → True
has_33([1, 3, 1, 3]) → False
has_33([3, 1, 3]) → False
In [ ]:
def has_33(nums):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
has_33([1, 3, 3])
In [ ]:
# Check
has_33([1, 3, 1, 3])
In [ ]:
# Check
has_33([3, 1, 3])
PAPER DOLL: Given a string, return a string where for every character in the original there are three
characters
paper_doll('Hello') --> 'HHHeeellllllooo'
paper_doll('Mississippi') --> 'MMMiiissssssiiippppppiii'
In [ ]:
def paper_doll(text):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
paper_doll('Hello')
In [ ]:
# Check
paper_doll('Mississippi')
BLACKJACK: Given three integers between 1 and 11, if their sum is less than or equal to 21, return their
sum. If their sum exceeds 21 and there's an eleven, reduce the total sum by 10. Finally, if the sum (even
after adjustment) exceeds 21, return 'BUST'
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blackjack(5,6,7) --> 18
blackjack(9,9,9) --> 'BUST'
blackjack(9,9,11) --> 19
In [ ]:
def blackjack(a,b,c):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
blackjack(5,6,7)
In [ ]:
# Check
blackjack(9,9,9)
In [ ]:
# Check
blackjack(9,9,11)
SUMMER OF '69: Return the sum of the numbers in the array, except ignore sections of numbers
starting with a 6 and extending to the next 9 (every 6 will be followed by at least one 9). Return 0 for no
numbers.
summer_69([1, 3, 5]) --> 9
summer_69([4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]) --> 9
summer_69([2, 1, 6, 9, 11]) --> 14
In [ ]:
def summer_69(arr):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
summer_69([1, 3, 5])
In [ ]:
# Check
summer_69([4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
In [ ]:
# Check
summer_69([2, 1, 6, 9, 11])
CHALLENGING
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SPY GAME: Write a function that takes in a list of integers and returns True if it contains 007 in
order
spy_game([1,2,4,0,0,7,5]) --> True
spy_game([1,0,2,4,0,5,7]) --> True
spy_game([1,7,2,0,4,5,0]) --> False
In [ ]:
def spy_game(nums):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
spy_game([1,2,4,0,0,7,5])
In [ ]:
# Check
spy_game([1,0,2,4,0,5,7])
In [ ]:
# Check
spy_game([1,7,2,0,4,5,0])
COUNT PRIMES: Write a function that returns the number of prime numbers that exist up to and
including a given number
count_primes(100) --> 25
By convention, 0 and 1 are not prime.
In [ ]:
def count_primes(num):
pass
In [ ]:
# Check
count_primes(100)
Just for fun:
PRINT BIG: Write a function that takes in a single letter, and returns a 5x5 representation of that
letter
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print_big('a')
out: *
* *
*****
* *
* *
HINT: Consider making a dictionary of possible patterns, and mapping the alphabet to specific 5-line
combinations of patterns.
For purposes of this exercise, it's ok if your dictionary stops at "E".
In [ ]:
def print_big(letter):
pass
In [ ]:
print_big('a')
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 04-Function Practice Exercises - Solutions
Function Practice Exercises - Solutions
Problems are arranged in increasing difficulty:
Warmup - these can be solved using basic comparisons and methods
Level 1 - these may involve if/then conditional statements and simple methods
Level 2 - these may require iterating over sequences, usually with some kind of loop
Challenging - these will take some creativity to solve
WARMUP SECTION:
LESSER OF TWO EVENS: Write a function that returns the lesser of two given numbers if both numbers
are even, but returns the greater if one or both numbers are odd
lesser_of_two_evens(2,4) --> 2
lesser_of_two_evens(2,5) --> 5
In [1]:
def lesser_of_two_evens(a,b):
if a%2 == 0 and b%2 == 0:
return min(a,b)
else:
return max(a,b)
In [2]:
# Check
lesser_of_two_evens(2,4)
Out[2]:
In [3]:
# Check
lesser_of_two_evens(2,5)
Out[3]:
ANIMAL CRACKERS: Write a function takes a two-word string and returns True if both words begin with
same letter
animal_crackers('Levelheaded Llama') --> True
animal_crackers('Crazy Kangaroo') --> False
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In [4]:
def animal_crackers(text):
wordlist = text.split()
return wordlist[0][0] == wordlist[1][0]
In [5]:
# Check
animal_crackers('Levelheaded Llama')
Out[5]:
True
In [6]:
# Check
animal_crackers('Crazy Kangaroo')
Out[6]:
False
MAKES TWENTY: Given two integers, return True if the sum of the integers is 20 or if one of the
integers is 20. If not, return False
makes_twenty(20,10) --> True
makes_twenty(12,8) --> True
makes_twenty(2,3) --> False
In [7]:
def makes_twenty(n1,n2):
return (n1+n2)==20 or n1==20 or n2==20
In [8]:
# Check
makes_twenty(20,10)
Out[8]:
True
In [9]:
# Check
makes_twenty(12,8)
Out[9]:
True
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In [10]:
#Check
makes_twenty(2,3)
Out[10]:
False
LEVEL 1 PROBLEMS
OLD MACDONALD: Write a function that capitalizes the first and fourth letters of a name
old_macdonald('macdonald') --> MacDonald
Note: 'macdonald'.capitalize() returns 'Macdonald'
In [11]:
def old_macdonald(name):
if len(name) > 3:
return name[:3].capitalize() + name[3:].capitalize()
else:
return 'Name is too short!'
In [12]:
# Check
old_macdonald('macdonald')
Out[12]:
'MacDonald'
MASTER YODA: Given a sentence, return a sentence with the words reversed
master_yoda('I am home') --> 'home am I'
master_yoda('We are ready') --> 'ready are We'
In [13]:
def master_yoda(text):
return ' '.join(text.split()[::-1])
In [14]:
# Check
master_yoda('I am home')
Out[14]:
'home am I'
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In [15]:
# Check
master_yoda('We are ready')
Out[15]:
'ready are We'
ALMOST THERE: Given an integer n, return True if n is within 10 of either 100 or 200
almost_there(90) --> True
almost_there(104) --> True
almost_there(150) --> False
almost_there(209) --> True
NOTE: abs(num) returns the absolute value of a number
In [16]:
def almost_there(n):
return ((abs(100 - n) <= 10) or (abs(200 - n) <= 10))
In [17]:
# Check
almost_there(90)
Out[17]:
True
In [18]:
# Check
almost_there(104)
Out[18]:
True
In [19]:
# Check
almost_there(150)
Out[19]:
False
In [20]:
# Check
almost_there(209)
Out[20]:
True
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7/21/2018 04-Function Practice Exercises - Solutions
LEVEL 2 PROBLEMS
FIND 33:
Given a list of ints, return True if the array contains a 3 next to a 3 somewhere.
has_33([1, 3, 3]) → True
has_33([1, 3, 1, 3]) → False
has_33([3, 1, 3]) → False
In [21]:
def has_33(nums):
for i in range(0, len(nums)-1):
# nicer looking alternative in commented code
#if nums[i] == 3 and nums[i+1] == 3:
if nums[i:i+2] == [3,3]:
return True
return False
In [22]:
# Check
has_33([1, 3, 3])
Out[22]:
True
In [23]:
# Check
has_33([1, 3, 1, 3])
Out[23]:
False
In [24]:
# Check
has_33([3, 1, 3])
Out[24]:
False
PAPER DOLL: Given a string, return a string where for every character in the original there are three
characters
paper_doll('Hello') --> 'HHHeeellllllooo'
paper_doll('Mississippi') --> 'MMMiiissssssiiippppppiii'
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In [25]:
def paper_doll(text):
result = ''
for char in text:
result += char * 3
return result
In [26]:
# Check
paper_doll('Hello')
Out[26]:
'HHHeeellllllooo'
In [27]:
# Check
paper_doll('Mississippi')
Out[27]:
'MMMiiissssssiiissssssiiippppppiii'
BLACKJACK: Given three integers between 1 and 11, if their sum is less than or equal to 21, return their
sum. If their sum exceeds 21 and there's an eleven, reduce the total sum by 10. Finally, if the sum (even
after adjustment) exceeds 21, return 'BUST'
blackjack(5,6,7) --> 18
blackjack(9,9,9) --> 'BUST'
blackjack(9,9,11) --> 19
In [28]:
def blackjack(a,b,c):
if sum((a,b,c)) <= 21:
return sum((a,b,c))
elif sum((a,b,c)) <=31 and 11 in (a,b,c):
return sum((a,b,c)) - 10
else:
return 'BUST'
In [29]:
# Check
blackjack(5,6,7)
Out[29]:
18
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In [30]:
# Check
blackjack(9,9,9)
Out[30]:
'BUST'
In [31]:
# Check
blackjack(9,9,11)
Out[31]:
19
SUMMER OF '69: Return the sum of the numbers in the array, except ignore sections of numbers
starting with a 6 and extending to the next 9 (every 6 will be followed by at least one 9). Return 0 for no
numbers.
summer_69([1, 3, 5]) --> 9
summer_69([4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]) --> 9
summer_69([2, 1, 6, 9, 11]) --> 14
In [32]:
def summer_69(arr):
total = 0
add = True
for num in arr:
while add:
if num != 6:
total += num
break
else:
add = False
while not add:
if num != 9:
break
else:
add = True
break
return total
In [33]:
# Check
summer_69([1, 3, 5])
Out[33]:
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In [34]:
# Check
summer_69([4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
Out[34]:
In [35]:
# Check
summer_69([2, 1, 6, 9, 11])
Out[35]:
14
CHALLENGING PROBLEMS
SPY GAME: Write a function that takes in a list of integers and returns True if it contains 007 in
order
spy_game([1,2,4,0,0,7,5]) --> True
spy_game([1,0,2,4,0,5,7]) --> True
spy_game([1,7,2,0,4,5,0]) --> False
In [36]:
def spy_game(nums):
code = [0,0,7,'x']
for num in nums:
if num == code[0]:
code.pop(0) # code.remove(num) also works
return len(code) == 1
In [37]:
# Check
spy_game([1,2,4,0,0,7,5])
Out[37]:
True
In [38]:
# Check
spy_game([1,0,2,4,0,5,7])
Out[38]:
True
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In [39]:
# Check
spy_game([1,7,2,0,4,5,0])
Out[39]:
False
COUNT PRIMES: Write a function that returns the number of prime numbers that exist up to and
including a given number
count_primes(100) --> 25
By convention, 0 and 1 are not prime.
In [40]:
def count_primes(num):
primes = [2]
x = 3
if num < 2: # for the case of num = 0 or 1
return 0
while x <= num:
for y in range(3,x,2): # test all odd factors up to x-1
if x%y == 0:
x += 2
break
else:
primes.append(x)
x += 2
print(primes)
return len(primes)
In [41]:
# Check
count_primes(100)
[2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71,
73, 79, 83, 89, 97]
Out[41]:
25
BONUS: Here's a faster version that makes use of the prime numbers we're collecting as we go!
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In [42]:
def count_primes2(num):
primes = [2]
x = 3
if num < 2:
return 0
while x <= num:
for y in primes: # use the primes list!
if x%y == 0:
x += 2
break
else:
primes.append(x)
x += 2
print(primes)
return len(primes)
In [43]:
count_primes2(100)
[2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71,
73, 79, 83, 89, 97]
Out[43]:
25
Just for fun, not a real problem :)
PRINT BIG: Write a function that takes in a single letter, and returns a 5x5 representation of that
letter
print_big('a')
out: *
* *
*****
* *
* *
HINT: Consider making a dictionary of possible patterns, and mapping the alphabet to specific 5-line
combinations of patterns.
For purposes of this exercise, it's ok if your dictionary stops at "E".
In [44]:
def print_big(letter):
patterns = {1:' * ',2:' * * ',3:'* *',4:'*****',5:'**** ',6:' * ',7:' * ',8:'*
alphabet = {'A':[1,2,4,3,3],'B':[5,3,5,3,5],'C':[4,9,9,9,4],'D':[5,3,3,3,5],'E':[4,9,4,
for pattern in alphabet[letter.upper()]:
print(patterns[pattern])
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In [45]:
print_big('a')
*
* *
*****
* *
* *
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 05-Lambda-Expressions-Map-and-Filter
Lambda Expressions, Map, and Filter
Now its time to quickly learn about two built in functions, filter and map. Once we learn about how these
operate, we can learn about the lambda expression, which will come in handy when you begin to develop your
skills further!
map function
The map function allows you to "map" a function to an iterable object. That is to say you can quickly call the
same function to every item in an iterable, such as a list. For example:
In [1]:
def square(num):
return num**2
In [2]:
my_nums = [1,2,3,4,5]
In [5]:
map(square,my_nums)
Out[5]:
<map at 0x205baec21d0>
In [7]:
# To get the results, either iterate through map()
# or just cast to a list
list(map(square,my_nums))
Out[7]:
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
The functions can also be more complex
In [8]:
def splicer(mystring):
if len(mystring) % 2 == 0:
return 'even'
else:
return mystring[0]
In [9]:
mynames = ['John','Cindy','Sarah','Kelly','Mike']
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In [10]:
list(map(splicer,mynames))
Out[10]:
['even', 'C', 'S', 'K', 'even']
filter function
The filter function returns an iterator yielding those items of iterable for which function(item) is true. Meaning
you need to filter by a function that returns either True or False. Then passing that into filter (along with your
iterable) and you will get back only the results that would return True when passed to the function.
In [12]:
def check_even(num):
return num % 2 == 0
In [13]:
nums = [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
In [15]:
filter(check_even,nums)
Out[15]:
<filter at 0x205baed4710>
In [16]:
list(filter(check_even,nums))
Out[16]:
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
lambda expression
One of Pythons most useful (and for beginners, confusing) tools is the lambda expression. lambda expressions
allow us to create "anonymous" functions. This basically means we can quickly make ad-hoc functions without
needing to properly define a function using def.
Function objects returned by running lambda expressions work exactly the same as those created and
assigned by defs. There is key difference that makes lambda useful in specialized roles:
lambda's body is a single expression, not a block of statements.
The lambda's body is similar to what we would put in a def body's return statement. We simply type the
result as an expression instead of explicitly returning it. Because it is limited to an expression, a lambda is
less general that a def. We can only squeeze design, to limit program nesting. lambda is designed for
coding simple functions, and def handles the larger tasks.
Lets slowly break down a lambda expression by deconstructing a function:
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In [17]:
def square(num):
result = num**2
return result
In [18]:
square(2)
Out[18]:
We could simplify it:
In [19]:
def square(num):
return num**2
In [20]:
square(2)
Out[20]:
We could actually even write this all on one line.
In [21]:
def square(num): return num**2
In [22]:
square(2)
Out[22]:
This is the form a function that a lambda expression intends to replicate. A lambda expression can then be
written as:
In [23]:
lambda num: num ** 2
Out[23]:
<function __main__.<lambda>>
In [25]:
# You wouldn't usually assign a name to a lambda expression, this is just for demonstration
square = lambda num: num **2
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In [26]:
square(2)
Out[26]:
So why would use this? Many function calls need a function passed in, such as map and filter. Often you only
need to use the function you are passing in once, so instead of formally defining it, you just use the lambda
expression. Let's repeat some of the examples from above with a lambda expression
In [29]:
list(map(lambda num: num ** 2, my_nums))
Out[29]:
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
In [30]:
list(filter(lambda n: n % 2 == 0,nums))
Out[30]:
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
Here are a few more examples, keep in mind the more comples a function is, the harder it is to translate into a
lambda expression, meaning sometimes its just easier (and often the only way) to create the def keyword
function.
Lambda expression for grabbing the first character of a string:
In [31]:
lambda s: s[0]
Out[31]:
<function __main__.<lambda>>
Lambda expression for reversing a string:
In [32]:
lambda s: s[::-1]
Out[32]:
<function __main__.<lambda>>
You can even pass in multiple arguments into a lambda expression. Again, keep in mind that not every function
can be translated into a lambda expression.
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In [34]:
lambda x,y : x + y
Out[34]:
<function __main__.<lambda>>
You will find yourself using lambda expressions often with certain non-built-in libraries, for example the pandas
library for data analysis works very well with lambda expressions.
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7/21/2018 06-Nested Statements and Scope
Nested Statements and Scope
Now that we have gone over writing our own functions, it's important to understand how Python deals with the
variable names you assign. When you create a variable name in Python the name is stored in a name-space.
Variable names also have a scope, the scope determines the visibility of that variable name to other parts of
your code.
Let's start with a quick thought experiment; imagine the following code:
In [1]:
x = 25
def printer():
x = 50
return x
# print(x)
# print(printer())
What do you imagine the output of printer() is? 25 or 50? What is the output of print x? 25 or 50?
In [2]:
print(x)
25
In [3]:
print(printer())
50
Interesting! But how does Python know which x you're referring to in your code? This is where the idea of scope
comes in. Python has a set of rules it follows to decide what variables (such as x in this case) you are
referencing in your code. Lets break down the rules:
This idea of scope in your code is very important to understand in order to properly assign and call variable
names.
In simple terms, the idea of scope can be described by 3 general rules:
1. Name assignments will create or change local names by default.
2. Name references search (at most) four scopes, these are:
local
enclosing functions
global
built-in
3. Names declared in global and nonlocal statements map assigned names to enclosing module and function
scopes.
The statement in #2 above can be defined by the LEGB rule.
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LEGB Rule:
L: Local — Names assigned in any way within a function (def or lambda), and not declared global in that
function.
E: Enclosing function locals — Names in the local scope of any and all enclosing functions (def or lambda),
from inner to outer.
G: Global (module) — Names assigned at the top-level of a module file, or declared global in a def within the
file.
B: Built-in (Python) — Names preassigned in the built-in names module : open, range, SyntaxError,...
Quick examples of LEGB
Local
In [4]:
# x is local here:
f = lambda x:x**2
Enclosing function locals
This occurs when we have a function inside a function (nested functions)
In [5]:
name = 'This is a global name'
def greet():
# Enclosing function
name = 'Sammy'
def hello():
print('Hello '+name)
hello()
greet()
Hello Sammy
Note how Sammy was used, because the hello() function was enclosed inside of the greet function!
Global
Luckily in Jupyter a quick way to test for global variables is to see if another cell recognizes the variable!
In [6]:
print(name)
This is a global name
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Built-in
These are the built-in function names in Python (don't overwrite these!)
In [7]:
len
Out[7]:
<function len>
Local Variables
When you declare variables inside a function definition, they are not related in any way to other variables with
the same names used outside the function - i.e. variable names are local to the function. This is called the
scope of the variable. All variables have the scope of the block they are declared in starting from the point of
definition of the name.
Example:
In [8]:
x = 50
def func(x):
print('x is', x)
x = 2
print('Changed local x to', x)
func(x)
print('x is still', x)
x is 50
Changed local x to 2
x is still 50
The first time that we print the value of the name x with the first line in the function’s body, Python uses the
value of the parameter declared in the main block, above the function definition.
Next, we assign the value 2 to x. The name x is local to our function. So, when we change the value of x in the
function, the x defined in the main block remains unaffected.
With the last print statement, we display the value of x as defined in the main block, thereby confirming that it is
actually unaffected by the local assignment within the previously called function.
The global statement
If you want to assign a value to a name defined at the top level of the program (i.e. not inside any kind of scope
such as functions or classes), then you have to tell Python that the name is not local, but it is global. We do this
using the global statement. It is impossible to assign a value to a variable defined outside a function without
the global statement.
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You can use the values of such variables defined outside the function (assuming there is no variable with the
same name within the function). However, this is not encouraged and should be avoided since it becomes
unclear to the reader of the program as to where that variable’s definition is. Using the global statement
makes it amply clear that the variable is defined in an outermost block.
Example:
In [9]:
x = 50
def func():
global x
print('This function is now using the global x!')
print('Because of global x is: ', x)
x = 2
print('Ran func(), changed global x to', x)
print('Before calling func(), x is: ', x)
func()
print('Value of x (outside of func()) is: ', x)
Before calling func(), x is: 50
This function is now using the global x!
Because of global x is: 50
Ran func(), changed global x to 2
Value of x (outside of func()) is: 2
The global statement is used to declare that x is a global variable - hence, when we assign a value to x
inside the function, that change is reflected when we use the value of x in the main block.
You can specify more than one global variable using the same global statement e.g. global x, y, z .
Conclusion
You should now have a good understanding of Scope (you may have already intuitively felt right about Scope
which is great!) One last mention is that you can use the globals() and locals() functions to check what are
your current local and global variables.
Another thing to keep in mind is that everything in Python is an object! I can assign variables to functions just
like I can with numbers! We will go over this again in the decorator section of the course!
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7/21/2018 07-args and kwargs
*args and **kwargs
Work with Python long enough, and eventually you will encounter *args and **kwargs . These strange
terms show up as parameters in function definitions. What do they do? Let's review a simple function:
In [1]:
def myfunc(a,b):
return sum((a,b))*.05
myfunc(40,60)
Out[1]:
5.0
This function returns 5% of the sum of a and b. In this example, a and b are positional arguments; that is, 40 is
assigned to a because it is the first argument, and 60 to b. Notice also that to work with multiple positional
arguments in the sum() function we had to pass them in as a tuple.
What if we want to work with more than two numbers? One way would be to assign a lot of parameters, and
give each one a default value.
In [2]:
def myfunc(a=0,b=0,c=0,d=0,e=0):
return sum((a,b,c,d,e))*.05
myfunc(40,60,20)
Out[2]:
6.0
Obviously this is not a very efficient solution, and that's where *args comes in.
*args
When a function parameter starts with an asterisk, it allows for an arbitrary number of arguments, and the
function takes them in as a tuple of values. Rewriting the above function:
In [3]:
def myfunc(*args):
return sum(args)*.05
myfunc(40,60,20)
Out[3]:
6.0
Notice how passing the keyword "args" into the sum() function did the same thing as a tuple of arguments.
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It is worth noting that the word "args" is itself arbitrary - any word will do so long as it's preceded by an asterisk.
To demonstrate this:
In [4]:
def myfunc(*spam):
return sum(spam)*.05
myfunc(40,60,20)
Out[4]:
6.0
**kwargs
Similarly, Python offers a way to handle arbitrary numbers of keyworded arguments. Instead of creating a tuple
of values, **kwargs builds a dictionary of key/value pairs. For example:
In [5]:
def myfunc(**kwargs):
if 'fruit' in kwargs:
print(f"My favorite fruit is {kwargs['fruit']}") # review String Formatting and f-
else:
print("I don't like fruit")
myfunc(fruit='pineapple')
My favorite fruit is pineapple
In [6]:
myfunc()
I don't like fruit
*args and **kwargs combined
You can pass *args and **kwargs into the same function, but *args have to appear before **kwargs
In [7]:
def myfunc(*args, **kwargs):
if 'fruit' and 'juice' in kwargs:
print(f"I like {' and '.join(args)} and my favorite fruit is {kwargs['fruit']}")
print(f"May I have some {kwargs['juice']} juice?")
else:
pass
myfunc('eggs','spam',fruit='cherries',juice='orange')
I like eggs and spam and my favorite fruit is cherries
May I have some orange juice?
Placing keyworded arguments ahead of positional arguments raises an exception:
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7/21/2018 07-args and kwargs
In [8]:
myfunc(fruit='cherries',juice='orange','eggs','spam')
File "<ipython-input-8-fc6ff65addcc>", line 1
myfunc(fruit='cherries',juice='orange','eggs','spam')
^
SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument
As with "args", you can use any name you'd like for keyworded arguments - "kwargs" is just a popular
convention.
That's it! Now you should understand how *args and **kwargs provide the flexibilty to work with arbitrary
numbers of arguments!
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7/21/2018 08-Functions and Methods Homework
Functions and Methods Homework
Complete the following questions:
Write a function that computes the volume of a sphere given its radius.
4 πr 3
The volume of a sphere is given as
3
In [1]:
def vol(rad):
pass
In [2]:
# Check
vol(2)
Out[2]:
33.49333333333333
Write a function that checks whether a number is in a given range (inclusive of high and low)
In [3]:
def ran_check(num,low,high):
pass
In [4]:
# Check
ran_check(5,2,7)
5 is in the range between 2 and 7
If you only wanted to return a boolean:
In [5]:
def ran_bool(num,low,high):
pass
In [6]:
ran_bool(3,1,10)
Out[6]:
True
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7/21/2018 08-Functions and Methods Homework
Write a Python function that accepts a string and calculates the number of upper case letters and lower
case letters.
Sample String : 'Hello Mr. Rogers, how are you this fine Tuesday?'
Expected Output :
No. of Upper case characters : 4
No. of Lower case Characters : 33
HINT: Two string methods that might prove useful: .isupper() and .islower()
If you feel ambitious, explore the Collections module to solve this problem!
In [7]:
def up_low(s):
pass
In [8]:
s = 'Hello Mr. Rogers, how are you this fine Tuesday?'
up_low(s)
Original String : Hello Mr. Rogers, how are you this fine Tuesday?
No. of Upper case characters : 4
No. of Lower case Characters : 33
Write a Python function that takes a list and returns a new list with unique elements of the first list.
Sample List : [1,1,1,1,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,5]
Unique List : [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
In [9]:
def unique_list(lst):
pass
In [10]:
unique_list([1,1,1,1,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,5])
Out[10]:
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Write a Python function to multiply all the numbers in a list.
Sample List : [1, 2, 3, -4]
Expected Output : -24
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7/21/2018 08-Functions and Methods Homework
In [11]:
def multiply(numbers):
pass
In [12]:
multiply([1,2,3,-4])
Out[12]:
-24
Write a Python function that checks whether a passed in string is palindrome or not.
Note: A palindrome is word, phrase, or sequence that reads the same backward as forward, e.g., madam or
nurses run.
In [13]:
def palindrome(s):
pass
In [14]:
palindrome('helleh')
Out[14]:
True
Hard:
Write a Python function to check whether a string is pangram or not.
Note : Pangrams are words or sentences containing every letter of the alphabet at
least once.
For example : "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"
Hint: Look at the string module
In [15]:
import string
def ispangram(str1, alphabet=string.ascii_lowercase):
pass
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7/21/2018 08-Functions and Methods Homework
In [16]:
ispangram("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog")
Out[16]:
True
In [17]:
string.ascii_lowercase
Out[17]:
'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 09-Functions and Methods Homework - Solutions
Functions and Methods Homework Solutions
Write a function that computes the volume of a sphere given its radius.
In [1]:
def vol(rad):
return (4/3)*(3.14)*(rad**3)
In [2]:
# Check
vol(2)
Out[2]:
33.49333333333333
Write a function that checks whether a number is in a given range (inclusive of high and low)
In [3]:
def ran_check(num,low,high):
#Check if num is between low and high (including low and high)
if num in range(low,high+1):
print('{} is in the range between {} and {}'.format(num,low,high))
else:
print('The number is outside the range.')
In [4]:
# Check
ran_check(5,2,7)
5 is in the range between 2 and 7
If you only wanted to return a boolean:
In [5]:
def ran_bool(num,low,high):
return num in range(low,high+1)
In [6]:
ran_bool(3,1,10)
Out[6]:
True
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7/21/2018 09-Functions and Methods Homework - Solutions
Write a Python function that accepts a string and calculates the number of upper case letters and lower
case letters.
Sample String : 'Hello Mr. Rogers, how are you this fine Tuesday?'
Expected Output :
No. of Upper case characters : 4
No. of Lower case Characters : 33
If you feel ambitious, explore the Collections module to solve this problem!
In [7]:
def up_low(s):
d={"upper":0, "lower":0}
for c in s:
if c.isupper():
d["upper"]+=1
elif c.islower():
d["lower"]+=1
else:
pass
print("Original String : ", s)
print("No. of Upper case characters : ", d["upper"])
print("No. of Lower case Characters : ", d["lower"])
In [8]:
s = 'Hello Mr. Rogers, how are you this fine Tuesday?'
up_low(s)
Original String : Hello Mr. Rogers, how are you this fine Tuesday?
No. of Upper case characters : 4
No. of Lower case Characters : 33
Write a Python function that takes a list and returns a new list with unique elements of the first list.
Sample List : [1,1,1,1,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,5]
Unique List : [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
In [9]:
def unique_list(lst):
# Also possible to use list(set())
x = []
for a in lst:
if a not in x:
x.append(a)
return x
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7/21/2018 09-Functions and Methods Homework - Solutions
In [10]:
unique_list([1,1,1,1,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,5])
Out[10]:
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Write a Python function to multiply all the numbers in a list.
Sample List : [1, 2, 3, -4]
Expected Output : -24
In [11]:
def multiply(numbers):
total = 1
for x in numbers:
total *= x
return total
In [12]:
multiply([1,2,3,-4])
Out[12]:
-24
Write a Python function that checks whether a passed string is palindrome or not.
Note: A palindrome is word, phrase, or sequence that reads the same backward as forward, e.g., madam or
nurses run.
In [13]:
def palindrome(s):
s = s.replace(' ','') # This replaces all spaces ' ' with no space ''. (Fixes issues wi
return s == s[::-1] # Check through slicing
In [14]:
palindrome('nurses run')
Out[14]:
True
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7/21/2018 09-Functions and Methods Homework - Solutions
In [15]:
palindrome('abcba')
Out[15]:
True
Hard:
Write a Python function to check whether a string is pangram or not.
Note : Pangrams are words or sentences containing every letter of the alphabet at
least once.
For example : "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"
Hint: Look at the string module
In [16]:
import string
def ispangram(str1, alphabet=string.ascii_lowercase):
alphaset = set(alphabet)
return alphaset <= set(str1.lower())
In [17]:
ispangram("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog")
Out[17]:
True
In [18]:
string.ascii_lowercase
Out[18]:
'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
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7/21/2018 01-Milestone Project 1 - Assignment
Milestone Project 1
Congratulations on making it to your first milestone!
You've already learned a ton and are ready to work on a real project.
Your assignment: Create a Tic Tac Toe game. You are free to use any IDE you like.
Here are the requirements:
2 players should be able to play the game (both sitting at the same computer)
The board should be printed out every time a player makes a move
You should be able to accept input of the player position and then place a symbol on the board
Feel free to use Google to help you figure anything out (but don't just Google "Tic Tac Toe in Python" otherwise
you won't learn anything!) Keep in mind that this project can take anywhere between several hours to several
days.
There are 4 Jupyter Notebooks related to this assignment:
This Assignment Notebook
A "Walkthrough Steps Workbook" Notebook
A "Complete Walkthrough Solution" Notebook
An "Advanced Solution" Notebook
I encourage you to just try to start the project on your own without referencing any of the notebooks. If you get
stuck, check out the next lecture which is a text lecture with helpful hints and steps. If you're still stuck after that,
then check out the Walkthrough Steps Workbook, which breaks up the project in steps for you to solve. Still
stuck? Then check out the Complete Walkthrough Solution video for more help on approaching the project!
There are parts of this that will be a struggle...and that is good! I have complete faith that if you have made it
this far through the course you have all the tools and knowledge to tackle this project. Remember, it's totally
open book, so take your time, do a little research, and remember:
HAVE FUN!
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7/21/2018 02-Milestone Project 1 - Walkthrough Steps Workbook
Milestone Project 1: Walkthrough Steps Workbook
Below is a set of steps for you to follow to try to create the Tic Tac Toe Milestone Project game!
Some suggested tools before you get started:
To take input from a user:
player1 = input("Please pick a marker 'X' or 'O'")
Note that input() takes in a string. If you need an integer value, use
position = int(input('Please enter a number'))
To clear the screen between moves:
from IPython.display import clear_output
clear_output()
Note that clear_output() will only work in jupyter. To clear the screen in other IDEs, consider:
print('\n'*100)
This scrolls the previous board up out of view. Now on to the program!
Step 1: Write a function that can print out a board. Set up your board as a list, where each index 1-9
corresponds with a number on a number pad, so you get a 3 by 3 board representation.
In [ ]:
from IPython.display import clear_output
def display_board(board):
pass
TEST Step 1: run your function on a test version of the board list, and make adjustments as necessary
In [ ]:
test_board = ['#','X','O','X','O','X','O','X','O','X']
display_board(test_board)
Step 2: Write a function that can take in a player input and assign their marker as 'X' or 'O'. Think about
using while loops to continually ask until you get a correct answer.
In [ ]:
def player_input():
pass
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7/21/2018 02-Milestone Project 1 - Walkthrough Steps Workbook
TEST Step 2: run the function to make sure it returns the desired output
In [ ]:
player_input()
Step 3: Write a function that takes in the board list object, a marker ('X' or 'O'), and a desired position
(number 1-9) and assigns it to the board.
In [ ]:
def place_marker(board, marker, position):
pass
TEST Step 3: run the place marker function using test parameters and display the modified board
In [ ]:
place_marker(test_board,'$',8)
display_board(test_board)
Step 4: Write a function that takes in a board and a mark (X or O) and then checks to see if that mark
has won.
In [ ]:
def win_check(board, mark):
pass
TEST Step 4: run the win_check function against our test_board - it should return True
In [ ]:
win_check(test_board,'X')
Step 5: Write a function that uses the random module to randomly decide which player goes first. You
may want to lookup random.randint() Return a string of which player went first.
In [ ]:
import random
def choose_first():
pass
Step 6: Write a function that returns a boolean indicating whether a space on the board is freely
available.
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7/21/2018 02-Milestone Project 1 - Walkthrough Steps Workbook
In [ ]:
def space_check(board, position):
pass
Step 7: Write a function that checks if the board is full and returns a boolean value. True if full, False
otherwise.
In [ ]:
def full_board_check(board):
pass
Step 8: Write a function that asks for a player's next position (as a number 1-9) and then uses the
function from step 6 to check if it's a free position. If it is, then return the position for later use.
In [ ]:
def player_choice(board):
pass
Step 9: Write a function that asks the player if they want to play again and returns a boolean True if they
do want to play again.
In [ ]:
def replay():
pass
Step 10: Here comes the hard part! Use while loops and the functions you've made to run the game!
In [ ]:
print('Welcome to Tic Tac Toe!')
#while True:
# Set the game up here
#pass
#while game_on:
#Player 1 Turn
# Player2's turn.
#pass
#if not replay():
#break
Good Job!
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7/21/2018 02-Milestone Project 1 - Walkthrough Steps Workbook
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7/21/2018 03-Milestone Project 1 - Complete Walkthrough Solution
Milestone Project 1: Full Walk-through Code
Solution
Below is the filled in code that goes along with the complete walk-through video. Check out the corresponding
lecture videos for more information on this code!
Step 1: Write a function that can print out a board. Set up your board as a list, where each index 1-9
corresponds with a number on a number pad, so you get a 3 by 3 board representation.
In [1]:
from IPython.display import clear_output
def display_board(board):
clear_output() # Remember, this only works in jupyter!
print(' | |')
print(' ' + board[7] + ' | ' + board[8] + ' | ' + board[9])
print(' | |')
print('-----------')
print(' | |')
print(' ' + board[4] + ' | ' + board[5] + ' | ' + board[6])
print(' | |')
print('-----------')
print(' | |')
print(' ' + board[1] + ' | ' + board[2] + ' | ' + board[3])
print(' | |')
TEST Step 1: run your function on a test version of the board list, and make adjustments as necessary
In [2]:
test_board = ['#','X','O','X','O','X','O','X','O','X']
display_board(test_board)
| |
X | O | X
| |
-----------
| |
O | X | O
| |
-----------
| |
X | O | X
| |
Step 2: Write a function that can take in a player input and assign their marker as 'X' or 'O'. Think about
using while loops to continually ask until you get a correct answer.
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7/21/2018 03-Milestone Project 1 - Complete Walkthrough Solution
In [3]:
def player_input():
marker = ''
while not (marker == 'X' or marker == 'O'):
marker = input('Player 1: Do you want to be X or O? ').upper()
if marker == 'X':
return ('X', 'O')
else:
return ('O', 'X')
TEST Step 2: run the function to make sure it returns the desired output
In [4]:
player_input()
Player 1: Do you want to be X or O? X
Out[4]:
('X', 'O')
Step 3: Write a function that takes in the board list object, a marker ('X' or 'O'), and a desired position
(number 1-9) and assigns it to the board.
In [5]:
def place_marker(board, marker, position):
board[position] = marker
TEST Step 3: run the place marker function using test parameters and display the modified board
In [6]:
place_marker(test_board,'$',8)
display_board(test_board)
| |
X | $ | X
| |
-----------
| |
O | X | O
| |
-----------
| |
X | O | X
| |
Step 4: Write a function that takes in a board and checks to see if someone has won.
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7/21/2018 03-Milestone Project 1 - Complete Walkthrough Solution
In [7]:
def win_check(board,mark):
return ((board[7] == mark and board[8] == mark and board[9] == mark) or # across the to
(board[4] == mark and board[5] == mark and board[6] == mark) or # across the middle
(board[1] == mark and board[2] == mark and board[3] == mark) or # across the bottom
(board[7] == mark and board[4] == mark and board[1] == mark) or # down the middle
(board[8] == mark and board[5] == mark and board[2] == mark) or # down the middle
(board[9] == mark and board[6] == mark and board[3] == mark) or # down the right side
(board[7] == mark and board[5] == mark and board[3] == mark) or # diagonal
(board[9] == mark and board[5] == mark and board[1] == mark)) # diagonal
TEST Step 4: run the win_check function against our test_board - it should return True
In [8]:
win_check(test_board,'X')
Out[8]:
True
Step 5: Write a function that uses the random module to randomly decide which player goes first. You
may want to lookup random.randint() Return a string of which player went first.
In [9]:
import random
def choose_first():
if random.randint(0, 1) == 0:
return 'Player 2'
else:
return 'Player 1'
Step 6: Write a function that returns a boolean indicating whether a space on the board is freely
available.
In [10]:
def space_check(board, position):
return board[position] == ' '
Step 7: Write a function that checks if the board is full and returns a boolean value. True if full, False
otherwise.
In [11]:
def full_board_check(board):
for i in range(1,10):
if space_check(board, i):
return False
return True
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7/21/2018 03-Milestone Project 1 - Complete Walkthrough Solution
Step 8: Write a function that asks for a player's next position (as a number 1-9) and then uses the
function from step 6 to check if its a free position. If it is, then return the position for later use.
In [12]:
def player_choice(board):
position = 0
while position not in [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9] or not space_check(board, position):
position = int(input('Choose your next position: (1-9) '))
return position
Step 9: Write a function that asks the player if they want to play again and returns a boolean True if they
do want to play again.
In [13]:
def replay():
return input('Do you want to play again? Enter Yes or No: ').lower().startswith('y')
Step 10: Here comes the hard part! Use while loops and the functions you've made to run the game!
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7/21/2018 03-Milestone Project 1 - Complete Walkthrough Solution
In [14]:
print('Welcome to Tic Tac Toe!')
while True:
# Reset the board
theBoard = [' '] * 10
player1_marker, player2_marker = player_input()
turn = choose_first()
print(turn + ' will go first.')
play_game = input('Are you ready to play? Enter Yes or No.')
if play_game.lower()[0] == 'y':
game_on = True
else:
game_on = False
while game_on:
if turn == 'Player 1':
# Player1's turn.
display_board(theBoard)
position = player_choice(theBoard)
place_marker(theBoard, player1_marker, position)
if win_check(theBoard, player1_marker):
display_board(theBoard)
print('Congratulations! You have won the game!')
game_on = False
else:
if full_board_check(theBoard):
display_board(theBoard)
print('The game is a draw!')
break
else:
turn = 'Player 2'
else:
# Player2's turn.
display_board(theBoard)
position = player_choice(theBoard)
place_marker(theBoard, player2_marker, position)
if win_check(theBoard, player2_marker):
display_board(theBoard)
print('Player 2 has won!')
game_on = False
else:
if full_board_check(theBoard):
display_board(theBoard)
print('The game is a draw!')
break
else:
turn = 'Player 1'
if not replay():
break
| |
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7/21/2018 03-Milestone Project 1 - Complete Walkthrough Solution
| O | O
| |
-----------
| |
| |
| |
-----------
| |
X | X | X
| |
Congratulations! You have won the game!
Do you want to play again? Enter Yes or No: No
Good Job!
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7/21/2018 04-OPTIONAL -Milestone Project 1 - Advanced Solution
Tic Tac Toe - Advanced Solution
This solution follows the same basic format as the Complete Walkthrough Solution, but takes advantage of
some of the more advanced statements we have learned. Feel free to download the notebook to understand
how it works!
In [1]:
# Specifically for the iPython Notebook environment for clearing output
from IPython.display import clear_output
import random
# Global variables
theBoard = [' '] * 10 # a list of empty spaces
available = [str(num) for num in range(0,10)] # a List Comprehension
players = [0,'X','O'] # note that players[1] == 'X' and players[-1] == 'O'
In [2]:
def display_board(a,b):
print('Available TIC-TAC-TOE\n'+
' moves\n\n '+
a[7]+'|'+a[8]+'|'+a[9]+' '+b[7]+'|'+b[8]+'|'+b[9]+'\n '+
'----- -----\n '+
a[4]+'|'+a[5]+'|'+a[6]+' '+b[4]+'|'+b[5]+'|'+b[6]+'\n '+
'----- -----\n '+
a[1]+'|'+a[2]+'|'+a[3]+' '+b[1]+'|'+b[2]+'|'+b[3]+'\n')
display_board(available,theBoard)
Available TIC-TAC-TOE
moves
7|8|9 | |
----- -----
4|5|6 | |
----- -----
1|2|3 | |
In [11]:
def display_board(a,b):
print(f'Available TIC-TAC-TOE\n moves\n\n {a[7]}|{a[8]}|{a[9]} {b[7]}|{b[8]}
display_board(available,theBoard)
Available TIC-TAC-TOE
moves
7|8|9 | |
----- -----
4|5|6 | |
----- -----
1|2|3 | |
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7/21/2018 04-OPTIONAL -Milestone Project 1 - Advanced Solution
In [3]:
def place_marker(avail,board,marker,position):
board[position] = marker
avail[position] = ' '
In [4]:
def win_check(board,mark):
return ((board[7] == board[8] == board[9] == mark) or # across the top
(board[4] == board[5] == board[6] == mark) or # across the middle
(board[1] == board[2] == board[3] == mark) or # across the bottom
(board[7] == board[4] == board[1] == mark) or # down the middle
(board[8] == board[5] == board[2] == mark) or # down the middle
(board[9] == board[6] == board[3] == mark) or # down the right side
(board[7] == board[5] == board[3] == mark) or # diagonal
(board[9] == board[5] == board[1] == mark)) # diagonal
In [5]:
def random_player():
return random.choice((-1, 1))
def space_check(board,position):
return board[position] == ' '
def full_board_check(board):
return ' ' not in board[1:]
In [6]:
def player_choice(board,player):
position = 0
while position not in [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9] or not space_check(board, position):
try:
position = int(input('Player %s, choose your next position: (1-9) '%(player)))
except:
print("I'm sorry, please try again.")
return position
In [7]:
def replay():
return input('Do you want to play again? Enter Yes or No: ').lower().startswith('y')
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In [ ]:
while True:
clear_output()
print('Welcome to Tic Tac Toe!')
toggle = random_player()
player = players[toggle]
print('For this round, Player %s will go first!' %(player))
game_on = True
input('Hit Enter to continue')
while game_on:
display_board(available,theBoard)
position = player_choice(theBoard,player)
place_marker(available,theBoard,player,position)
if win_check(theBoard, player):
display_board(available,theBoard)
print('Congratulations! Player '+player+' wins!')
game_on = False
else:
if full_board_check(theBoard):
display_board(available,theBoard)
print('The game is a draw!')
break
else:
toggle *= -1
player = players[toggle]
clear_output()
# reset the board and available moves list
theBoard = [' '] * 10
available = [str(num) for num in range(0,10)]
if not replay():
break
Welcome to Tic Tac Toe!
For this round, Player X will go first!
In [ ]:
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7/21/2018 01-Object Oriented Programming
Object Oriented Programming
Object Oriented Programming (OOP) tends to be one of the major obstacles for beginners when they are first
starting to learn Python.
There are many, many tutorials and lessons covering OOP so feel free to Google search other lessons, and I
have also put some links to other useful tutorials online at the bottom of this Notebook.
For this lesson we will construct our knowledge of OOP in Python by building on the following topics:
Objects
Using the class keyword
Creating class attributes
Creating methods in a class
Learning about Inheritance
Learning about Polymorphism
Learning about Special Methods for classes
Lets start the lesson by remembering about the Basic Python Objects. For example:
In [1]:
lst = [1,2,3]
Remember how we could call methods on a list?
In [2]:
lst.count(2)
Out[2]:
What we will basically be doing in this lecture is exploring how we could create an Object type like a list. We've
already learned about how to create functions. So let's explore Objects in general:
Objects
In Python, everything is an object. Remember from previous lectures we can use type() to check the type of
object something is:
In [3]:
print(type(1))
print(type([]))
print(type(()))
print(type({}))
<class 'int'>
<class 'list'>
<class 'tuple'>
<class 'dict'>
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So we know all these things are objects, so how can we create our own Object types? That is where the
class keyword comes in.
class
User defined objects are created using the class keyword. The class is a blueprint that defines the nature of
a future object. From classes we can construct instances. An instance is a specific object created from a
particular class. For example, above we created the object lst which was an instance of a list object.
Let see how we can use class :
In [4]:
# Create a new object type called Sample
class Sample:
pass
# Instance of Sample
x = Sample()
print(type(x))
<class '__main__.Sample'>
By convention we give classes a name that starts with a capital letter. Note how x is now the reference to our
new instance of a Sample class. In other words, we instantiate the Sample class.
Inside of the class we currently just have pass. But we can define class attributes and methods.
An attribute is a characteristic of an object. A method is an operation we can perform with the object.
For example, we can create a class called Dog. An attribute of a dog may be its breed or its name, while a
method of a dog may be defined by a .bark() method which returns a sound.
Let's get a better understanding of attributes through an example.
Attributes
The syntax for creating an attribute is:
self.attribute = something
There is a special method called:
__init__()
This method is used to initialize the attributes of an object. For example:
In [5]:
class Dog:
def __init__(self,breed):
self.breed = breed
sam = Dog(breed='Lab')
frank = Dog(breed='Huskie')
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Lets break down what we have above.The special method
__init__()
is called automatically right after the object has been created:
def __init__(self, breed):
Each attribute in a class definition begins with a reference to the instance object. It is by convention named self.
The breed is the argument. The value is passed during the class instantiation.
self.breed = breed
Now we have created two instances of the Dog class. With two breed types, we can then access these
attributes like this:
In [6]:
sam.breed
Out[6]:
'Lab'
In [7]:
frank.breed
Out[7]:
'Huskie'
Note how we don't have any parentheses after breed; this is because it is an attribute and doesn't take any
arguments.
In Python there are also class object attributes. These Class Object Attributes are the same for any instance of
the class. For example, we could create the attribute species for the Dog class. Dogs, regardless of their breed,
name, or other attributes, will always be mammals. We apply this logic in the following manner:
In [8]:
class Dog:
# Class Object Attribute
species = 'mammal'
def __init__(self,breed,name):
self.breed = breed
self.name = name
In [9]:
sam = Dog('Lab','Sam')
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In [10]:
sam.name
Out[10]:
'Sam'
Note that the Class Object Attribute is defined outside of any methods in the class. Also by convention, we
place them first before the init.
In [11]:
sam.species
Out[11]:
'mammal'
Methods
Methods are functions defined inside the body of a class. They are used to perform operations with the
attributes of our objects. Methods are a key concept of the OOP paradigm. They are essential to dividing
responsibilities in programming, especially in large applications.
You can basically think of methods as functions acting on an Object that take the Object itself into account
through its self argument.
Let's go through an example of creating a Circle class:
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In [12]:
class Circle:
pi = 3.14
# Circle gets instantiated with a radius (default is 1)
def __init__(self, radius=1):
self.radius = radius
self.area = radius * radius * Circle.pi
# Method for resetting Radius
def setRadius(self, new_radius):
self.radius = new_radius
self.area = new_radius * new_radius * self.pi
# Method for getting Circumference
def getCircumference(self):
return self.radius * self.pi * 2
c = Circle()
print('Radius is: ',c.radius)
print('Area is: ',c.area)
print('Circumference is: ',c.getCircumference())
Radius is: 1
Area is: 3.14
Circumference is: 6.28
In the __init__ method above, in order to calculate the area attribute, we had to call Circle.pi. This is because
the object does not yet have its own .pi attribute, so we call the Class Object Attribute pi instead.
In the setRadius method, however, we'll be working with an existing Circle object that does have its own pi
attribute. Here we can use either Circle.pi or self.pi.
Now let's change the radius and see how that affects our Circle object:
In [13]:
c.setRadius(2)
print('Radius is: ',c.radius)
print('Area is: ',c.area)
print('Circumference is: ',c.getCircumference())
Radius is: 2
Area is: 12.56
Circumference is: 12.56
Great! Notice how we used self. notation to reference attributes of the class within the method calls. Review
how the code above works and try creating your own method.
Inheritance
Inheritance is a way to form new classes using classes that have already been defined. The newly formed
classes are called derived classes, the classes that we derive from are called base classes. Important benefits
of inheritance are code reuse and reduction of complexity of a program. The derived classes (descendants)
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override or extend the functionality of base classes (ancestors).
Let's see an example by incorporating our previous work on the Dog class:
In [14]:
class Animal:
def __init__(self):
print("Animal created")
def whoAmI(self):
print("Animal")
def eat(self):
print("Eating")
class Dog(Animal):
def __init__(self):
Animal.__init__(self)
print("Dog created")
def whoAmI(self):
print("Dog")
def bark(self):
print("Woof!")
In [15]:
d = Dog()
Animal created
Dog created
In [16]:
d.whoAmI()
Dog
In [17]:
d.eat()
Eating
In [18]:
d.bark()
Woof!
In this example, we have two classes: Animal and Dog. The Animal is the base class, the Dog is the derived
class.
The derived class inherits the functionality of the base class.
It is shown by the eat() method.
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The derived class modifies existing behavior of the base class.
shown by the whoAmI() method.
Finally, the derived class extends the functionality of the base class, by defining a new bark() method.
Polymorphism
We've learned that while functions can take in different arguments, methods belong to the objects they act on.
In Python, polymorphism refers to the way in which different object classes can share the same method name,
and those methods can be called from the same place even though a variety of different objects might be
passed in. The best way to explain this is by example:
In [19]:
class Dog:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Woof!'
class Cat:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Meow!'
niko = Dog('Niko')
felix = Cat('Felix')
print(niko.speak())
print(felix.speak())
Niko says Woof!
Felix says Meow!
Here we have a Dog class and a Cat class, and each has a .speak() method. When called, each object's
.speak() method returns a result unique to the object.
There a few different ways to demonstrate polymorphism. First, with a for loop:
In [20]:
for pet in [niko,felix]:
print(pet.speak())
Niko says Woof!
Felix says Meow!
Another is with functions:
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In [21]:
def pet_speak(pet):
print(pet.speak())
pet_speak(niko)
pet_speak(felix)
Niko says Woof!
Felix says Meow!
In both cases we were able to pass in different object types, and we obtained object-specific results from the
same mechanism.
A more common practice is to use abstract classes and inheritance. An abstract class is one that never expects
to be instantiated. For example, we will never have an Animal object, only Dog and Cat objects, although Dogs
and Cats are derived from Animals:
In [22]:
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name): # Constructor of the class
self.name = name
def speak(self): # Abstract method, defined by convention only
raise NotImplementedError("Subclass must implement abstract method")
class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Woof!'
class Cat(Animal):
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Meow!'
fido = Dog('Fido')
isis = Cat('Isis')
print(fido.speak())
print(isis.speak())
Fido says Woof!
Isis says Meow!
Real life examples of polymorphism include:
opening different file types - different tools are needed to display Word, pdf and Excel files
adding different objects - the + operator performs arithmetic and concatenation
Special Methods
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Finally let's go over special methods. Classes in Python can implement certain operations with special method
names. These methods are not actually called directly but by Python specific language syntax. For example
let's create a Book class:
In [23]:
class Book:
def __init__(self, title, author, pages):
print("A book is created")
self.title = title
self.author = author
self.pages = pages
def __str__(self):
return "Title: %s, author: %s, pages: %s" %(self.title, self.author, self.pages)
def __len__(self):
return self.pages
def __del__(self):
print("A book is destroyed")
In [24]:
book = Book("Python Rocks!", "Jose Portilla", 159)
#Special Methods
print(book)
print(len(book))
del book
A book is created
Title: Python Rocks!, author: Jose Portilla, pages: 159
159
A book is destroyed
The __init__(), __str__(), __len__() and __del__() methods
These special methods are defined by their use of underscores. They allow us to use Python specific functions
on objects created through our class.
Great! After this lecture you should have a basic understanding of how to create your own objects with
class in Python. You will be utilizing this heavily in your next milestone project!
For more great resources on this topic, check out:
Jeff Knupp's Post (https://jeffknupp.com/blog/2014/06/18/improve-your-python-python-classes-and-object-
oriented-programming/)
Mozilla's Post (https://developer.mozilla.org/en-
US/Learn/Python/Quickly_Learn_Object_Oriented_Programming)
Tutorial's Point (http://www.tutorialspoint.com/python/python_classes_objects.htm)
Official Documentation (https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html)
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7/21/2018 02-Object Oriented Programming Homework
Object Oriented Programming
Homework Assignment
Problem 1
Fill in the Line class methods to accept coordinates as a pair of tuples and return the slope and distance of the
line.
In [1]:
class Line:
def __init__(self,coor1,coor2):
pass
def distance(self):
pass
def slope(self):
pass
In [2]:
# EXAMPLE OUTPUT
coordinate1 = (3,2)
coordinate2 = (8,10)
li = Line(coordinate1,coordinate2)
In [3]:
li.distance()
Out[3]:
9.433981132056603
In [4]:
li.slope()
Out[4]:
1.6
Problem 2
Fill in the class
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In [5]:
class Cylinder:
def __init__(self,height=1,radius=1):
pass
def volume(self):
pass
def surface_area(self):
pass
In [6]:
# EXAMPLE OUTPUT
c = Cylinder(2,3)
In [7]:
c.volume()
Out[7]:
56.52
In [8]:
c.surface_area()
Out[8]:
94.2
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7/21/2018 03-Object Oriented Programming Homework - Solution
Object Oriented Programming
Homework Assignment
Problem 1
Fill in the Line class methods to accept coordinates as a pair of tuples and return the slope and distance of the
line.
In [1]:
class Line(object):
def __init__(self,coor1,coor2):
self.coor1 = coor1
self.coor2 = coor2
def distance(self):
x1,y1 = self.coor1
x2,y2 = self.coor2
return ((x2-x1)**2 + (y2-y1)**2)**0.5
def slope(self):
x1,y1 = self.coor1
x2,y2 = self.coor2
return (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
In [2]:
coordinate1 = (3,2)
coordinate2 = (8,10)
li = Line(coordinate1,coordinate2)
In [3]:
li.distance()
Out[3]:
9.433981132056603
In [4]:
li.slope()
Out[4]:
1.6
Problem 2
Fill in the class
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In [5]:
class Cylinder:
def __init__(self,height=1,radius=1):
self.height = height
self.radius = radius
def volume(self):
return self.height*3.14*(self.radius)**2
def surface_area(self):
top = 3.14 * (self.radius)**2
return (2*top) + (2*3.14*self.radius*self.height)
In [6]:
c = Cylinder(2,3)
In [7]:
c.volume()
Out[7]:
56.52
In [8]:
c.surface_area()
Out[8]:
94.2
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Object Oriented Programming Challenge
For this challenge, create a bank account class that has two attributes:
owner
balance
and two methods:
deposit
withdraw
As an added requirement, withdrawals may not exceed the available balance.
Instantiate your class, make several deposits and withdrawals, and test to make sure the account can't be
overdrawn.
In [1]:
class Account:
pass
In [2]:
# 1. Instantiate the class
acct1 = Account('Jose',100)
In [3]:
# 2. Print the object
print(acct1)
Account owner: Jose
Account balance: $100
In [4]:
# 3. Show the account owner attribute
acct1.owner
Out[4]:
'Jose'
In [5]:
# 4. Show the account balance attribute
acct1.balance
Out[5]:
100
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In [6]:
# 5. Make a series of deposits and withdrawals
acct1.deposit(50)
Deposit Accepted
In [7]:
acct1.withdraw(75)
Withdrawal Accepted
In [8]:
# 6. Make a withdrawal that exceeds the available balance
acct1.withdraw(500)
Funds Unavailable!
Good job!
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7/21/2018 05-OOP Challenge - Solution
Object Oriented Programming Challenge - Solution
For this challenge, create a bank account class that has two attributes:
owner
balance
and two methods:
deposit
withdraw
As an added requirement, withdrawals may not exceed the available balance.
Instantiate your class, make several deposits and withdrawals, and test to make sure the account can't be
overdrawn.
In [1]:
class Account:
def __init__(self,owner,balance=0):
self.owner = owner
self.balance = balance
def __str__(self):
return f'Account owner: {self.owner}\nAccount balance: ${self.balance}'
def deposit(self,dep_amt):
self.balance += dep_amt
print('Deposit Accepted')
def withdraw(self,wd_amt):
if self.balance >= wd_amt:
self.balance -= wd_amt
print('Withdrawal Accepted')
else:
print('Funds Unavailable!')
In [2]:
# 1. Instantiate the class
acct1 = Account('Jose',100)
In [3]:
# 2. Print the object
print(acct1)
Account owner: Jose
Account balance: $100
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In [4]:
# 3. Show the account owner attribute
acct1.owner
Out[4]:
'Jose'
In [5]:
# 4. Show the account balance attribute
acct1.balance
Out[5]:
100
In [6]:
# 5. Make a series of deposits and withdrawals
acct1.deposit(50)
Deposit Accepted
In [7]:
acct1.withdraw(75)
Withdrawal Accepted
In [8]:
# 6. Make a withdrawal that exceeds the available balance
acct1.withdraw(500)
Funds Unavailable!
Good job!
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Object Oriented Programming
Object Oriented Programming (OOP) tends to be one of the major obstacles for beginners when they are first
starting to learn Python.
There are many, many tutorials and lessons covering OOP so feel free to Google search other lessons, and I
have also put some links to other useful tutorials online at the bottom of this Notebook.
For this lesson we will construct our knowledge of OOP in Python by building on the following topics:
Objects
Using the class keyword
Creating class attributes
Creating methods in a class
Learning about Inheritance
Learning about Polymorphism
Learning about Special Methods for classes
Lets start the lesson by remembering about the Basic Python Objects. For example:
In [1]:
lst = [1,2,3]
Remember how we could call methods on a list?
In [2]:
lst.count(2)
Out[2]:
What we will basically be doing in this lecture is exploring how we could create an Object type like a list. We've
already learned about how to create functions. So let's explore Objects in general:
Objects
In Python, everything is an object. Remember from previous lectures we can use type() to check the type of
object something is:
In [3]:
print(type(1))
print(type([]))
print(type(()))
print(type({}))
<class 'int'>
<class 'list'>
<class 'tuple'>
<class 'dict'>
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So we know all these things are objects, so how can we create our own Object types? That is where the
class keyword comes in.
class
User defined objects are created using the class keyword. The class is a blueprint that defines the nature of
a future object. From classes we can construct instances. An instance is a specific object created from a
particular class. For example, above we created the object lst which was an instance of a list object.
Let see how we can use class :
In [4]:
# Create a new object type called Sample
class Sample:
pass
# Instance of Sample
x = Sample()
print(type(x))
<class '__main__.Sample'>
By convention we give classes a name that starts with a capital letter. Note how x is now the reference to our
new instance of a Sample class. In other words, we instantiate the Sample class.
Inside of the class we currently just have pass. But we can define class attributes and methods.
An attribute is a characteristic of an object. A method is an operation we can perform with the object.
For example, we can create a class called Dog. An attribute of a dog may be its breed or its name, while a
method of a dog may be defined by a .bark() method which returns a sound.
Let's get a better understanding of attributes through an example.
Attributes
The syntax for creating an attribute is:
self.attribute = something
There is a special method called:
__init__()
This method is used to initialize the attributes of an object. For example:
In [5]:
class Dog:
def __init__(self,breed):
self.breed = breed
sam = Dog(breed='Lab')
frank = Dog(breed='Huskie')
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Lets break down what we have above.The special method
__init__()
is called automatically right after the object has been created:
def __init__(self, breed):
Each attribute in a class definition begins with a reference to the instance object. It is by convention named self.
The breed is the argument. The value is passed during the class instantiation.
self.breed = breed
Now we have created two instances of the Dog class. With two breed types, we can then access these
attributes like this:
In [6]:
sam.breed
Out[6]:
'Lab'
In [7]:
frank.breed
Out[7]:
'Huskie'
Note how we don't have any parentheses after breed; this is because it is an attribute and doesn't take any
arguments.
In Python there are also class object attributes. These Class Object Attributes are the same for any instance of
the class. For example, we could create the attribute species for the Dog class. Dogs, regardless of their breed,
name, or other attributes, will always be mammals. We apply this logic in the following manner:
In [8]:
class Dog:
# Class Object Attribute
species = 'mammal'
def __init__(self,breed,name):
self.breed = breed
self.name = name
In [9]:
sam = Dog('Lab','Sam')
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In [10]:
sam.name
Out[10]:
'Sam'
Note that the Class Object Attribute is defined outside of any methods in the class. Also by convention, we
place them first before the init.
In [11]:
sam.species
Out[11]:
'mammal'
Methods
Methods are functions defined inside the body of a class. They are used to perform operations with the
attributes of our objects. Methods are a key concept of the OOP paradigm. They are essential to dividing
responsibilities in programming, especially in large applications.
You can basically think of methods as functions acting on an Object that take the Object itself into account
through its self argument.
Let's go through an example of creating a Circle class:
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In [12]:
class Circle:
pi = 3.14
# Circle gets instantiated with a radius (default is 1)
def __init__(self, radius=1):
self.radius = radius
self.area = radius * radius * Circle.pi
# Method for resetting Radius
def setRadius(self, new_radius):
self.radius = new_radius
self.area = new_radius * new_radius * self.pi
# Method for getting Circumference
def getCircumference(self):
return self.radius * self.pi * 2
c = Circle()
print('Radius is: ',c.radius)
print('Area is: ',c.area)
print('Circumference is: ',c.getCircumference())
Radius is: 1
Area is: 3.14
Circumference is: 6.28
In the __init__ method above, in order to calculate the area attribute, we had to call Circle.pi. This is because
the object does not yet have its own .pi attribute, so we call the Class Object Attribute pi instead.
In the setRadius method, however, we'll be working with an existing Circle object that does have its own pi
attribute. Here we can use either Circle.pi or self.pi.
Now let's change the radius and see how that affects our Circle object:
In [13]:
c.setRadius(2)
print('Radius is: ',c.radius)
print('Area is: ',c.area)
print('Circumference is: ',c.getCircumference())
Radius is: 2
Area is: 12.56
Circumference is: 12.56
Great! Notice how we used self. notation to reference attributes of the class within the method calls. Review
how the code above works and try creating your own method.
Inheritance
Inheritance is a way to form new classes using classes that have already been defined. The newly formed
classes are called derived classes, the classes that we derive from are called base classes. Important benefits
of inheritance are code reuse and reduction of complexity of a program. The derived classes (descendants)
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override or extend the functionality of base classes (ancestors).
Let's see an example by incorporating our previous work on the Dog class:
In [14]:
class Animal:
def __init__(self):
print("Animal created")
def whoAmI(self):
print("Animal")
def eat(self):
print("Eating")
class Dog(Animal):
def __init__(self):
Animal.__init__(self)
print("Dog created")
def whoAmI(self):
print("Dog")
def bark(self):
print("Woof!")
In [15]:
d = Dog()
Animal created
Dog created
In [16]:
d.whoAmI()
Dog
In [17]:
d.eat()
Eating
In [18]:
d.bark()
Woof!
In this example, we have two classes: Animal and Dog. The Animal is the base class, the Dog is the derived
class.
The derived class inherits the functionality of the base class.
It is shown by the eat() method.
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The derived class modifies existing behavior of the base class.
shown by the whoAmI() method.
Finally, the derived class extends the functionality of the base class, by defining a new bark() method.
Polymorphism
We've learned that while functions can take in different arguments, methods belong to the objects they act on.
In Python, polymorphism refers to the way in which different object classes can share the same method name,
and those methods can be called from the same place even though a variety of different objects might be
passed in. The best way to explain this is by example:
In [19]:
class Dog:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Woof!'
class Cat:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Meow!'
niko = Dog('Niko')
felix = Cat('Felix')
print(niko.speak())
print(felix.speak())
Niko says Woof!
Felix says Meow!
Here we have a Dog class and a Cat class, and each has a .speak() method. When called, each object's
.speak() method returns a result unique to the object.
There a few different ways to demonstrate polymorphism. First, with a for loop:
In [20]:
for pet in [niko,felix]:
print(pet.speak())
Niko says Woof!
Felix says Meow!
Another is with functions:
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In [21]:
def pet_speak(pet):
print(pet.speak())
pet_speak(niko)
pet_speak(felix)
Niko says Woof!
Felix says Meow!
In both cases we were able to pass in different object types, and we obtained object-specific results from the
same mechanism.
A more common practice is to use abstract classes and inheritance. An abstract class is one that never expects
to be instantiated. For example, we will never have an Animal object, only Dog and Cat objects, although Dogs
and Cats are derived from Animals:
In [22]:
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name): # Constructor of the class
self.name = name
def speak(self): # Abstract method, defined by convention only
raise NotImplementedError("Subclass must implement abstract method")
class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Woof!'
class Cat(Animal):
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Meow!'
fido = Dog('Fido')
isis = Cat('Isis')
print(fido.speak())
print(isis.speak())
Fido says Woof!
Isis says Meow!
Real life examples of polymorphism include:
opening different file types - different tools are needed to display Word, pdf and Excel files
adding different objects - the + operator performs arithmetic and concatenation
Special Methods
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Finally let's go over special methods. Classes in Python can implement certain operations with special method
names. These methods are not actually called directly but by Python specific language syntax. For example
let's create a Book class:
In [23]:
class Book:
def __init__(self, title, author, pages):
print("A book is created")
self.title = title
self.author = author
self.pages = pages
def __str__(self):
return "Title: %s, author: %s, pages: %s" %(self.title, self.author, self.pages)
def __len__(self):
return self.pages
def __del__(self):
print("A book is destroyed")
In [24]:
book = Book("Python Rocks!", "Jose Portilla", 159)
#Special Methods
print(book)
print(len(book))
del book
A book is created
Title: Python Rocks!, author: Jose Portilla, pages: 159
159
A book is destroyed
The __init__(), __str__(), __len__() and __del__() methods
These special methods are defined by their use of underscores. They allow us to use Python specific functions
on objects created through our class.
Great! After this lecture you should have a basic understanding of how to create your own objects with
class in Python. You will be utilizing this heavily in your next milestone project!
For more great resources on this topic, check out:
Jeff Knupp's Post (https://jeffknupp.com/blog/2014/06/18/improve-your-python-python-classes-and-object-
oriented-programming/)
Mozilla's Post (https://developer.mozilla.org/en-
US/Learn/Python/Quickly_Learn_Object_Oriented_Programming)
Tutorial's Point (http://www.tutorialspoint.com/python/python_classes_objects.htm)
Official Documentation (https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/classes.html)
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Object Oriented Programming
Homework Assignment
Problem 1
Fill in the Line class methods to accept coordinates as a pair of tuples and return the slope and distance of the
line.
In [1]:
class Line:
def __init__(self,coor1,coor2):
pass
def distance(self):
pass
def slope(self):
pass
In [2]:
# EXAMPLE OUTPUT
coordinate1 = (3,2)
coordinate2 = (8,10)
li = Line(coordinate1,coordinate2)
In [3]:
li.distance()
Out[3]:
9.433981132056603
In [4]:
li.slope()
Out[4]:
1.6
Problem 2
Fill in the class
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In [5]:
class Cylinder:
def __init__(self,height=1,radius=1):
pass
def volume(self):
pass
def surface_area(self):
pass
In [6]:
# EXAMPLE OUTPUT
c = Cylinder(2,3)
In [7]:
c.volume()
Out[7]:
56.52
In [8]:
c.surface_area()
Out[8]:
94.2
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7/21/2018 03-Object Oriented Programming Homework - Solution
Object Oriented Programming
Homework Assignment
Problem 1
Fill in the Line class methods to accept coordinates as a pair of tuples and return the slope and distance of the
line.
In [1]:
class Line(object):
def __init__(self,coor1,coor2):
self.coor1 = coor1
self.coor2 = coor2
def distance(self):
x1,y1 = self.coor1
x2,y2 = self.coor2
return ((x2-x1)**2 + (y2-y1)**2)**0.5
def slope(self):
x1,y1 = self.coor1
x2,y2 = self.coor2
return (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
In [2]:
coordinate1 = (3,2)
coordinate2 = (8,10)
li = Line(coordinate1,coordinate2)
In [3]:
li.distance()
Out[3]:
9.433981132056603
In [4]:
li.slope()
Out[4]:
1.6
Problem 2
Fill in the class
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In [5]:
class Cylinder:
def __init__(self,height=1,radius=1):
self.height = height
self.radius = radius
def volume(self):
return self.height*3.14*(self.radius)**2
def surface_area(self):
top = 3.14 * (self.radius)**2
return (2*top) + (2*3.14*self.radius*self.height)
In [6]:
c = Cylinder(2,3)
In [7]:
c.volume()
Out[7]:
56.52
In [8]:
c.surface_area()
Out[8]:
94.2
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Object Oriented Programming Challenge
For this challenge, create a bank account class that has two attributes:
owner
balance
and two methods:
deposit
withdraw
As an added requirement, withdrawals may not exceed the available balance.
Instantiate your class, make several deposits and withdrawals, and test to make sure the account can't be
overdrawn.
In [1]:
class Account:
pass
In [2]:
# 1. Instantiate the class
acct1 = Account('Jose',100)
In [3]:
# 2. Print the object
print(acct1)
Account owner: Jose
Account balance: $100
In [4]:
# 3. Show the account owner attribute
acct1.owner
Out[4]:
'Jose'
In [5]:
# 4. Show the account balance attribute
acct1.balance
Out[5]:
100
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In [6]:
# 5. Make a series of deposits and withdrawals
acct1.deposit(50)
Deposit Accepted
In [7]:
acct1.withdraw(75)
Withdrawal Accepted
In [8]:
# 6. Make a withdrawal that exceeds the available balance
acct1.withdraw(500)
Funds Unavailable!
Good job!
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Object Oriented Programming Challenge - Solution
For this challenge, create a bank account class that has two attributes:
owner
balance
and two methods:
deposit
withdraw
As an added requirement, withdrawals may not exceed the available balance.
Instantiate your class, make several deposits and withdrawals, and test to make sure the account can't be
overdrawn.
In [1]:
class Account:
def __init__(self,owner,balance=0):
self.owner = owner
self.balance = balance
def __str__(self):
return f'Account owner: {self.owner}\nAccount balance: ${self.balance}'
def deposit(self,dep_amt):
self.balance += dep_amt
print('Deposit Accepted')
def withdraw(self,wd_amt):
if self.balance >= wd_amt:
self.balance -= wd_amt
print('Withdrawal Accepted')
else:
print('Funds Unavailable!')
In [2]:
# 1. Instantiate the class
acct1 = Account('Jose',100)
In [3]:
# 2. Print the object
print(acct1)
Account owner: Jose
Account balance: $100
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In [4]:
# 3. Show the account owner attribute
acct1.owner
Out[4]:
'Jose'
In [5]:
# 4. Show the account balance attribute
acct1.balance
Out[5]:
100
In [6]:
# 5. Make a series of deposits and withdrawals
acct1.deposit(50)
Deposit Accepted
In [7]:
acct1.withdraw(75)
Withdrawal Accepted
In [8]:
# 6. Make a withdrawal that exceeds the available balance
acct1.withdraw(500)
Funds Unavailable!
Good job!
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Modules and Packages
In this section we briefly:
code out a basic module and show how to import it into a Python script
run a Python script from a Jupyter cell
show how command line arguments can be passed into a script
Check out the video lectures for more info and resources for this.
The best online resource is the official docs: https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#packages
(https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html#packages)
But I really like the info here: https://python4astronomers.github.io/installation/packages.html
(https://python4astronomers.github.io/installation/packages.html)
Writing modules
In [1]:
%%writefile file1.py
def myfunc(x):
return [num for num in range(x) if num%2==0]
list1 = myfunc(11)
Writing file1.py
file1.py is going to be used as a module.
Note that it doesn't print or return anything, it just defines a function called myfunc and a variable called list1.
Writing scripts
In [2]:
%%writefile file2.py
import file1
file1.list1.append(12)
print(file1.list1)
Writing file2.py
file2.py is a Python script.
First, we import our file1 module (note the lack of a .py extension)
Next, we access the list1 variable inside file1, and perform a list method on it.
.append(12) proves we're working with a Python list object, and not just a string.
Finally, we tell our script to print the modified list.
Running scripts
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In [3]:
! python file2.py
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12]
Here we run our script from the command line. The exclamation point is a Jupyter trick that lets you run
command line statements from inside a jupyter cell.
In [4]:
import file1
print(file1.list1)
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
The above cell proves that we never altered file1.py, we just appended a number to the list after it was brought
into file2.
Passing command line arguments
Python's sys module gives you access to command line arguments when calling scripts.
In [5]:
%%writefile file3.py
import sys
import file1
num = int(sys.argv[1])
print(file1.myfunc(num))
Writing file3.py
Note that we selected the second item in the list of arguments with sys.argv[1] .
This is because the list created with sys.argv always starts with the name of the file being used.
In [6]:
! python file3.py 21
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20]
Here we're passing 21 to be the upper range value used by the myfunc function in list1.py
Understanding modules
Modules in Python are simply Python files with the .py extension, which implement a set of functions. Modules
are imported from other modules using the import command.
To import a module, we use the import command. Check out the full list of built-in modules in the Python
standard library here (https://docs.python.org/3/py-modindex.html).
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The first time a module is loaded into a running Python script, it is initialized by executing the code in the
module once. If another module in your code imports the same module again, it will not be loaded twice but
once only - so local variables inside the module act as a "singleton" - they are initialized only once.
If we want to import the math module, we simply import the name of the module:
In [7]:
# import the library
import math
In [8]:
# use it (ceiling rounding)
math.ceil(2.4)
Out[8]:
Exploring built-in modules
Two very important functions come in handy when exploring modules in Python - the dir and help
functions.
We can look for which functions are implemented in each module by using the dir function:
In [9]:
print(dir(math))
['__doc__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__', 'acos', 'ac
osh', 'asin', 'asinh', 'atan', 'atan2', 'atanh', 'ceil', 'copysign', 'cos',
'cosh', 'degrees', 'e', 'erf', 'erfc', 'exp', 'expm1', 'fabs', 'factorial',
'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'fsum', 'gamma', 'gcd', 'hypot', 'inf', 'isclose',
'isfinite', 'isinf', 'isnan', 'ldexp', 'lgamma', 'log', 'log10', 'log1p', 'l
og2', 'modf', 'nan', 'pi', 'pow', 'radians', 'sin', 'sinh', 'sqrt', 'tan',
'tanh', 'tau', 'trunc']
When we find the function in the module we want to use, we can read about it more using the help function,
inside the Python interpreter:
In [10]:
help(math.ceil)
Help on built-in function ceil in module math:
ceil(...)
ceil(x)
Return the ceiling of x as an Integral.
This is the smallest integer >= x.
Writing modules
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Writing Python modules is very simple. To create a module of your own, simply create a new .py file with the
module name, and then import it using the Python file name (without the .py extension) using the import
command.
Writing packages
Packages are name-spaces which contain multiple packages and modules themselves. They are simply
directories, but with a twist.
Each package in Python is a directory which MUST contain a special file called __init__.py. This file can be
empty, and it indicates that the directory it contains is a Python package, so it can be imported the same way a
module can be imported.
If we create a directory called foo, which marks the package name, we can then create a module inside that
package called bar. We also must not forget to add the __init__.py file inside the foo directory.
To use the module bar, we can import it in two ways:
In [ ]:
# Just an example, this won't work
import foo.bar
In [ ]:
# OR could do it this way
from foo import bar
In the first method, we must use the foo prefix whenever we access the module bar. In the second method, we
don't, because we import the module to our module's name-space.
The __init__.py file can also decide which modules the package exports as the API, while keeping other
modules internal, by overriding the __all__ variable, like so:
In [ ]:
__init__.py:
__all__ = ["bar"]
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Errors and Exception Handling
In this lecture we will learn about Errors and Exception Handling in Python. You've definitely already
encountered errors by this point in the course. For example:
In [1]:
print('Hello)
File "<ipython-input-1-db8c9988558c>", line 1
print('Hello)
^
SyntaxError: EOL while scanning string literal
Note how we get a SyntaxError, with the further description that it was an EOL (End of Line Error) while
scanning the string literal. This is specific enough for us to see that we forgot a single quote at the end of the
line. Understanding these various error types will help you debug your code much faster.
This type of error and description is known as an Exception. Even if a statement or expression is syntactically
correct, it may cause an error when an attempt is made to execute it. Errors detected during execution are
called exceptions and are not unconditionally fatal.
You can check out the full list of built-in exceptions here (https://docs.python.org/3/library/exceptions.html). Now
let's learn how to handle errors and exceptions in our own code.
try and except
The basic terminology and syntax used to handle errors in Python are the try and except statements. The
code which can cause an exception to occur is put in the try block and the handling of the exception is then
implemented in the except block of code. The syntax follows:
try:
You do your operations here...
...
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block.
except ExceptionII:
If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block.
...
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.
We can also just check for any exception with just using except: To get a better understanding of all this let's
check out an example: We will look at some code that opens and writes a file:
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In [2]:
try:
f = open('testfile','w')
f.write('Test write this')
except IOError:
# This will only check for an IOError exception and then execute this print statement
print("Error: Could not find file or read data")
else:
print("Content written successfully")
f.close()
Content written successfully
Now let's see what would happen if we did not have write permission (opening only with 'r'):
In [3]:
try:
f = open('testfile','r')
f.write('Test write this')
except IOError:
# This will only check for an IOError exception and then execute this print statement
print("Error: Could not find file or read data")
else:
print("Content written successfully")
f.close()
Error: Could not find file or read data
Great! Notice how we only printed a statement! The code still ran and we were able to continue doing actions
and running code blocks. This is extremely useful when you have to account for possible input errors in your
code. You can be prepared for the error and keep running code, instead of your code just breaking as we saw
above.
We could have also just said except: if we weren't sure what exception would occur. For example:
In [4]:
try:
f = open('testfile','r')
f.write('Test write this')
except:
# This will check for any exception and then execute this print statement
print("Error: Could not find file or read data")
else:
print("Content written successfully")
f.close()
Error: Could not find file or read data
Great! Now we don't actually need to memorize that list of exception types! Now what if we kept wanting to run
code after the exception occurred? This is where finally comes in.
finally
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The finally: block of code will always be run regardless if there was an exception in the try code block.
The syntax is:
try:
Code block here
...
Due to any exception, this code may be skipped!
finally:
This code block would always be executed.
For example:
In [5]:
try:
f = open("testfile", "w")
f.write("Test write statement")
f.close()
finally:
print("Always execute finally code blocks")
Always execute finally code blocks
We can use this in conjunction with except . Let's see a new example that will take into account a user
providing the wrong input:
In [6]:
def askint():
try:
val = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
except:
print("Looks like you did not enter an integer!")
finally:
print("Finally, I executed!")
print(val)
In [7]:
askint()
Please enter an integer: 5
Finally, I executed!
5
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In [8]:
askint()
Please enter an integer: five
Looks like you did not enter an integer!
Finally, I executed!
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
UnboundLocalError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-8-cc291aa76c10> in <module>()
----> 1 askint()
<ipython-input-6-c97dd1c75d24> in askint()
7 finally:
8 print("Finally, I executed!")
----> 9 print(val)
UnboundLocalError: local variable 'val' referenced before assignment
Notice how we got an error when trying to print val (because it was never properly assigned). Let's remedy this
by asking the user and checking to make sure the input type is an integer:
In [9]:
def askint():
try:
val = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
except:
print("Looks like you did not enter an integer!")
val = int(input("Try again-Please enter an integer: "))
finally:
print("Finally, I executed!")
print(val)
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In [10]:
askint()
Please enter an integer: five
Looks like you did not enter an integer!
Try again-Please enter an integer: four
Finally, I executed!
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-9-92b5f751eb01> in askint()
2 try:
----> 3 val = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
4 except:
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'five'
During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-10-cc291aa76c10> in <module>()
----> 1 askint()
<ipython-input-9-92b5f751eb01> in askint()
4 except:
5 print("Looks like you did not enter an integer!")
----> 6 val = int(input("Try again-Please enter an integer: "))
7 finally:
8 print("Finally, I executed!")
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'four'
Hmmm...that only did one check. How can we continually keep checking? We can use a while loop!
In [11]:
def askint():
while True:
try:
val = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
except:
print("Looks like you did not enter an integer!")
continue
else:
print("Yep that's an integer!")
break
finally:
print("Finally, I executed!")
print(val)
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In [12]:
askint()
Please enter an integer: five
Looks like you did not enter an integer!
Finally, I executed!
Please enter an integer: four
Looks like you did not enter an integer!
Finally, I executed!
Please enter an integer: 3
Yep that's an integer!
Finally, I executed!
So why did our function print "Finally, I executed!" after each trial, yet it never printed val itself? This is
because with a try/except/finally clause, any continue or break statements are reserved until after the try
clause is completed. This means that even though a successful input of 3 brought us to the else: block, and
a break statement was thrown, the try clause continued through to finally: before breaking out of the
while loop. And since print(val) was outside the try clause, the break statement prevented it from
running.
Let's make one final adjustment:
In [13]:
def askint():
while True:
try:
val = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
except:
print("Looks like you did not enter an integer!")
continue
else:
print("Yep that's an integer!")
print(val)
break
finally:
print("Finally, I executed!")
In [14]:
askint()
Please enter an integer: six
Looks like you did not enter an integer!
Finally, I executed!
Please enter an integer: 6
Yep that's an integer!
6
Finally, I executed!
Great! Now you know how to handle errors and exceptions in Python with the try, except, else, and
finally notation!
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7/21/2018 02-Errors and Exceptions Homework
Errors and Exceptions Homework
Problem 1
Handle the exception thrown by the code below by using try and except blocks.
In [1]:
for i in ['a','b','c']:
print(i**2)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-1-c35f41ad7311> in <module>()
1 for i in ['a','b','c']:
----> 2 print(i**2)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'
Problem 2
Handle the exception thrown by the code below by using try and except blocks. Then use a finally
block to print 'All Done.'
In [2]:
x = 5
y = 0
z = x/y
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ZeroDivisionError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-2-6f985c4c80dd> in <module>()
2 y = 0
3
----> 4 z = x/y
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
Problem 3
Write a function that asks for an integer and prints the square of it. Use a while loop with a try , except ,
else block to account for incorrect inputs.
In [3]:
def ask():
pass
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In [4]:
ask()
Input an integer: null
An error occurred! Please try again!
Input an integer: 2
Thank you, your number squared is: 4
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 03-Errors and Exceptions Homework - Solution
Errors and Exceptions Homework - Solution
Problem 1
Handle the exception thrown by the code below by using try and except blocks.
In [1]:
try:
for i in ['a','b','c']:
print(i**2)
except:
print("An error occurred!")
An error occurred!
Problem 2
Handle the exception thrown by the code below by using try and except blocks. Then use a finally
block to print 'All Done.'
In [2]:
x = 5
y = 0
try:
z = x/y
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Can't divide by Zero!")
finally:
print('All Done!')
Can't divide by Zero!
All Done!
Problem 3
Write a function that asks for an integer and prints the square of it. Use a while loop with a try , except ,
else block to account for incorrect inputs.
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7/21/2018 03-Errors and Exceptions Homework - Solution
In [3]:
def ask():
while True:
try:
n = int(input('Input an integer: '))
except:
print('An error occurred! Please try again!')
continue
else:
break
print('Thank you, your number squared is: ',n**2)
In [4]:
ask()
Input an integer: null
An error occurred! Please try again!
Input an integer: 2
Thank you, your number squared is: 4
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 04-Unit Testing
Unit Testing
Equally important as writing good code is writing good tests. Better to find bugs yourself than have them
reported to you by end users!
For this section we'll be working with files outside the notebook. We'll save our code to a .py file, and then save
our test script to another .py file. Normally we would code these files using a text editor like Brackets or Atom,
or inside an IDE like Spyder or Pycharm. But, since we're here, let's use Jupyter!
Recall that with some IPython magic we can write the contents of a cell to a file using %%writefile .
Something we haven't seen yet; you can run terminal commands from a jupyter cell using !
Testing tools
There are dozens of good testing libraries out there. Most are third-party packages that require an install, such
as:
pylint (https://www.pylint.org/)
pyflakes (https://pypi.python.org/pypi/pyflakes/)
pep8 (https://pypi.python.org/pypi/pep8)
These are simple tools that merely look at your code, and they'll tell you if there are style issues or simple
problems like variable names being called before assignment.
A far better way to test your code is to write tests that send sample data to your program, and compare what's
returned to a desired outcome.
Two such tools are available from the standard library:
unittest (https://docs.python.org/3/library/unittest.html)
doctest (https://docs.python.org/3/library/doctest.html)
Let's look at pylint first, then we'll do some heavier lifting with unittest.
pylint
pylint tests for style as well as some very basic program logic.
First, if you don't have it already (and you probably do, as it's part of the Anaconda distribution), you should
install pylint .
Once that's done feel free to comment out the cell, you won't need it anymore.
In [ ]:
! pip install pylint
Let's save a very simple script:
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In [1]:
%%writefile simple1.py
a = 1
b = 2
print(a)
print(B)
Overwriting simple1.py
Now let's check it using pylint
In [2]:
! pylint simple1.py
************* Module simple1
C: 4, 0: Final newline missing (missing-final-newline)
C: 1, 0: Missing module docstring (missing-docstring)
C: 1, 0: Invalid constant name "a" (invalid-name)
C: 2, 0: Invalid constant name "b" (invalid-name)
E: 4, 6: Undefined variable 'B' (undefined-variable)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Your code has been rated at -12.50/10 (previous run: 8.33/10, -20.83)
No config file found, using default configuration
Pylint first lists some styling issues - it would like to see an extra newline at the end, modules and function
definitions should have descriptive docstrings, and single characters are a poor choice for variable names.
More importantly, however, pylint identified an error in the program - a variable called before assignment. This
needs fixing.
Note that pylint scored our program a negative 12.5 out of 10. Let's try to improve that!
In [3]:
%%writefile simple1.py
"""
A very simple script.
"""
def myfunc():
"""
An extremely simple function.
"""
first = 1
second = 2
print(first)
print(second)
myfunc()
Overwriting simple1.py
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In [4]:
! pylint simple1.py
************* Module simple1
C: 14, 0: Final newline missing (missing-final-newline)
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Your code has been rated at 8.33/10 (previous run: -12.50/10, +20.83)
No config file found, using default configuration
Much better! Our score climbed to 8.33 out of 10. Unfortunately, the final newline has to do with how jupyter
writes to a file, and there's not much we can do about that here. Still, pylint helped us troubleshoot some of our
problems. But what if the problem was more complex?
In [5]:
%%writefile simple2.py
"""
A very simple script.
"""
def myfunc():
"""
An extremely simple function.
"""
first = 1
second = 2
print(first)
print('second')
myfunc()
Overwriting simple2.py
In [6]:
! pylint simple2.py
************* Module simple2
C: 14, 0: Final newline missing (missing-final-newline)
W: 10, 4: Unused variable 'second' (unused-variable)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Your code has been rated at 6.67/10 (previous run: 6.67/10, +0.00)
No config file found, using default configuration
pylint tells us there's an unused variable in line 10, but it doesn't know that we might get an unexpected output
from line 12! For this we need a more robust set of tools. That's where unittest comes in.
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unittest
unittest lets you write your own test programs. The goal is to send a specific set of data to your program,
and analyze the returned results against an expected result.
Let's generate a simple script that capitalizes words in a given string. We'll call it cap.py.
In [7]:
%%writefile cap.py
def cap_text(text):
return text.capitalize()
Overwriting cap.py
Now we'll write a test script. We can call it whatever we want, but test_cap.py seems an obvious choice.
When writing test functions, it's best to go from simple to complex, as each function will be run in order. Here
we'll test simple, one-word strings, followed by a test of multiple word strings.
In [8]:
%%writefile test_cap.py
import unittest
import cap
class TestCap(unittest.TestCase):
def test_one_word(self):
text = 'python'
result = cap.cap_text(text)
self.assertEqual(result, 'Python')
def test_multiple_words(self):
text = 'monty python'
result = cap.cap_text(text)
self.assertEqual(result, 'Monty Python')
if __name__ == '__main__':
unittest.main()
Overwriting test_cap.py
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In [9]:
! python test_cap.py
F.
======================================================================
FAIL: test_multiple_words (__main__.TestCap)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test_cap.py", line 14, in test_multiple_words
self.assertEqual(result, 'Monty Python')
AssertionError: 'Monty python' != 'Monty Python'
- Monty python
? ^
+ Monty Python
? ^
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 2 tests in 0.000s
FAILED (failures=1)
What happened? It turns out that the .capitalize() method only capitalizes the first letter of the first word in
a string. Doing a little research on string methods, we find that .title() might give us what we want.
In [10]:
%%writefile cap.py
def cap_text(text):
return text.title() # replace .capitalize() with .title()
Overwriting cap.py
In [11]:
! python test_cap.py
..
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 2 tests in 0.000s
OK
Hey, it passed! But have we tested all cases? Let's add another test to test_cap.py to see if it handles words
with apostrophes, like don't.
In a text editor this would be easy, but in Jupyter we have to start from scratch.
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In [12]:
%%writefile test_cap.py
import unittest
import cap
class TestCap(unittest.TestCase):
def test_one_word(self):
text = 'python'
result = cap.cap_text(text)
self.assertEqual(result, 'Python')
def test_multiple_words(self):
text = 'monty python'
result = cap.cap_text(text)
self.assertEqual(result, 'Monty Python')
def test_with_apostrophes(self):
text = "monty python's flying circus"
result = cap.cap_text(text)
self.assertEqual(result, "Monty Python's Flying Circus")
if __name__ == '__main__':
unittest.main()
Overwriting test_cap.py
In [13]:
! python test_cap.py
..F
======================================================================
FAIL: test_with_apostrophes (__main__.TestCap)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test_cap.py", line 19, in test_with_apostrophes
self.assertEqual(result, "Monty Python's Flying Circus")
AssertionError: "Monty Python'S Flying Circus" != "Monty Python's Flying Cir
cus"
- Monty Python'S Flying Circus
? ^
+ Monty Python's Flying Circus
? ^
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 3 tests in 0.000s
FAILED (failures=1)
Now we have to find a solution that handles apostrophes! There is one (look up capwords from the string
module) but we'll leave that as an exercise for the reader.
Great! Now you should have a basic understanding of unit testing!
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7/21/2018 01-Milestone Project 2 - Assignment
Milestone Project 2 - Blackjack Game
In this milestone project you will be creating a Complete BlackJack Card Game in Python.
Here are the requirements:
You need to create a simple text-based BlackJack (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackjack) game
The game needs to have one player versus an automated dealer.
The player can stand or hit.
The player must be able to pick their betting amount.
You need to keep track of the player's total money.
You need to alert the player of wins, losses, or busts, etc...
And most importantly:
You must use OOP and classes in some portion of your game. You can not just use functions in
your game. Use classes to help you define the Deck and the Player's hand. There are many right
ways to do this, so explore it well!
Feel free to expand this game. Try including multiple players. Try adding in Double-Down and card splits!
Remember to you are free to use any resources you want and as always:
HAVE FUN!
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7/21/2018 02-Milestone Project 2 - Walkthrough Steps Workbook
Milestone Project 2 - Walkthrough Steps Workbook
Below is a set of steps for you to follow to try to create the Blackjack Milestone Project game!
Game Play
To play a hand of Blackjack the following steps must be followed:
1. Create a deck of 52 cards
2. Shuffle the deck
3. Ask the Player for their bet
4. Make sure that the Player's bet does not exceed their available chips
5. Deal two cards to the Dealer and two cards to the Player
6. Show only one of the Dealer's cards, the other remains hidden
7. Show both of the Player's cards
8. Ask the Player if they wish to Hit, and take another card
9. If the Player's hand doesn't Bust (go over 21), ask if they'd like to Hit again.
10. If a Player Stands, play the Dealer's hand. The dealer will always Hit until the Dealer's value meets or
exceeds 17
11. Determine the winner and adjust the Player's chips accordingly
12. Ask the Player if they'd like to play again
Playing Cards
A standard deck of playing cards has four suits (Hearts, Diamonds, Spades and Clubs) and thirteen ranks (2
through 10, then the face cards Jack, Queen, King and Ace) for a total of 52 cards per deck. Jacks, Queens
and Kings all have a rank of 10. Aces have a rank of either 11 or 1 as needed to reach 21 without busting. As a
starting point in your program, you may want to assign variables to store a list of suits, ranks, and then use a
dictionary to map ranks to values.
The Game
Imports and Global Variables
Step 1: Import the random module. This will be used to shuffle the deck prior to dealing. Then, declare
variables to store suits, ranks and values. You can develop your own system, or copy ours below.
Finally, declare a Boolean value to be used to control while loops. This is a common practice used to
control the flow of the game.
suits = ('Hearts', 'Diamonds', 'Spades', 'Clubs')
ranks = ('Two', 'Three', 'Four', 'Five', 'Six', 'Seven', 'Eight', 'Nine', 'Ten',
'Jack', 'Queen', 'King', 'Ace')
values = {'Two':2, 'Three':3, 'Four':4, 'Five':5, 'Six':6, 'Seven':7, 'Eight':8,
'Nine':9, 'Ten':10, 'Jack':10,
'Queen':10, 'King':10, 'Ace':11}
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In [ ]:
import random
suits = pass
ranks = pass
values = pass
playing = True
Class Definitions
Consider making a Card class where each Card object has a suit and a rank, then a Deck class to hold all 52
Card objects, and can be shuffled, and finally a Hand class that holds those Cards that have been dealt to each
player from the Deck.
Step 2: Create a Card Class
A Card object really only needs two attributes: suit and rank. You might add an attribute for "value" - we chose
to handle value later when developing our Hand class.
In addition to the Card's __init__ method, consider adding a __str__ method that, when asked to print a Card,
returns a string in the form "Two of Hearts"
In [ ]:
class Card:
def __init__(self):
pass
def __str__(self):
pass
Step 3: Create a Deck Class
Here we might store 52 card objects in a list that can later be shuffled. First, though, we need to instantiate all
52 unique card objects and add them to our list. So long as the Card class definition appears in our code, we
can build Card objects inside our Deck __init__ method. Consider iterating over sequences of suits and ranks to
build out each card. This might appear inside a Deck class __init__ method:
for suit in suits:
for rank in ranks:
In addition to an __init__ method we'll want to add methods to shuffle our deck, and to deal out cards during
gameplay.
OPTIONAL: We may never need to print the contents of the deck during gameplay, but having the ability to see
the cards inside it may help troubleshoot any problems that occur during development. With this in mind,
consider adding a __str__ method to the class definition.
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In [ ]:
class Deck:
def __init__(self):
self.deck = [] # start with an empty list
for suit in suits:
for rank in ranks:
pass
def __str__(self):
pass
def shuffle(self):
random.shuffle(self.deck)
def deal(self):
pass
TESTING: Just to see that everything works so far, let's see what our Deck looks like!
In [ ]:
test_deck = Deck()
print(test_deck)
Great! Now let's move on to our Hand class.
Step 4: Create a Hand Class
In addition to holding Card objects dealt from the Deck, the Hand class may be used to calculate the value of
those cards using the values dictionary defined above. It may also need to adjust for the value of Aces when
appropriate.
In [ ]:
class Hand:
def __init__(self):
self.cards = [] # start with an empty list as we did in the Deck class
self.value = 0 # start with zero value
self.aces = 0 # add an attribute to keep track of aces
def add_card(self,card):
pass
def adjust_for_ace(self):
pass
Step 5: Create a Chips Class
In addition to decks of cards and hands, we need to keep track of a Player's starting chips, bets, and ongoing
winnings. This could be done using global variables, but in the spirit of object oriented programming, let's make
a Chips class instead!
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In [ ]:
class Chips:
def __init__(self):
self.total = 100 # This can be set to a default value or supplied by a user input
self.bet = 0
def win_bet(self):
pass
def lose_bet(self):
pass
Function Defintions
A lot of steps are going to be repetitive. That's where functions come in! The following steps are guidelines -
add or remove functions as needed in your own program.
Step 6: Write a function for taking bets
Since we're asking the user for an integer value, this would be a good place to use try / except . Remember
to check that a Player's bet can be covered by their available chips.
In [ ]:
def take_bet():
pass
Step 7: Write a function for taking hits
Either player can take hits until they bust. This function will be called during gameplay anytime a Player
requests a hit, or a Dealer's hand is less than 17. It should take in Deck and Hand objects as arguments, and
deal one card off the deck and add it to the Hand. You may want it to check for aces in the event that a player's
hand exceeds 21.
In [ ]:
def hit(deck,hand):
pass
Step 8: Write a function prompting the Player to Hit or Stand
This function should accept the deck and the player's hand as arguments, and assign playing as a global
variable.
If the Player Hits, employ the hit() function above. If the Player Stands, set the playing variable to False - this
will control the behavior of a while loop later on in our code.
In [ ]:
def hit_or_stand(deck,hand):
global playing # to control an upcoming while loop
pass
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Step 9: Write functions to display cards
When the game starts, and after each time Player takes a card, the dealer's first card is hidden and all of
Player's cards are visible. At the end of the hand all cards are shown, and you may want to show each hand's
total value. Write a function for each of these scenarios.
In [ ]:
def show_some(player,dealer):
pass
def show_all(player,dealer):
pass
Step 10: Write functions to handle end of game scenarios
Remember to pass player's hand, dealer's hand and chips as needed.
In [ ]:
def player_busts():
pass
def player_wins():
pass
def dealer_busts():
pass
def dealer_wins():
pass
def push():
pass
And now on to the game!!
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In [ ]:
while True:
# Print an opening statement
# Create & shuffle the deck, deal two cards to each player
# Set up the Player's chips
# Prompt the Player for their bet
# Show cards (but keep one dealer card hidden)
while playing: # recall this variable from our hit_or_stand function
# Prompt for Player to Hit or Stand
# Show cards (but keep one dealer card hidden)
# If player's hand exceeds 21, run player_busts() and break out of loop
break
# If Player hasn't busted, play Dealer's hand until Dealer reaches 17
# Show all cards
# Run different winning scenarios
# Inform Player of their chips total
# Ask to play again
break
And that's it! Remember, these steps may differ significantly from your own solution. That's OK! Keep working
on different sections of your program until you get the desired results. It takes a lot of time and patience! As
always, feel free to post questions and comments to the QA Forums.
Good job!
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7/21/2018 03-Milestone Project 2 - Complete Walkthrough Solution
Milestone Project 2 - Complete Walkthrough
Solution
This notebook walks through a proposed solution to the Blackjack Game milestone project. The approach to
solving and the specific code used are only suggestions - there are many different ways to code this out, and
yours is likely to be different!
Game Play
To play a hand of Blackjack the following steps must be followed:
1. Create a deck of 52 cards
2. Shuffle the deck
3. Ask the Player for their bet
4. Make sure that the Player's bet does not exceed their available chips
5. Deal two cards to the Dealer and two cards to the Player
6. Show only one of the Dealer's cards, the other remains hidden
7. Show both of the Player's cards
8. Ask the Player if they wish to Hit, and take another card
9. If the Player's hand doesn't Bust (go over 21), ask if they'd like to Hit again.
10. If a Player Stands, play the Dealer's hand. The dealer will always Hit until the Dealer's value meets or
exceeds 17
11. Determine the winner and adjust the Player's chips accordingly
12. Ask the Player if they'd like to play again
Playing Cards
A standard deck of playing cards has four suits (Hearts, Diamonds, Spades and Clubs) and thirteen ranks (2
through 10, then the face cards Jack, Queen, King and Ace) for a total of 52 cards per deck. Jacks, Queens
and Kings all have a rank of 10. Aces have a rank of either 11 or 1 as needed to reach 21 without busting. As a
starting point in your program, you may want to assign variables to store a list of suits, ranks, and then use a
dictionary to map ranks to values.
The Game
Imports and Global Variables
Step 1: Import the random module. This will be used to shuffle the deck prior to dealing. Then, declare
variables to store suits, ranks and values. You can develop your own system, or copy ours below.
Finally, declare a Boolean value to be used to control while loops. This is a common practice used to
control the flow of the game.
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suits = ('Hearts', 'Diamonds', 'Spades', 'Clubs')
ranks = ('Two', 'Three', 'Four', 'Five', 'Six', 'Seven', 'Eight', 'Nine', 'Ten',
'Jack', 'Queen', 'King', 'Ace')
values = {'Two':2, 'Three':3, 'Four':4, 'Five':5, 'Six':6, 'Seven':7, 'Eight':8,
'Nine':9, 'Ten':10, 'Jack':10,
'Queen':10, 'King':10, 'Ace':11}
In [1]:
import random
suits = ('Hearts', 'Diamonds', 'Spades', 'Clubs')
ranks = ('Two', 'Three', 'Four', 'Five', 'Six', 'Seven', 'Eight', 'Nine', 'Ten', 'Jack', 'Q
values = {'Two':2, 'Three':3, 'Four':4, 'Five':5, 'Six':6, 'Seven':7, 'Eight':8, 'Nine':9,
'Queen':10, 'King':10, 'Ace':11}
playing = True
Class Definitions
Consider making a Card class where each Card object has a suit and a rank, then a Deck class to hold all 52
Card objects, and can be shuffled, and finally a Hand class that holds those Cards that have been dealt to each
player from the Deck.
Step 2: Create a Card Class
A Card object really only needs two attributes: suit and rank. You might add an attribute for "value" - we chose
to handle value later when developing our Hand class.
In addition to the Card's __init__ method, consider adding a __str__ method that, when asked to print a Card,
returns a string in the form "Two of Hearts"
In [2]:
class Card:
def __init__(self,suit,rank):
self.suit = suit
self.rank = rank
def __str__(self):
return self.rank + ' of ' + self.suit
Step 3: Create a Deck Class
Here we might store 52 card objects in a list that can later be shuffled. First, though, we need to instantiate all
52 unique card objects and add them to our list. So long as the Card class definition appears in our code, we
can build Card objects inside our Deck __init__ method. Consider iterating over sequences of suits and ranks to
build out each card. This might appear inside a Deck class __init__ method:
for suit in suits:
for rank in ranks:
In addition to an __init__ method we'll want to add methods to shuffle our deck, and to deal out cards during
gameplay.
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OPTIONAL: We may never need to print the contents of the deck during gameplay, but having the ability to see
the cards inside it may help troubleshoot any problems that occur during development. With this in mind,
consider adding a __str__ method to the class definition.
In [3]:
class Deck:
def __init__(self):
self.deck = [] # start with an empty list
for suit in suits:
for rank in ranks:
self.deck.append(Card(suit,rank)) # build Card objects and add them to the
def __str__(self):
deck_comp = '' # start with an empty string
for card in self.deck:
deck_comp += '\n '+card.__str__() # add each Card object's print string
return 'The deck has:' + deck_comp
def shuffle(self):
random.shuffle(self.deck)
def deal(self):
single_card = self.deck.pop()
return single_card
TESTING: Just to see that everything works so far, let's see what our Deck looks like!
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In [4]:
test_deck = Deck()
print(test_deck)
The deck has:
Two of Hearts
Three of Hearts
Four of Hearts
Five of Hearts
Six of Hearts
Seven of Hearts
Eight of Hearts
Nine of Hearts
Ten of Hearts
Jack of Hearts
Queen of Hearts
King of Hearts
Ace of Hearts
Two of Diamonds
Three of Diamonds
Four of Diamonds
Five of Diamonds
Six of Diamonds
Seven of Diamonds
Eight of Diamonds
Nine of Diamonds
Ten of Diamonds
Jack of Diamonds
Queen of Diamonds
King of Diamonds
Ace of Diamonds
Two of Spades
Three of Spades
Four of Spades
Five of Spades
Six of Spades
Seven of Spades
Eight of Spades
Nine of Spades
Ten of Spades
Jack of Spades
Queen of Spades
King of Spades
Ace of Spades
Two of Clubs
Three of Clubs
Four of Clubs
Five of Clubs
Six of Clubs
Seven of Clubs
Eight of Clubs
Nine of Clubs
Ten of Clubs
Jack of Clubs
Queen of Clubs
King of Clubs
Ace of Clubs
Great! Now let's move on to our Hand class.
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Step 4: Create a Hand Class
In addition to holding Card objects dealt from the Deck, the Hand class may be used to calculate the value of
those cards using the values dictionary defined above. It may also need to adjust for the value of Aces when
appropriate.
In [5]:
class Hand:
def __init__(self):
self.cards = [] # start with an empty list as we did in the Deck class
self.value = 0 # start with zero value
self.aces = 0 # add an attribute to keep track of aces
def add_card(self,card):
self.cards.append(card)
self.value += values[card.rank]
def adjust_for_ace(self):
pass
TESTING: Before we tackle the issue of changing Aces, let's make sure we can add two cards to a player's
hand and obtain their value:
In [6]:
test_deck = Deck()
test_deck.shuffle()
test_player = Hand()
test_player.add_card(test_deck.deal())
test_player.add_card(test_deck.deal())
test_player.value
Out[6]:
14
Let's see what these two cards are:
In [7]:
for card in test_player.cards:
print(card)
Nine of Hearts
Five of Hearts
Great! Now let's tackle the Aces issue. If a hand's value exceeds 21 but it contains an Ace, we can reduce the
Ace's value from 11 to 1 and continue playing.
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In [8]:
class Hand:
def __init__(self):
self.cards = [] # start with an empty list as we did in the Deck class
self.value = 0 # start with zero value
self.aces = 0 # add an attribute to keep track of aces
def add_card(self,card):
self.cards.append(card)
self.value += values[card.rank]
if card.rank == 'Ace':
self.aces += 1 # add to self.aces
def adjust_for_ace(self):
while self.value > 21 and self.aces:
self.value -= 10
self.aces -= 1
We added code to the add_card method to bump self.aces whenever an ace is brought into the hand, and
added code to the adjust_for_aces method that decreases the number of aces any time we make an
adjustment to stay under 21.
Step 5: Create a Chips Class
In addition to decks of cards and hands, we need to keep track of a Player's starting chips, bets, and ongoing
winnings. This could be done using global variables, but in the spirit of object oriented programming, let's make
a Chips class instead!
In [9]:
class Chips:
def __init__(self):
self.total = 100 # This can be set to a default value or supplied by a user input
self.bet = 0
def win_bet(self):
self.total += self.bet
def lose_bet(self):
self.total -= self.bet
A NOTE ABOUT OUR DEFAULT TOTAL VALUE:
Alternatively, we could have passed a default total value as an parameter in the __init__. This would have let us
pass in an override value at the time the object was created rather than wait until later to change it. The code
would have looked like this:
def __init__(self,total=100):
self.total = total
self.bet = 0
Either technique is fine, it only depends on how you plan to start your game parameters.
Function Defintions
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A lot of steps are going to be repetitive. That's where functions come in! The following steps are guidelines -
add or remove functions as needed in your own program.
Step 6: Write a function for taking bets
Since we're asking the user for an integer value, this would be a good place to use try / except . Remember
to check that a Player's bet can be covered by their available chips.
In [10]:
def take_bet(chips):
while True:
try:
chips.bet = int(input('How many chips would you like to bet? '))
except ValueError:
print('Sorry, a bet must be an integer!')
else:
if chips.bet > chips.total:
print("Sorry, your bet can't exceed",chips.total)
else:
break
We used a while loop here to continually prompt the user for input until we received an integer value that was
within the Player's betting limit.
A QUICK NOTE ABOUT FUNCTIONS:
If we knew in advance what we were going to call our Player's Chips object, we could have written the above
function like this:
def take_bet():
while True:
try:
player_chips.bet = int(input('How many chips would you like to bet?
'))
except ValueError:
print('Sorry, a bet must be an integer!')
else:
if player_chips.bet > player_chips.total:
print("Sorry, your bet can't exceed",player_chips.total)
else:
break
and then we could call the function without passing any arguments. This is generally not a good idea! It's better
to have functions be self-contained, able to accept any incoming value than depend on some future naming
convention. Also, this makes it easier to add players in future versions of our program!
Step 7: Write a function for taking hits
Either player can take hits until they bust. This function will be called during gameplay anytime a Player
requests a hit, or a Dealer's hand is less than 17. It should take in Deck and Hand objects as arguments, and
deal one card off the deck and add it to the Hand. You may want it to check for aces in the event that a player's
hand exceeds 21.
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In [11]:
def hit(deck,hand):
hand.add_card(deck.deal())
hand.adjust_for_ace()
Step 8: Write a function prompting the Player to Hit or Stand
This function should accept the deck and the player's hand as arguments, and assign playing as a global
variable.
If the Player Hits, employ the hit() function above. If the Player Stands, set the playing variable to False - this
will control the behavior of a while loop later on in our code.
In [12]:
def hit_or_stand(deck,hand):
global playing # to control an upcoming while loop
while True:
x = input("Would you like to Hit or Stand? Enter 'h' or 's' ")
if x[0].lower() == 'h':
hit(deck,hand) # hit() function defined above
elif x[0].lower() == 's':
print("Player stands. Dealer is playing.")
playing = False
else:
print("Sorry, please try again.")
continue
break
Step 9: Write functions to display cards
When the game starts, and after each time Player takes a card, the dealer's first card is hidden and all of
Player's cards are visible. At the end of the hand all cards are shown, and you may want to show each hand's
total value. Write a function for each of these scenarios.
In [13]:
def show_some(player,dealer):
print("\nDealer's Hand:")
print(" <card hidden>")
print('',dealer.cards[1])
print("\nPlayer's Hand:", *player.cards, sep='\n ')
def show_all(player,dealer):
print("\nDealer's Hand:", *dealer.cards, sep='\n ')
print("Dealer's Hand =",dealer.value)
print("\nPlayer's Hand:", *player.cards, sep='\n ')
print("Player's Hand =",player.value)
QUICK NOTES ABOUT PRINT STATEMENTS:
The asterisk * symbol is used to print every item in a collection, and the sep='\n ' argument prints
each item on a separate line.
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In the fourth line where we have
print('',dealer.cards[1])
the empty string and comma are there just to add a space.
Here we used commas to separate the objects being printed in each line. If you want to concatenate
strings using the + symbol, then you have to call each Card object's __str__ method explicitly, as with
print(' ' + dealer.cards[1].__str__())
Step 10: Write functions to handle end of game scenarios
Remember to pass player's hand, dealer's hand and chips as needed.
In [14]:
def player_busts(player,dealer,chips):
print("Player busts!")
chips.lose_bet()
def player_wins(player,dealer,chips):
print("Player wins!")
chips.win_bet()
def dealer_busts(player,dealer,chips):
print("Dealer busts!")
chips.win_bet()
def dealer_wins(player,dealer,chips):
print("Dealer wins!")
chips.lose_bet()
def push(player,dealer):
print("Dealer and Player tie! It's a push.")
And now on to the game!!
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In [16]:
while True:
# Print an opening statement
print('Welcome to BlackJack! Get as close to 21 as you can without going over!\n\
Dealer hits until she reaches 17. Aces count as 1 or 11.')
# Create & shuffle the deck, deal two cards to each player
deck = Deck()
deck.shuffle()
player_hand = Hand()
player_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
player_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
dealer_hand = Hand()
dealer_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
dealer_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
# Set up the Player's chips
player_chips = Chips() # remember the default value is 100
# Prompt the Player for their bet
take_bet(player_chips)
# Show cards (but keep one dealer card hidden)
show_some(player_hand,dealer_hand)
while playing: # recall this variable from our hit_or_stand function
# Prompt for Player to Hit or Stand
hit_or_stand(deck,player_hand)
# Show cards (but keep one dealer card hidden)
show_some(player_hand,dealer_hand)
# If player's hand exceeds 21, run player_busts() and break out of loop
if player_hand.value > 21:
player_busts(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
break
# If Player hasn't busted, play Dealer's hand until Dealer reaches 17
if player_hand.value <= 21:
while dealer_hand.value < 17:
hit(deck,dealer_hand)
# Show all cards
show_all(player_hand,dealer_hand)
# Run different winning scenarios
if dealer_hand.value > 21:
dealer_busts(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
elif dealer_hand.value > player_hand.value:
dealer_wins(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
elif dealer_hand.value < player_hand.value:
player_wins(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
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else:
push(player_hand,dealer_hand)
# Inform Player of their chips total
print("\nPlayer's winnings stand at",player_chips.total)
# Ask to play again
new_game = input("Would you like to play another hand? Enter 'y' or 'n' ")
if new_game[0].lower()=='y':
playing=True
continue
else:
print("Thanks for playing!")
break
Welcome to BlackJack! Get as close to 21 as you can without going over!
Dealer hits until she reaches 17. Aces count as 1 or 11.
How many chips would you like to bet? 5
Dealer's Hand:
<card hidden>
Seven of Spades
Player's Hand:
Queen of Spades
Nine of Hearts
Dealer's Hand:
Ace of Clubs
Seven of Spades
Dealer's Hand = 18
Player's Hand:
Queen of Spades
Nine of Hearts
Player's Hand = 19
Player wins!
Player's winnings stand at 105
Would you like to play another hand? Enter 'y' or 'n' y
Welcome to BlackJack! Get as close to 21 as you can without going over!
Dealer hits until she reaches 17. Aces count as 1 or 11.
How many chips would you like to bet? 5
Dealer's Hand:
<card hidden>
Nine of Clubs
Player's Hand:
Queen of Diamonds
Ace of Hearts
Would you like to Hit or Stand? Enter 'h' or 's' s
Player stands. Dealer is playing.
Dealer's Hand:
<card hidden>
Nine of Clubs
Player's Hand:
Queen of Diamonds
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Ace of Hearts
Dealer's Hand:
Eight of Clubs
Nine of Clubs
Dealer's Hand = 17
Player's Hand:
Queen of Diamonds
Ace of Hearts
Player's Hand = 21
Player wins!
Player's winnings stand at 105
Would you like to play another hand? Enter 'y' or 'n' y
Welcome to BlackJack! Get as close to 21 as you can without going over!
Dealer hits until she reaches 17. Aces count as 1 or 11.
How many chips would you like to bet? 65
Dealer's Hand:
<card hidden>
Four of Spades
Player's Hand:
Queen of Clubs
Four of Diamonds
Would you like to Hit or Stand? Enter 'h' or 's' h
Dealer's Hand:
<card hidden>
Four of Spades
Player's Hand:
Queen of Clubs
Four of Diamonds
Eight of Diamonds
Player busts!
Player's winnings stand at 35
Would you like to play another hand? Enter 'y' or 'n' n
Thanks for playing!
And that's it! Remember, these steps may differ significantly from your own solution. That's OK! Keep working
on different sections of your program until you get the desired results. It takes a lot of time and patience! As
always, feel free to post questions and comments to the QA Forums.
Good job!
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7/21/2018 04-Milestone Project 2 - Solution Code
Milestone Project 2 - Solution Code
Below is an implementation of a simple game of Blackjack. Notice the use of OOP and classes for the cards
and hands.
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In [3]:
# IMPORT STATEMENTS AND VARIABLE DECLARATIONS:
import random
suits = ('Hearts', 'Diamonds', 'Spades', 'Clubs')
ranks = ('Two', 'Three', 'Four', 'Five', 'Six', 'Seven', 'Eight', 'Nine', 'Ten', 'Jack', 'Q
values = {'Two':2, 'Three':3, 'Four':4, 'Five':5, 'Six':6, 'Seven':7, 'Eight':8,
'Nine':9, 'Ten':10, 'Jack':10, 'Queen':10, 'King':10, 'Ace':11}
playing = True
# CLASS DEFINTIONS:
class Card:
def __init__(self,suit,rank):
self.suit = suit
self.rank = rank
def __str__(self):
return self.rank + ' of ' + self.suit
class Deck:
def __init__(self):
self.deck = [] # start with an empty list
for suit in suits:
for rank in ranks:
self.deck.append(Card(suit,rank))
def __str__(self):
deck_comp = '' # start with an empty string
for card in self.deck:
deck_comp += '\n '+card.__str__() # add each Card object's print string
return 'The deck has:' + deck_comp
def shuffle(self):
random.shuffle(self.deck)
def deal(self):
single_card = self.deck.pop()
return single_card
class Hand:
def __init__(self):
self.cards = [] # start with an empty list as we did in the Deck class
self.value = 0 # start with zero value
self.aces = 0 # add an attribute to keep track of aces
def add_card(self,card):
self.cards.append(card)
self.value += values[card.rank]
if card.rank == 'Ace':
self.aces += 1 # add to self.aces
def adjust_for_ace(self):
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while self.value > 21 and self.aces:
self.value -= 10
self.aces -= 1
class Chips:
def __init__(self):
self.total = 100
self.bet = 0
def win_bet(self):
self.total += self.bet
def lose_bet(self):
self.total -= self.bet
# FUNCTION DEFINITIONS:
def take_bet(chips):
while True:
try:
chips.bet = int(input('How many chips would you like to bet? '))
except ValueError:
print('Sorry, a bet must be an integer!')
else:
if chips.bet > chips.total:
print("Sorry, your bet can't exceed",chips.total)
else:
break
def hit(deck,hand):
hand.add_card(deck.deal())
hand.adjust_for_ace()
def hit_or_stand(deck,hand):
global playing
while True:
x = input("Would you like to Hit or Stand? Enter 'h' or 's' ")
if x[0].lower() == 'h':
hit(deck,hand) # hit() function defined above
elif x[0].lower() == 's':
print("Player stands. Dealer is playing.")
playing = False
else:
print("Sorry, please try again.")
continue
break
def show_some(player,dealer):
print("\nDealer's Hand:")
print(" <card hidden>")
print('',dealer.cards[1])
print("\nPlayer's Hand:", *player.cards, sep='\n ')
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def show_all(player,dealer):
print("\nDealer's Hand:", *dealer.cards, sep='\n ')
print("Dealer's Hand =",dealer.value)
print("\nPlayer's Hand:", *player.cards, sep='\n ')
print("Player's Hand =",player.value)
def player_busts(player,dealer,chips):
print("Player busts!")
chips.lose_bet()
def player_wins(player,dealer,chips):
print("Player wins!")
chips.win_bet()
def dealer_busts(player,dealer,chips):
print("Dealer busts!")
chips.win_bet()
def dealer_wins(player,dealer,chips):
print("Dealer wins!")
chips.lose_bet()
def push(player,dealer):
print("Dealer and Player tie! It's a push.")
# GAMEPLAY!
while True:
print('Welcome to BlackJack! Get as close to 21 as you can without going over!\n\
Dealer hits until she reaches 17. Aces count as 1 or 11.')
# Create & shuffle the deck, deal two cards to each player
deck = Deck()
deck.shuffle()
player_hand = Hand()
player_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
player_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
dealer_hand = Hand()
dealer_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
dealer_hand.add_card(deck.deal())
# Set up the Player's chips
player_chips = Chips() # remember the default value is 100
# Prompt the Player for their bet:
take_bet(player_chips)
# Show the cards:
show_some(player_hand,dealer_hand)
while playing: # recall this variable from our hit_or_stand function
# Prompt for Player to Hit or Stand
hit_or_stand(deck,player_hand)
show_some(player_hand,dealer_hand)
if player_hand.value > 21:
player_busts(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
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break
# If Player hasn't busted, play Dealer's hand
if player_hand.value <= 21:
while dealer_hand.value < 17:
hit(deck,dealer_hand)
# Show all cards
show_all(player_hand,dealer_hand)
# Test different winning scenarios
if dealer_hand.value > 21:
dealer_busts(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
elif dealer_hand.value > player_hand.value:
dealer_wins(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
elif dealer_hand.value < player_hand.value:
player_wins(player_hand,dealer_hand,player_chips)
else:
push(player_hand,dealer_hand)
# Inform Player of their chips total
print("\nPlayer's winnings stand at",player_chips.total)
# Ask to play again
new_game = input("Would you like to play another hand? Enter 'y' or 'n' ")
if new_game[0].lower()=='y':
playing=True
continue
else:
print("Thanks for playing!")
break
Welcome to BlackJack! Get as close to 21 as you can without going over!
Dealer hits until she reaches 17. Aces count as 1 or 11.
How many chips would you like to bet? 50
Dealer's Hand:
<card hidden>
Seven of Diamonds
Player's Hand:
Jack of Clubs
Three of Diamonds
Would you like to Hit or Stand? Enter 'h' or 's' h
Dealer's Hand:
<card hidden>
Seven of Diamonds
Player's Hand:
Jack of Clubs
Three of Diamonds
Six of Hearts
Would you like to Hit or Stand? Enter 'h' or 's' s
Player stands. Dealer is playing.
Dealer's Hand:
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<card hidden>
Seven of Diamonds
Player's Hand:
Jack of Clubs
Three of Diamonds
Six of Hearts
Dealer's Hand:
Ace of Hearts
Seven of Diamonds
Dealer's Hand = 18
Player's Hand:
Jack of Clubs
Three of Diamonds
Six of Hearts
Player's Hand = 19
Player wins!
Player's winnings stand at 150
Would you like to play another hand? Enter 'y' or 'n' n
Thanks for playing!
In [ ]:
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7/21/2018 01-Map
map()
map() is a built-in Python function that takes in two or more arguments: a function and one or more iterables, in
the form:
map(function, iterable, ...)
map() returns an iterator - that is, map() returns a special object that yields one result at a time as needed. We
will learn more about iterators and generators in a future lecture. For now, since our examples are so small, we
will cast map() as a list to see the results immediately.
When we went over list comprehensions we created a small expression to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit. Let's
do the same here but use map:
In [1]:
def fahrenheit(celsius):
return (9/5)*celsius + 32
temps = [0, 22.5, 40, 100]
Now let's see map() in action:
In [2]:
F_temps = map(fahrenheit, temps)
#Show
list(F_temps)
Out[2]:
[32.0, 72.5, 104.0, 212.0]
In the example above, map() applies the fahrenheit function to every item in temps. However, we don't have to
define our functions beforehand; we can use a lambda expression instead:
In [3]:
list(map(lambda x: (9/5)*x + 32, temps))
Out[3]:
[32.0, 72.5, 104.0, 212.0]
Great! We got the same result! Using map with lambda expressions is much more common since the entire
purpose of map() is to save effort on having to create manual for loops.
map() with multiple iterables
map() can accept more than one iterable. The iterables should be the same length - in the event that they are
not, map() will stop as soon as the shortest iterable is exhausted.
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For instance, if our function is trying to add two values x and y, we can pass a list of x values and another list of
y values to map(). The function (or lambda) will be fed the 0th index from each list, and then the 1st index, and
so on until the n-th index is reached.
Let's see this in action with two and then three lists:
In [4]:
a = [1,2,3,4]
b = [5,6,7,8]
c = [9,10,11,12]
list(map(lambda x,y:x+y,a,b))
Out[4]:
[6, 8, 10, 12]
In [5]:
# Now all three lists
list(map(lambda x,y,z:x+y+z,a,b,c))
Out[5]:
[15, 18, 21, 24]
We can see in the example above that the parameter x gets its values from the list a, while y gets its values
from b and z from list c. Go ahead and play with your own example to make sure you fully understand mapping
to more than one iterable.
Great job! You should now have a basic understanding of the map() function.
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7/21/2018 02-Reduce
reduce()
Many times students have difficulty understanding reduce() so pay careful attention to this lecture. The function
reduce(function, sequence) continually applies the function to the sequence. It then returns a single value.
If seq = [ s1, s2, s3, ... , sn ], calling reduce(function, sequence) works like this:
At first the first two elements of seq will be applied to function, i.e. func(s1,s2)
The list on which reduce() works looks now like this: [ function(s1, s2), s3, ... , sn ]
In the next step the function will be applied on the previous result and the third element of the list, i.e.
function(function(s1, s2),s3)
The list looks like this now: [ function(function(s1, s2),s3), ... , sn ]
It continues like this until just one element is left and return this element as the result of reduce()
Let's see an example:
In [1]:
from functools import reduce
lst =[47,11,42,13]
reduce(lambda x,y: x+y,lst)
Out[1]:
113
Lets look at a diagram to get a better understanding of what is going on here:
In [2]:
from IPython.display import Image
Image('http://www.python-course.eu/images/reduce_diagram.png')
Out[2]:
Note how we keep reducing the sequence until a single final value is obtained. Lets see another example:
In [3]:
#Find the maximum of a sequence (This already exists as max())
max_find = lambda a,b: a if (a > b) else b
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In [4]:
#Find max
reduce(max_find,lst)
Out[4]:
47
Hopefully you can see how useful reduce can be in various situations. Keep it in mind as you think about your
code projects!
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7/21/2018 03-Filter
filter
The function filter(function, list) offers a convenient way to filter out all the elements of an iterable, for which the
function returns True.
The function filter(function,list) needs a function as its first argument. The function needs to return a Boolean
value (either True or False). This function will be applied to every element of the iterable. Only if the function
returns True will the element of the iterable be included in the result.
Like map(), filter() returns an iterator - that is, filter yields one result at a time as needed. Iterators and
generators will be covered in an upcoming lecture. For now, since our examples are so small, we will cast filter()
as a list to see our results immediately.
Let's see some examples:
In [1]:
#First let's make a function
def even_check(num):
if num%2 ==0:
return True
Now let's filter a list of numbers. Note: putting the function into filter without any parentheses might feel strange,
but keep in mind that functions are objects as well.
In [2]:
lst =range(20)
list(filter(even_check,lst))
Out[2]:
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18]
filter() is more commonly used with lambda functions, because we usually use filter for a quick job where we
don't want to write an entire function. Let's repeat the example above using a lambda expression:
In [3]:
list(filter(lambda x: x%2==0,lst))
Out[3]:
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18]
Great! You should now have a solid understanding of filter() and how to apply it to your code!
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7/21/2018 04-Zip
zip
zip() makes an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables.
Returns an iterator of tuples, where the i-th tuple contains the i-th element from each of the argument
sequences or iterables. The iterator stops when the shortest input iterable is exhausted. With a single iterable
argument, it returns an iterator of 1-tuples. With no arguments, it returns an empty iterator.
zip() is equivalent to:
def zip(*iterables):
# zip('ABCD', 'xy') --> Ax By
sentinel = object()
iterators = [iter(it) for it in iterables]
while iterators:
result = []
for it in iterators:
elem = next(it, sentinel)
if elem is sentinel:
return
result.append(elem)
yield tuple(result)
zip() should only be used with unequal length inputs when you don’t care about trailing, unmatched values from
the longer iterables.
Let's see it in action in some examples:
Examples
In [1]:
x = [1,2,3]
y = [4,5,6]
# Zip the lists together
list(zip(x,y))
Out[1]:
[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
Note how tuples are returned. What if one iterable is longer than the other?
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In [2]:
x = [1,2,3]
y = [4,5,6,7,8]
# Zip the lists together
list(zip(x,y))
Out[2]:
[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
Note how the zip is defined by the shortest iterable length. Its generally advised not to zip unequal length
iterables unless your very sure you only need partial tuple pairings.
What happens if we try to zip together dictionaries?
In [3]:
d1 = {'a':1,'b':2}
d2 = {'c':4,'d':5}
list(zip(d1,d2))
Out[3]:
[('a', 'c'), ('b', 'd')]
This makes sense because simply iterating through the dictionaries will result in just the keys. We would have
to call methods to mix keys and values:
In [4]:
list(zip(d2,d1.values()))
Out[4]:
[('c', 1), ('d', 2)]
Great! Finally lets use zip() to switch the keys and values of the two dictionaries:
In [5]:
def switcharoo(d1,d2):
dout = {}
for d1key,d2val in zip(d1,d2.values()):
dout[d1key] = d2val
return dout
In [6]:
switcharoo(d1,d2)
Out[6]:
{'a': 4, 'b': 5}
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Great! You can use zip to save a lot of typing in many situations! You should now have a good understanding of
zip() and some possible use cases.
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7/21/2018 05-Enumerate
enumerate()
In this lecture we will learn about an extremely useful built-in function: enumerate(). Enumerate allows you to
keep a count as you iterate through an object. It does this by returning a tuple in the form (count,element). The
function itself is equivalent to:
def enumerate(sequence, start=0):
n = start
for elem in sequence:
yield n, elem
n += 1
Example
In [1]:
lst = ['a','b','c']
for number,item in enumerate(lst):
print(number)
print(item)
0
a
1
b
2
c
enumerate() becomes particularly useful when you have a case where you need to have some sort of tracker.
For example:
In [2]:
for count,item in enumerate(lst):
if count >= 2:
break
else:
print(item)
a
b
enumerate() takes an optional "start" argument to override the default value of zero:
In [3]:
months = ['March','April','May','June']
list(enumerate(months,start=3))
Out[3]:
[(3, 'March'), (4, 'April'), (5, 'May'), (6, 'June')]
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Great! You should now have a good understanding of enumerate and its potential use cases.
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7/21/2018 06-all() and any()
all() and any()
all() and any() are built-in functions in Python that allow us to conveniently check for boolean matching in an
iterable. all() will return True if all elements in an iterable are True. It is the same as this function code:
def all(iterable):
for element in iterable:
if not element:
return False
return True
any() will return True if any of the elements in the iterable are True. It is equivalent to the following function
code:
def any(iterable):
for element in iterable:
if element:
return True
return False
Let's see a few examples of these functions. They should be fairly straightforward:
In [1]:
lst = [True,True,False,True]
In [2]:
all(lst)
Out[2]:
False
Returns False because not all elements are True.
In [3]:
any(lst)
Out[3]:
True
Returns True because at least one of the elements in the list is True
There you have it, you should have an understanding of how to use any() and all() in your code.
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7/21/2018 07-Complex
complex()
complex() returns a complex number with the value real + imag*1j or converts a string or number to a complex
number.
If the first parameter is a string, it will be interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called
without a second parameter. The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument may be any numeric
type (including complex). If imag is omitted, it defaults to zero and the constructor serves as a numeric
conversion like int and float. If both arguments are omitted, returns 0j.
If you are doing math or engineering that requires complex numbers (such as dynamics, control systems, or
impedance of a circuit) this is a useful tool to have in Python.
Let's see some examples:
In [1]:
# Create 2+3j
complex(2,3)
Out[1]:
(2+3j)
In [2]:
complex(10,1)
Out[2]:
(10+1j)
We can also pass strings:
In [3]:
complex('12+2j')
Out[3]:
(12+2j)
That's really all there is to this useful function. Keep it in mind if you are ever dealing with complex numbers in
Python!
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7/21/2018 08-Built-in Functions Assessment Test
Built-in Functions Test
For this test, you should use built-in functions and be able to write the requested
functions in one line.
Problem 1
Use map() to create a function which finds the length of each word in the phrase (broken by spaces) and
returns the values in a list.
The function will have an input of a string, and output a list of integers.
In [1]:
def word_lengths(phrase):
pass
In [2]:
word_lengths('How long are the words in this phrase')
Out[2]:
[3, 4, 3, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6]
Problem 2
Use reduce() to take a list of digits and return the number that they correspond to. For example, [1, 2, 3]
corresponds to one-hundred-twenty-three.
Do not convert the integers to strings!
In [3]:
from functools import reduce
def digits_to_num(digits):
pass
In [4]:
digits_to_num([3,4,3,2,1])
Out[4]:
34321
Problem 3
Use filter to return the words from a list of words which start with a target letter.
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In [5]:
def filter_words(word_list, letter):
pass
In [6]:
l = ['hello','are','cat','dog','ham','hi','go','to','heart']
filter_words(l,'h')
Out[6]:
['hello', 'ham', 'hi', 'heart']
Problem 4
Use zip() and a list comprehension to return a list of the same length where each value is the two strings from
L1 and L2 concatenated together with connector between them. Look at the example output below:
In [7]:
def concatenate(L1, L2, connector):
pass
In [8]:
concatenate(['A','B'],['a','b'],'-')
Out[8]:
['A-a', 'B-b']
Problem 5
Use enumerate() and other skills to return a dictionary which has the values of the list as keys and the index as
the value. You may assume that a value will only appear once in the given list.
In [9]:
def d_list(L):
pass
In [10]:
d_list(['a','b','c'])
Out[10]:
{'a': 0, 'b': 1, 'c': 2}
Problem 6
Use enumerate() and other skills from above to return the count of the number of items in the list whose value
equals its index.
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7/21/2018 08-Built-in Functions Assessment Test
In [11]:
def count_match_index(L):
pass
In [12]:
count_match_index([0,2,2,1,5,5,6,10])
Out[12]:
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 09-Built-in Functions Assessment Test - Solution
Built-in Functions Test Solutions
For this test, you should use built-in functions and be able to write the requested
functions in one line.
Problem 1
Use map() to create a function which finds the length of each word in the phrase (broken by spaces) and return
the values in a list.
The function will have an input of a string, and output a list of integers.
In [1]:
def word_lengths(phrase):
return list(map(len, phrase.split()))
In [2]:
word_lengths('How long are the words in this phrase')
Out[2]:
[3, 4, 3, 3, 5, 2, 4, 6]
Problem 2
Use reduce() to take a list of digits and return the number that they correspond to. For example, [1,2,3]
corresponds to one-hundred-twenty-three.
Do not convert the integers to strings!
In [3]:
from functools import reduce
def digits_to_num(digits):
return reduce(lambda x,y:x*10 + y,digits)
In [4]:
digits_to_num([3,4,3,2,1])
Out[4]:
34321
Problem 3
Use filter() to return the words from a list of words which start with a target letter.
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7/21/2018 09-Built-in Functions Assessment Test - Solution
In [5]:
def filter_words(word_list, letter):
return list(filter(lambda word:word[0]==letter,word_list))
In [6]:
words = ['hello','are','cat','dog','ham','hi','go','to','heart']
filter_words(words,'h')
Out[6]:
['hello', 'ham', 'hi', 'heart']
Problem 4
Use zip() and a list comprehension to return a list of the same length where each value is the two strings from
L1 and L2 concatenated together with a connector between them. Look at the example output below:
In [7]:
def concatenate(L1, L2, connector):
return [word1+connector+word2 for (word1,word2) in zip(L1,L2)]
In [8]:
concatenate(['A','B'],['a','b'],'-')
Out[8]:
['A-a', 'B-b']
Problem 5
Use enumerate() and other skills to return a dictionary which has the values of the list as keys and the index as
the value. You may assume that a value will only appear once in the given list.
In [9]:
def d_list(L):
return {key:value for value,key in enumerate(L)}
In [10]:
d_list(['a','b','c'])
Out[10]:
{'a': 0, 'b': 1, 'c': 2}
Problem 6
Use enumerate() and other skills from above to return the count of the number of items in the list whose value
equals its index.
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7/21/2018 09-Built-in Functions Assessment Test - Solution
In [11]:
def count_match_index(L):
return len([num for count,num in enumerate(L) if num==count])
In [12]:
count_match_index([0,2,2,1,5,5,6,10])
Out[12]:
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 01-Decorators
Decorators
Decorators can be thought of as functions which modify the functionality of another function. They help to make
your code shorter and more "Pythonic".
To properly explain decorators we will slowly build up from functions. Make sure to run every cell in this
Notebook for this lecture to look the same on your own computer.
So let's break down the steps:
Functions Review
In [1]:
def func():
return 1
In [2]:
func()
Out[2]:
Scope Review
Remember from the nested statements lecture that Python uses Scope to know what a label is referring to. For
example:
In [ ]:
s = 'Global Variable'
def check_for_locals():
print(locals())
Remember that Python functions create a new scope, meaning the function has its own namespace to find
variable names when they are mentioned within the function. We can check for local variables and global
variables with the locals() and globals() functions. For example:
In [ ]:
print(globals())
Here we get back a dictionary of all the global variables, many of them are predefined in Python. So let's go
ahead and look at the keys:
In [ ]:
print(globals().keys())
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Note how s is there, the Global Variable we defined as a string:
In [ ]:
globals()['s']
Now let's run our function to check for local variables that might exist inside our function (there shouldn't be
any)
In [ ]:
check_for_locals()
Great! Now lets continue with building out the logic of what a decorator is. Remember that in Python
everything is an object. That means functions are objects which can be assigned labels and passed into other
functions. Lets start with some simple examples:
In [3]:
def hello(name='Jose'):
return 'Hello '+name
In [4]:
hello()
Out[4]:
'Hello Jose'
Assign another label to the function. Note that we are not using parentheses here because we are not calling
the function hello, instead we are just passing a function object to the greet variable.
In [5]:
greet = hello
In [6]:
greet
Out[6]:
<function __main__.hello>
In [7]:
greet()
Out[7]:
'Hello Jose'
So what happens when we delete the name hello?
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In [8]:
del hello
In [9]:
hello()
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-9-a75d7781aaeb> in <module>()
----> 1 hello()
NameError: name 'hello' is not defined
In [10]:
greet()
Out[10]:
'Hello Jose'
Even though we deleted the name hello, the name greet still points to our original function object. It is
important to know that functions are objects that can be passed to other objects!
Functions within functions
Great! So we've seen how we can treat functions as objects, now let's see how we can define functions inside
of other functions:
In [11]:
def hello(name='Jose'):
print('The hello() function has been executed')
def greet():
return '\t This is inside the greet() function'
def welcome():
return "\t This is inside the welcome() function"
print(greet())
print(welcome())
print("Now we are back inside the hello() function")
In [12]:
hello()
The hello() function has been executed
This is inside the greet() function
This is inside the welcome() function
Now we are back inside the hello() function
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In [13]:
welcome()
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-13-a401d7101853> in <module>()
----> 1 welcome()
NameError: name 'welcome' is not defined
Note how due to scope, the welcome() function is not defined outside of the hello() function. Now lets learn
about returning functions from within functions:
Returning Functions
In [14]:
def hello(name='Jose'):
def greet():
return '\t This is inside the greet() function'
def welcome():
return "\t This is inside the welcome() function"
if name == 'Jose':
return greet
else:
return welcome
Now let's see what function is returned if we set x = hello(), note how the empty parentheses means that name
has been defined as Jose.
In [15]:
x = hello()
In [16]:
Out[16]:
<function __main__.hello.<locals>.greet>
Great! Now we can see how x is pointing to the greet function inside of the hello function.
In [17]:
print(x())
This is inside the greet() function
Let's take a quick look at the code again.
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In the if / else clause we are returning greet and welcome , not greet() and welcome() .
This is because when you put a pair of parentheses after it, the function gets executed; whereas if you don’t put
parentheses after it, then it can be passed around and can be assigned to other variables without executing it.
When we write x = hello() , hello() gets executed and because the name is Jose by default, the function
greet is returned. If we change the statement to x = hello(name = "Sam") then the welcome function
will be returned. We can also do print(hello()()) which outputs This is inside the greet() function.
Functions as Arguments
Now let's see how we can pass functions as arguments into other functions:
In [18]:
def hello():
return 'Hi Jose!'
def other(func):
print('Other code would go here')
print(func())
In [19]:
other(hello)
Other code would go here
Hi Jose!
Great! Note how we can pass the functions as objects and then use them within other functions. Now we can
get started with writing our first decorator:
Creating a Decorator
In the previous example we actually manually created a Decorator. Here we will modify it to make its use case
clear:
In [20]:
def new_decorator(func):
def wrap_func():
print("Code would be here, before executing the func")
func()
print("Code here will execute after the func()")
return wrap_func
def func_needs_decorator():
print("This function is in need of a Decorator")
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In [21]:
func_needs_decorator()
This function is in need of a Decorator
In [22]:
# Reassign func_needs_decorator
func_needs_decorator = new_decorator(func_needs_decorator)
In [23]:
func_needs_decorator()
Code would be here, before executing the func
This function is in need of a Decorator
Code here will execute after the func()
So what just happened here? A decorator simply wrapped the function and modified its behavior. Now let's
understand how we can rewrite this code using the @ symbol, which is what Python uses for Decorators:
In [24]:
@new_decorator
def func_needs_decorator():
print("This function is in need of a Decorator")
In [25]:
func_needs_decorator()
Code would be here, before executing the func
This function is in need of a Decorator
Code here will execute after the func()
Great! You've now built a Decorator manually and then saw how we can use the @ symbol in Python to
automate this and clean our code. You'll run into Decorators a lot if you begin using Python for Web
Development, such as Flask or Django!
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Decorators Homework (Optional)
Since you won't run into decorators until further in your coding career, this homework is optional. Check out the
Web Framework Flask (http://flask.pocoo.org/). You can use Flask to create web pages with Python (as long as
you know some HTML and CSS) and they use decorators a lot! Learn how they use view decorators
(http://flask.pocoo.org/docs/0.12/patterns/viewdecorators/). Don't worry if you don't completely understand
everything about Flask, the main point of this optional homework is that you have an awareness of decorators
in Web Frameworks. That way if you decide to become a "Full-Stack" Python Web Developer, you won't find
yourself perplexed by decorators. You can also check out Django (https://www.djangoproject.com/) another
(and more popular) web framework for Python which is a bit more heavy duty.
Also for some additional info:
A framework is a type of software library that provides generic functionality which can be extended by the
programmer to build applications. Flask and Django are good examples of frameworks intended for web
development.
A framework is distinguished from a simple library or API. An API is a piece of software that a developer can
use in his or her application. A framework is more encompassing: your entire application is structured around
the framework (i.e. it provides the framework around which you build your software).
Great job!
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Iterators and Generators
In this section of the course we will be learning the difference between iteration and generation in Python and
how to construct our own Generators with the yield statement. Generators allow us to generate as we go along,
instead of holding everything in memory.
We've touched on this topic in the past when discussing certain built-in Python functions like range(), map()
and filter().
Let's explore a little deeper. We've learned how to create functions with def and the return statement.
Generator functions allow us to write a function that can send back a value and then later resume to pick up
where it left off. This type of function is a generator in Python, allowing us to generate a sequence of values
over time. The main difference in syntax will be the use of a yield statement.
In most aspects, a generator function will appear very similar to a normal function. The main difference is when
a generator function is compiled they become an object that supports an iteration protocol. That means when
they are called in your code they don't actually return a value and then exit. Instead, generator functions will
automatically suspend and resume their execution and state around the last point of value generation. The
main advantage here is that instead of having to compute an entire series of values up front, the generator
computes one value and then suspends its activity awaiting the next instruction. This feature is known as state
suspension.
To start getting a better understanding of generators, let's go ahead and see how we can create some.
In [1]:
# Generator function for the cube of numbers (power of 3)
def gencubes(n):
for num in range(n):
yield num**3
In [2]:
for x in gencubes(10):
print(x)
0
1
8
27
64
125
216
343
512
729
Great! Now since we have a generator function we don't have to keep track of every single cube we created.
Generators are best for calculating large sets of results (particularly in calculations that involve loops
themselves) in cases where we don’t want to allocate the memory for all of the results at the same time.
Let's create another example generator which calculates fibonacci
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number) numbers:
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In [3]:
def genfibon(n):
"""
Generate a fibonnaci sequence up to n
"""
a = 1
b = 1
for i in range(n):
yield a
a,b = b,a+b
In [4]:
for num in genfibon(10):
print(num)
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34
55
What if this was a normal function, what would it look like?
In [5]:
def fibon(n):
a = 1
b = 1
output = []
for i in range(n):
output.append(a)
a,b = b,a+b
return output
In [6]:
fibon(10)
Out[6]:
[1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55]
Notice that if we call some huge value of n (like 100000) the second function will have to keep track of every
single result, when in our case we actually only care about the previous result to generate the next one!
next() and iter() built-in functions
A key to fully understanding generators is the next() function and the iter() function.
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The next() function allows us to access the next element in a sequence. Lets check it out:
In [7]:
def simple_gen():
for x in range(3):
yield x
In [8]:
# Assign simple_gen
g = simple_gen()
In [9]:
print(next(g))
In [10]:
print(next(g))
In [11]:
print(next(g))
In [12]:
print(next(g))
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
StopIteration Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-12-1dfb29d6357e> in <module>()
----> 1 print(next(g))
StopIteration:
After yielding all the values next() caused a StopIteration error. What this error informs us of is that all the
values have been yielded.
You might be wondering that why don’t we get this error while using a for loop? A for loop automatically catches
this error and stops calling next().
Let's go ahead and check out how to use iter(). You remember that strings are iterables:
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In [13]:
s = 'hello'
#Iterate over string
for let in s:
print(let)
h
e
l
l
o
But that doesn't mean the string itself is an iterator! We can check this with the next() function:
In [14]:
next(s)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-14-61c30b5fe1d5> in <module>()
----> 1 next(s)
TypeError: 'str' object is not an iterator
Interesting, this means that a string object supports iteration, but we can not directly iterate over it as we could
with a generator function. The iter() function allows us to do just that!
In [15]:
s_iter = iter(s)
In [16]:
next(s_iter)
Out[16]:
'h'
In [17]:
next(s_iter)
Out[17]:
'e'
Great! Now you know how to convert objects that are iterable into iterators themselves!
The main takeaway from this lecture is that using the yield keyword at a function will cause the function to
become a generator. This change can save you a lot of memory for large use cases. For more information on
generators check out:
Stack Overflow Answer (http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1756096/understanding-generators-in-python)
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Another StackOverflow Answer (http://stackoverflow.com/questions/231767/what-does-the-yield-keyword-do-in-
python)
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Iterators and Generators Homework
Problem 1
Create a generator that generates the squares of numbers up to some number N.
In [1]:
def gensquares(N):
pass
In [2]:
for x in gensquares(10):
print(x)
0
1
4
9
16
25
36
49
64
81
Problem 2
Create a generator that yields "n" random numbers between a low and high number (that are inputs).
Note: Use the random library. For example:
In [3]:
import random
random.randint(1,10)
Out[3]:
In [4]:
def rand_num(low,high,n):
pass
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In [5]:
for num in rand_num(1,10,12):
print(num)
6
1
10
5
8
2
8
5
4
5
1
4
Problem 3
Use the iter() function to convert the string below into an iterator:
In [ ]:
s = 'hello'
#code here
Problem 4
Explain a use case for a generator using a yield statement where you would not want to use a normal function
with a return statement.
Extra Credit!
Can you explain what gencomp is in the code below? (Note: We never covered this in lecture! You will have to
do some Googling/Stack Overflowing!)
In [6]:
my_list = [1,2,3,4,5]
gencomp = (item for item in my_list if item > 3)
for item in gencomp:
print(item)
4
5
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Hint: Google generator comprehension!
Great Job!
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Iterators and Generators Homework - Solution
Problem 1
Create a generator that generates the squares of numbers up to some number N.
In [1]:
def gensquares(N):
for i in range(N):
yield i**2
In [2]:
for x in gensquares(10):
print(x)
0
1
4
9
16
25
36
49
64
81
Problem 2
Create a generator that yields "n" random numbers between a low and high number (that are inputs).
Note: Use the random library. For example:
In [3]:
import random
random.randint(1,10)
Out[3]:
In [4]:
def rand_num(low,high,n):
for i in range(n):
yield random.randint(low, high)
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In [5]:
for num in rand_num(1,10,12):
print(num)
3
9
6
10
8
4
5
5
5
3
5
8
Problem 3
Use the iter() function to convert the string below into an iterator:
In [6]:
s = 'hello'
s = iter(s)
print(next(s))
Problem 4
Explain a use case for a generator using a yield statement where you would not want to use a normal function
with a return statement.
If the output has the potential of taking up a large amount of memory and you only intend to iterate
through it, you would want to use a generator. (Multiple answers are acceptable here!)
Extra Credit!
Can you explain what gencomp is in the code below? (Note: We never covered this in lecture!)
In [7]:
my_list = [1,2,3,4,5]
gencomp = (item for item in my_list if item > 3)
for item in gencomp:
print(item)
4
5
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Hint: Google generator comprehension!
Great Job!
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Final Capstone Projects ¶
Please refer to the Final Capstone Projects (http://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/jmportilla/Complete-Python-
Bootcamp/tree/master/Final%20Capstone%20Projects/) folder to get all the info on final capstone project ideas
and possible solutions!
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List of Capstone Projects
This list contains around 100 project ideas for you to try out in Python! Some of them are straightforward and
others we have done before (such as a Fibonacci Sequence or FizzBuzz).
Pick a simple project that you think you can finish in a day to start off with, then pick another project that you
think will take you more than a week and extensive Googling!
There are some sample solutions in this folder as well so feel free to explore and remember:
HAVE FUN!
Numbers
Find PI to the Nth Digit - Enter a number and have the program generate π (pi) up to that many decimal
places. Keep a limit to how far the program will go.
Find e to the Nth Digit - Just like the previous problem, but with e instead of π (pi). Enter a number and have
the program generate e up to that many decimal places. Keep a limit to how far the program will go.
Fibonacci Sequence - Enter a number and have the program generate the Fibonacci sequence to that number
or to the Nth number.
Prime Factorization - Have the user enter a number and find all Prime Factors (if there are any) and display
them.
Next Prime Number - Have the program find prime numbers until the user chooses to stop asking for the next
one.
Find Cost of Tile to Cover W x H Floor - Calculate the total cost of tile it would take to cover a floor plan of
width and height, using a cost entered by the user.
Mortgage Calculator - Calculate the monthly payments of a fixed term mortgage over given Nth terms at a
given interest rate. Also figure out how long it will take the user to pay back the loan. For added complexity, add
an option for users to select the compounding interval (Monthly, Weekly, Daily, Continually).
Change Return Program - The user enters a cost and then the amount of money given. The program will
figure out the change and the number of quarters, dimes, nickels, pennies needed for the change.
Binary to Decimal and Back Converter - Develop a converter to convert a decimal number to binary or a
binary number to its decimal equivalent.
Calculator - A simple calculator to do basic operators. Make it a scientific calculator for added complexity.
Unit Converter (temp, currency, volume, mass and more) - Converts various units between one another.
The user enters the type of unit being entered, the type of unit they want to convert to and then the value. The
program will then make the conversion.
Alarm Clock - A simple clock where it plays a sound after X number of minutes/seconds or at a particular time.
Distance Between Two Cities - Calculates the distance between two cities and allows the user to specify a
unit of distance. This program may require finding coordinates for the cities like latitude and longitude.
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Credit Card Validator - Takes in a credit card number from a common credit card vendor (Visa, MasterCard,
American Express, Discoverer) and validates it to make sure that it is a valid number (look into how credit cards
use a checksum).
Tax Calculator - Asks the user to enter a cost and either a country or state tax. It then returns the tax plus the
total cost with tax.
Factorial Finder - The Factorial of a positive integer, n, is defined as the product of the sequence n, n-1, n-2,
...1 and the factorial of zero, 0, is defined as being 1. Solve this using both loops and recursion.
Complex Number Algebra - Show addition, multiplication, negation, and inversion of complex numbers in
separate functions. (Subtraction and division operations can be made with pairs of these operations.) Print the
results for each operation tested.
Happy Numbers - A happy number is defined by the following process. Starting with any positive integer,
replace the number by the sum of the squares of its digits, and repeat the process until the number equals 1
(where it will stay), or it loops endlessly in a cycle which does not include 1. Those numbers for which this
process ends in 1 are happy numbers, while those that do not end in 1 are unhappy numbers. Display an
example of your output here. Find first 8 happy numbers.
Number Names - Show how to spell out a number in English. You can use a preexisting implementation or roll
your own, but you should support inputs up to at least one million (or the maximum value of your language's
default bounded integer type, if that's less). Optional: Support for inputs other than positive integers (like zero,
negative integers, and floating-point numbers).
Coin Flip Simulation - Write some code that simulates flipping a single coin however many times the user
decides. The code should record the outcomes and count the number of tails and heads.
Limit Calculator - Ask the user to enter f(x) and the limit value, then return the value of the limit statement
Optional: Make the calculator capable of supporting infinite limits.
Fast Exponentiation - Ask the user to enter 2 integers a and b and output a^b (i.e. pow(a,b)) in O(lg n) time
complexity.
Classic Algorithms
Collatz Conjecture - Start with a number n > 1. Find the number of steps it takes to reach one using the
following process: If n is even, divide it by 2. If n is odd, multiply it by 3 and add 1.
Sorting - Implement two types of sorting algorithms: Merge sort and bubble sort.
Closest pair problem - The closest pair of points problem or closest pair problem is a problem of
computational geometry: given n points in metric space, find a pair of points with the smallest distance between
them.
Sieve of Eratosthenes - The sieve of Eratosthenes is one of the most efficient ways to find all of the smaller
primes (below 10 million or so).
Graph
Graph from links - Create a program that will create a graph or network from a series of links.
Eulerian Path - Create a program which will take as an input a graph and output either a Eulerian path or a
Eulerian cycle, or state that it is not possible. A Eulerian Path starts at one node and traverses every edge of a
graph through every node and finishes at another node. A Eulerian cycle is a eulerian Path that starts and
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finishes at the same node.
Connected Graph - Create a program which takes a graph as an input and outputs whether every node is
connected or not.
Dijkstra’s Algorithm - Create a program that finds the shortest path through a graph using its edges.
Minimum Spanning Tree - Create a program which takes a connected, undirected graph with weights and
outputs the minimum spanning tree of the graph i.e., a subgraph that is a tree, contains all the vertices, and the
sum of its weights is the least possible.
Data Structures
Inverted index - An Inverted Index (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_index) is a data structure used to
create full text search. Given a set of text files, implement a program to create an inverted index. Also create a
user interface to do a search using that inverted index which returns a list of files that contain the query term /
terms. The search index can be in memory.
Text
Fizz Buzz - Write a program that prints the numbers from 1 to 100. But for multiples of three print “Fizz” instead
of the number and for the multiples of five print “Buzz”. For numbers which are multiples of both three and five
print “FizzBuzz”.
Reverse a String - Enter a string and the program will reverse it and print it out.
Pig Latin - Pig Latin is a game of alterations played on the English language game. To create the Pig Latin form
of an English word the initial consonant sound is transposed to the end of the word and an ay is affixed (Ex.:
"banana" would yield anana-bay). Read Wikipedia for more information on rules.
Count Vowels - Enter a string and the program counts the number of vowels in the text. For added complexity
have it report a sum of each vowel found.
Check if Palindrome - Checks if the string entered by the user is a palindrome. That is that it reads the same
forwards as backwards like “racecar”
Count Words in a String - Counts the number of individual words in a string. For added complexity read these
strings in from a text file and generate a summary.
Text Editor - Notepad style application that can open, edit, and save text documents. Optional: Add syntax
highlighting and other features.
RSS Feed Creator - Given a link to RSS/Atom Feed, get all posts and display them.
Quote Tracker (market symbols etc) - A program which can go out and check the current value of stocks for a
list of symbols entered by the user. The user can set how often the stocks are checked. For CLI, show whether
the stock has moved up or down. Optional: If GUI, the program can show green up and red down arrows to
show which direction the stock value has moved.
Guestbook / Journal - A simple application that allows people to add comments or write journal entries. It can
allow comments or not and timestamps for all entries. Could also be made into a shout box. Optional: Deploy it
on Google App Engine or Heroku or any other PaaS (if possible, of course).
Vigenere / Vernam / Ceasar Ciphers - Functions for encrypting and decrypting data messages. Then send
them to a friend.
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Regex Query Tool - A tool that allows the user to enter a text string and then in a separate control enter a
regex pattern. It will run the regular expression against the source text and return any matches or flag errors in
the regular expression.
Networking
FTP Program - A file transfer program which can transfer files back and forth from a remote web sever.
Bandwidth Monitor - A small utility program that tracks how much data you have uploaded and downloaded
from the net during the course of your current online session. See if you can find out what periods of the day
you use more and less and generate a report or graph that shows it.
Port Scanner - Enter an IP address and a port range where the program will then attempt to find open ports on
the given computer by connecting to each of them. On any successful connections mark the port as open.
Mail Checker (POP3 / IMAP) - The user enters various account information include web server and IP, protocol
type (POP3 or IMAP) and the application will check for email at a given interval.
Country from IP Lookup - Enter an IP address and find the country that IP is registered in. Optional: Find the
Ip automatically.
Whois Search Tool - Enter an IP or host address and have it look it up through whois and return the results to
you.
Site Checker with Time Scheduling - An application that attempts to connect to a website or server every so
many minutes or a given time and check if it is up. If it is down, it will notify you by email or by posting a notice
on screen.
Classes
Product Inventory Project - Create an application which manages an inventory of products. Create a product
class which has a price, id, and quantity on hand. Then create an inventory class which keeps track of various
products and can sum up the inventory value.
Airline / Hotel Reservation System - Create a reservation system which books airline seats or hotel rooms. It
charges various rates for particular sections of the plane or hotel. Example, first class is going to cost more than
coach. Hotel rooms have penthouse suites which cost more. Keep track of when rooms will be available and
can be scheduled.
Company Manager - Create an hierarchy of classes - abstract class Employee and subclasses
HourlyEmployee, SalariedEmployee, Manager and Executive. Every one's pay is calculated differently, research
a bit about it. After you've established an employee hierarchy, create a Company class that allows you to
manage the employees. You should be able to hire, fire and raise employees.
Bank Account Manager - Create a class called Account which will be an abstract class for three other classes
called CheckingAccount, SavingsAccount and BusinessAccount. Manage credits and debits from these
accounts through an ATM style program.
Patient / Doctor Scheduler - Create a patient class and a doctor class. Have a doctor that can handle multiple
patients and setup a scheduling program where a doctor can only handle 16 patients during an 8 hr work day.
Recipe Creator and Manager - Create a recipe class with ingredients and a put them in a recipe manager
program that organizes them into categories like deserts, main courses or by ingredients like chicken, beef,
soups, pies etc.
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Image Gallery - Create an image abstract class and then a class that inherits from it for each image type. Put
them in a program which displays them in a gallery style format for viewing.
Shape Area and Perimeter Classes - Create an abstract class called Shape and then inherit from it other
shapes like diamond, rectangle, circle, triangle etc. Then have each class override the area and perimeter
functionality to handle each shape type.
Flower Shop Ordering To Go - Create a flower shop application which deals in flower objects and use those
flower objects in a bouquet object which can then be sold. Keep track of the number of objects and when you
may need to order more.
Family Tree Creator - Create a class called Person which will have a name, when they were born and when
(and if) they died. Allow the user to create these Person classes and put them into a family tree structure. Print
out the tree to the screen.
Threading
Create A Progress Bar for Downloads - Create a progress bar for applications that can keep track of a
download in progress. The progress bar will be on a separate thread and will communicate with the main thread
using delegates.
Bulk Thumbnail Creator - Picture processing can take a bit of time for some transformations. Especially if the
image is large. Create an image program which can take hundreds of images and converts them to a specified
size in the background thread while you do other things. For added complexity, have one thread handling re-
sizing, have another bulk renaming of thumbnails etc.
Web
Page Scraper - Create an application which connects to a site and pulls out all links, or images, and saves
them to a list. Optional: Organize the indexed content and don’t allow duplicates. Have it put the results into an
easily searchable index file.
Online White Board - Create an application which allows you to draw pictures, write notes and use various
colors to flesh out ideas for projects. Optional: Add feature to invite friends to collaborate on a white board
online.
Get Atomic Time from Internet Clock - This program will get the true atomic time from an atomic time clock
on the Internet. Use any one of the atomic clocks returned by a simple Google search.
Fetch Current Weather - Get the current weather for a given zip/postal code. Optional: Try locating the user
automatically.
Scheduled Auto Login and Action - Make an application which logs into a given site on a schedule and
invokes a certain action and then logs out. This can be useful for checking web mail, posting regular content, or
getting info for other applications and saving it to your computer.
E-Card Generator - Make a site that allows people to generate their own little e-cards and send them to other
people. Do not use Flash. Use a picture library and perhaps insightful mottos or quotes.
Content Management System - Create a content management system (CMS) like Joomla, Drupal, PHP Nuke
etc. Start small. Optional: Allow for the addition of modules/addons.
Web Board (Forum) - Create a forum for you and your buddies to post, administer and share thoughts and
ideas.
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CAPTCHA Maker - Ever see those images with letters a numbers when you signup for a service and then asks
you to enter what you see? It keeps web bots from automatically signing up and spamming. Try creating one
yourself for online forms.
Files
Quiz Maker - Make an application which takes various questions from a file, picked randomly, and puts together
a quiz for students. Each quiz can be different and then reads a key to grade the quizzes.
Sort Excel/CSV File Utility - Reads a file of records, sorts them, and then writes them back to the file. Allow
the user to choose various sort style and sorting based on a particular field.
Create Zip File Maker - The user enters various files from different directories and the program zips them up
into a zip file. Optional: Apply actual compression to the files. Start with Huffman Algorithm.
PDF Generator - An application which can read in a text file, html file or some other file and generates a PDF
file out of it. Great for a web based service where the user uploads the file and the program returns a PDF of
the file. Optional: Deploy on GAE or Heroku if possible.
Mp3 Tagger - Modify and add ID3v1 tags to MP3 files. See if you can also add in the album art into the MP3
file’s header as well as other ID3v2 tags.
Code Snippet Manager - Another utility program that allows coders to put in functions, classes or other tidbits
to save for use later. Organized by the type of snippet or language the coder can quickly look up code. Optional:
For extra practice try adding syntax highlighting based on the language.
Databases
SQL Query Analyzer - A utility application which a user can enter a query and have it run against a local
database and look for ways to make it more efficient.
Remote SQL Tool - A utility that can execute queries on remote servers from your local computer across the
Internet. It should take in a remote host, user name and password, run the query and return the results.
Report Generator - Create a utility that generates a report based on some tables in a database. Generates a
sales reports based on the order/order details tables or sums up the days current database activity.
Event Scheduler and Calendar - Make an application which allows the user to enter a date and time of an
event, event notes and then schedule those events on a calendar. The user can then browse the calendar or
search the calendar for specific events. Optional: Allow the application to create re-occurrence events that
reoccur every day, week, month, year etc.
Budget Tracker - Write an application that keeps track of a household’s budget. The user can add expenses,
income, and recurring costs to find out how much they are saving or losing over a period of time. Optional:
Allow the user to specify a date range and see the net flow of money in and out of the house budget for that
time period.
TV Show Tracker - Got a favorite show you don’t want to miss? Don’t have a PVR or want to be able to find the
show to then PVR it later? Make an application which can search various online TV Guide sites, locate the
shows/times/channels and add them to a database application. The database/website then can send you email
reminders that a show is about to start and which channel it will be on.
Travel Planner System - Make a system that allows users to put together their own little travel itinerary and
keep track of the airline / hotel arrangements, points of interest, budget and schedule.
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Graphics and Multimedia
Slide Show - Make an application that shows various pictures in a slide show format. Optional: Try adding
various effects like fade in/out, star wipe and window blinds transitions.
Stream Video from Online - Try to create your own online streaming video player.
Mp3 Player - A simple program for playing your favorite music files. Add features you think are missing from
your favorite music player.
Watermarking Application - Have some pictures you want copyright protected? Add your own logo or text
lightly across the background so that no one can simply steal your graphics off your site. Make a program that
will add this watermark to the picture. Optional: Use threading to process multiple images simultaneously.
Turtle Graphics - This is a common project where you create a floor of 20 x 20 squares. Using various
commands you tell a turtle to draw a line on the floor. You have move forward, left or right, lift or drop pen etc.
Do a search online for "Turtle Graphics" for more information. Optional: Allow the program to read in the list of
commands from a file.
GIF Creator A program that puts together multiple images (PNGs, JPGs, TIFFs) to make a smooth GIF that
can be exported. Optional: Make the program convert small video files to GIFs as well.
Security
Caesar cipher - Implement a Caesar cipher, both encoding and decoding. The key is an integer from 1 to 25.
This cipher rotates the letters of the alphabet (A to Z). The encoding replaces each letter with the 1st to 25th
next letter in the alphabet (wrapping Z to A). So key 2 encrypts "HI" to "JK", but key 20 encrypts "HI" to "BC".
This simple "monoalphabetic substitution cipher" provides almost no security, because an attacker who has the
encoded message can either use frequency analysis to guess the key, or just try all 25 keys
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Final Capstone Project - Suggested Walkthrough:
This is a suggested method for handling one of the Final Capstone Projects. We start by coding out the strictest
requirements, and then build out from a working baseline model. Feel free to adapt this solution, and add
features you think could help. Good luck!
Bank Account Manager
Under the Classes section in the list of suggested final capstone projects is a Bank Account Manager program.
The goal is to create a class called Account which will be an abstract class for three other classes called
CheckingAccount, SavingsAccount and BusinessAccount. Then you should manage credits and debits from
these accounts through an ATM style program.
Project Scope
To tackle this project, first consider what has to happen.
1. There will be three different types of bank account (Checking, Savings, Business)
2. Each account will accept deposits and withdrawals, and will need to report balances
Project Wishlist
We might consider additional features, like:
impose a monthly maintenance fee
waive fees for minimum combined deposit balances
each account may have additional properties unique to that account:
Checking allows unlimited transactions, and may keep track of printed checks
Savings limits the number of withdrawals per period, and may earn interest
Business may impose transaction fees
automatically transfer the "change" for debit card purchases from Checking to Savings,
where "change" is the amount needed to raise a debit to the nearest whole dollar
permit savings autodraft overdraft protection
Let's get started!
Step 1: Establish an abstract Account class with features shared by all accounts.
Note that abstract classes are never instantiated, they simply provide a base class with attributes and methods
to be inherited by any derived class.
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In [1]:
class Account:
# Define an __init__ constructor method with attributes shared by all accounts:
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.acct_nbr = acct_nbr
self.balance = opening_deposit
# Define a __str__ mehthod to return a recognizable string to any print() command
def __str__(self):
return f'${self.balance:.2f}'
# Define a universal method to accept deposits
def deposit(self,dep_amt):
self.balance += dep_amt
# Define a universal method to handle withdrawals
def withdraw(self,wd_amt):
if self.balance >= wd_amt:
self.balance -= wd_amt
else:
return 'Funds Unavailable'
Step 2: Establish a Checking Account class that inherits from Account, and adds Checking-specific
traits.
In [2]:
class Checking(Account):
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
# Run the base class __init__
super().__init__(acct_nbr,opening_deposit)
# Define a __str__ method that returns a string specific to Checking accounts
def __str__(self):
return f'Checking Account #{self.acct_nbr}\n Balance: {Account.__str__(self)}'
Step 3: TEST setting up a Checking Account object
In [3]:
x = Checking(54321,654.33)
In [4]:
print(x)
Checking Account #54321
Balance: $654.33
In [5]:
x.withdraw(1000)
Out[5]:
'Funds Unavailable'
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In [6]:
x.withdraw(30)
In [7]:
x.balance
Out[7]:
624.33
Step 4: Set up similar Savings and Business account classes
In [8]:
class Savings(Account):
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
# Run the base class __init__
super().__init__(acct_nbr,opening_deposit)
# Define a __str__ method that returns a string specific to Savings accounts
def __str__(self):
return f'Savings Account #{self.acct_nbr}\n Balance: {Account.__str__(self)}'
class Business(Account):
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
# Run the base class __init__
super().__init__(acct_nbr,opening_deposit)
# Define a __str__ method that returns a string specific to Business accounts
def __str__(self):
return f'Business Account #{self.acct_nbr}\n Balance: {Account.__str__(self)}'
At this point we've met the minimum requirement for the assignment. We have three different bank account
classes. Each one can accept deposits, make withdrawals and report a balance, as they each inherit from an
abstract Account base class.
So now the fun part - let's add some features!
Step 5: Create a Customer class
For this next phase, let's set up a Customer class that holds a customer's name and PIN and can contain any
number and/or combination of Account objects.
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In [9]:
class Customer:
def __init__(self, name, PIN):
self.name = name
self.PIN = PIN
# Create a dictionary of accounts, with lists to hold multiple accounts
self.accts = {'C':[],'S':[],'B':[]}
def __str__(self):
return self.name
def open_checking(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.accts['C'].append(Checking(acct_nbr,opening_deposit))
def open_savings(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.accts['S'].append(Savings(acct_nbr,opening_deposit))
def open_business(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.accts['B'].append(Business(acct_nbr,opening_deposit))
# rather than maintain a running total of deposit balances,
# write a method that computes a total as needed
def get_total_deposits(self):
total = 0
for acct in self.accts['C']:
print(acct)
total += acct.balance
for acct in self.accts['S']:
print(acct)
total += acct.balance
for acct in self.accts['B']:
print(acct)
total += acct.balance
print(f'Combined Deposits: ${total}')
Step 6: TEST setting up a Customer, adding accounts, and checking balances
In [10]:
bob = Customer('Bob',1)
In [11]:
bob.open_checking(321,555.55)
In [12]:
bob.get_total_deposits()
Checking Account #321
Balance: $555.55
Combined Deposits: $555.55
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In [13]:
bob.open_savings(564,444.66)
In [14]:
bob.get_total_deposits()
Checking Account #321
Balance: $555.55
Savings Account #564
Balance: $444.66
Combined Deposits: $1000.21
In [15]:
nancy = Customer('Nancy',2)
In [16]:
nancy.open_business(2018,8900)
In [17]:
nancy.get_total_deposits()
Business Account #2018
Balance: $8900.00
Combined Deposits: $8900
Wait! Why don't Nancy's combined deposits show a decimal?
This is easily fixed in the class definition (mostly copied from above, with a change made to the last line of
code):
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In [18]:
class Customer:
def __init__(self, name, PIN):
self.name = name
self.PIN = PIN
self.accts = {'C':[],'S':[],'B':[]}
def __str__(self):
return self.name
def open_checking(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.accts['C'].append(Checking(acct_nbr,opening_deposit))
def open_savings(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.accts['S'].append(Savings(acct_nbr,opening_deposit))
def open_business(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.accts['B'].append(Business(acct_nbr,opening_deposit))
def get_total_deposits(self):
total = 0
for acct in self.accts['C']:
print(acct)
total += acct.balance
for acct in self.accts['S']:
print(acct)
total += acct.balance
for acct in self.accts['B']:
print(acct)
total += acct.balance
print(f'Combined Deposits: ${total:.2f}') # added precision formatting here
So it's fixed, right?
In [19]:
nancy.get_total_deposits()
Business Account #2018
Balance: $8900.00
Combined Deposits: $8900
Nope! Changes made to the class definition do not affect objects created under different sets of instructions.
To fix Nancy's account, we have to build her record from scratch.
In [20]:
nancy = Customer('Nancy',2)
nancy.open_business(2018,8900)
nancy.get_total_deposits()
Business Account #2018
Balance: $8900.00
Combined Deposits: $8900.00
This is why testing is so important!
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Step 7: Let's write some functions for making deposits and withdrawals.
Be sure to include a docstring that explains what's expected by the function!
In [21]:
def make_dep(cust,acct_type,acct_num,dep_amt):
"""
make_dep(cust, acct_type, acct_num, dep_amt)
cust = variable name (Customer record/ID)
acct_type = string 'C' 'S' or 'B'
acct_num = integer
dep_amt = integer
"""
for acct in cust.accts[acct_type]:
if acct.acct_nbr == acct_num:
acct.deposit(dep_amt)
In [22]:
make_dep(nancy,'B',2018,67.45)
In [23]:
nancy.get_total_deposits()
Business Account #2018
Balance: $8967.45
Combined Deposits: $8967.45
In [24]:
def make_wd(cust,acct_type,acct_num,wd_amt):
"""
make_dep(cust, acct_type, acct_num, wd_amt)
cust = variable name (Customer record/ID)
acct_type = string 'C' 'S' or 'B'
acct_num = integer
wd_amt = integer
"""
for acct in cust.accts[acct_type]:
if acct.acct_nbr == acct_num:
acct.withdraw(wd_amt)
In [25]:
make_wd(nancy,'B',2018,1000000)
In [26]:
nancy.get_total_deposits()
Business Account #2018
Balance: $8967.45
Combined Deposits: $8967.45
What happened?? We seemed to successfully make a withdrawal, but nothing changed!
This is because, at the very beginning, we had our Account class return the string 'Funds Unavailable' instead
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of print it. If we change that here, we'll have to also run the derived class definitions, and Nancy's creation, but
not the Customer class definition. Watch:
In [27]:
class Account:
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
self.acct_nbr = acct_nbr
self.balance = opening_deposit
def __str__(self):
return f'${self.balance:.2f}'
def deposit(self,dep_amt):
self.balance += dep_amt
def withdraw(self,wd_amt):
if self.balance >= wd_amt:
self.balance -= wd_amt
else:
print('Funds Unavailable') # changed "return" to "print"
In [30]:
class Checking(Account):
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
super().__init__(acct_nbr,opening_deposit)
def __str__(self):
return f'Checking Account #{self.acct_nbr}\n Balance: {Account.__str__(self)}'
class Savings(Account):
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
super().__init__(acct_nbr,opening_deposit)
def __str__(self):
return f'Savings Account #{self.acct_nbr}\n Balance: {Account.__str__(self)}'
class Business(Account):
def __init__(self,acct_nbr,opening_deposit):
super().__init__(acct_nbr,opening_deposit)
def __str__(self):
return f'Business Account #{self.acct_nbr}\n Balance: {Account.__str__(self)}'
In [31]:
nancy = Customer('Nancy',2)
nancy.open_business(2018,8900)
nancy.get_total_deposits()
Business Account #2018
Balance: $8900.00
Combined Deposits: $8900.00
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In [32]:
make_wd(nancy,'B',2018,1000000)
Funds Unavailable
In [33]:
nancy.get_total_deposits()
Business Account #2018
Balance: $8900.00
Combined Deposits: $8900.00
Good job!
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7/21/2018 01-Collections Module
Collections Module
The collections module is a built-in module that implements specialized container data types providing
alternatives to Python’s general purpose built-in containers. We've already gone over the basics: dict, list, set,
and tuple.
Now we'll learn about the alternatives that the collections module provides.
Counter
Counter is a dict subclass which helps count hashable objects. Inside of it elements are stored as dictionary
keys and the counts of the objects are stored as the value.
Let's see how it can be used:
In [1]:
from collections import Counter
Counter() with lists
In [2]:
lst = [1,2,2,2,2,3,3,3,1,2,1,12,3,2,32,1,21,1,223,1]
Counter(lst)
Out[2]:
Counter({1: 6, 2: 6, 3: 4, 12: 1, 21: 1, 32: 1, 223: 1})
Counter with strings
In [3]:
Counter('aabsbsbsbhshhbbsbs')
Out[3]:
Counter({'a': 2, 'b': 7, 'h': 3, 's': 6})
Counter with words in a sentence
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In [4]:
s = 'How many times does each word show up in this sentence word times each each word'
words = s.split()
Counter(words)
Out[4]:
Counter({'How': 1,
'does': 1,
'each': 3,
'in': 1,
'many': 1,
'sentence': 1,
'show': 1,
'this': 1,
'times': 2,
'up': 1,
'word': 3})
In [5]:
# Methods with Counter()
c = Counter(words)
c.most_common(2)
Out[5]:
[('each', 3), ('word', 3)]
Common patterns when using the Counter() object
sum(c.values()) # total of all counts
c.clear() # reset all counts
list(c) # list unique elements
set(c) # convert to a set
dict(c) # convert to a regular dictionary
c.items() # convert to a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
Counter(dict(list_of_pairs)) # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1] # n least common elements
c += Counter() # remove zero and negative counts
defaultdict
defaultdict is a dictionary-like object which provides all methods provided by a dictionary but takes a first
argument (default_factory) as a default data type for the dictionary. Using defaultdict is faster than doing the
same using dict.set_default method.
A defaultdict will never raise a KeyError. Any key that does not exist gets the value returned by the
default factory.
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In [6]:
from collections import defaultdict
In [7]:
d = {}
In [8]:
d['one']
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
KeyError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-8-924453a5f45e> in <module>()
----> 1 d['one']
KeyError: 'one'
In [9]:
d = defaultdict(object)
In [10]:
d['one']
Out[10]:
<object at 0x1792df202e0>
In [11]:
for item in d:
print(item)
one
Can also initialize with default values:
In [12]:
d = defaultdict(lambda: 0)
In [13]:
d['one']
Out[13]:
OrderedDict
An OrderedDict is a dictionary subclass that remembers the order in which its contents are added.
For example a normal dictionary:
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In [14]:
print('Normal dictionary:')
d = {}
d['a'] = 'A'
d['b'] = 'B'
d['c'] = 'C'
d['d'] = 'D'
d['e'] = 'E'
for k, v in d.items():
print(k, v)
Normal dictionary:
a A
b B
c C
d D
e E
An Ordered Dictionary:
In [15]:
from collections import OrderedDict
print('OrderedDict:')
d = OrderedDict()
d['a'] = 'A'
d['b'] = 'B'
d['c'] = 'C'
d['d'] = 'D'
d['e'] = 'E'
for k, v in d.items():
print(k, v)
OrderedDict:
a A
b B
c C
d D
e E
Equality with an Ordered Dictionary
A regular dict looks at its contents when testing for equality. An OrderedDict also considers the order the items
were added.
A normal Dictionary:
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In [16]:
print('Dictionaries are equal?')
d1 = {}
d1['a'] = 'A'
d1['b'] = 'B'
d2 = {}
d2['b'] = 'B'
d2['a'] = 'A'
print(d1==d2)
Dictionaries are equal?
True
An Ordered Dictionary:
In [17]:
print('Dictionaries are equal?')
d1 = OrderedDict()
d1['a'] = 'A'
d1['b'] = 'B'
d2 = OrderedDict()
d2['b'] = 'B'
d2['a'] = 'A'
print(d1==d2)
Dictionaries are equal?
False
namedtuple
The standard tuple uses numerical indexes to access its members, for example:
In [18]:
t = (12,13,14)
In [19]:
t[0]
Out[19]:
12
For simple use cases, this is usually enough. On the other hand, remembering which index should be used for
each value can lead to errors, especially if the tuple has a lot of fields and is constructed far from where it is
used. A namedtuple assigns names, as well as the numerical index, to each member.
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Each kind of namedtuple is represented by its own class, created by using the namedtuple() factory function.
The arguments are the name of the new class and a string containing the names of the elements.
You can basically think of namedtuples as a very quick way of creating a new object/class type with some
attribute fields. For example:
In [20]:
from collections import namedtuple
In [21]:
Dog = namedtuple('Dog','age breed name')
sam = Dog(age=2,breed='Lab',name='Sammy')
frank = Dog(age=2,breed='Shepard',name="Frankie")
We construct the namedtuple by first passing the object type name (Dog) and then passing a string with the
variety of fields as a string with spaces between the field names. We can then call on the various attributes:
In [22]:
sam
Out[22]:
Dog(age=2, breed='Lab', name='Sammy')
In [23]:
sam.age
Out[23]:
In [24]:
sam.breed
Out[24]:
'Lab'
In [25]:
sam[0]
Out[25]:
Conclusion
Hopefully you now see how incredibly useful the collections module is in Python and it should be your go-to
module for a variety of common tasks!
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7/21/2018 02-Datetime
datetime ¶
Python has the datetime module to help deal with timestamps in your code. Time values are represented with
the time class. Times have attributes for hour, minute, second, and microsecond. They can also include time
zone information. The arguments to initialize a time instance are optional, but the default of 0 is unlikely to be
what you want.
time
Let's take a look at how we can extract time information from the datetime module. We can create a timestamp
by specifying datetime.time(hour,minute,second,microsecond)
In [1]:
import datetime
t = datetime.time(4, 20, 1)
# Let's show the different components
print(t)
print('hour :', t.hour)
print('minute:', t.minute)
print('second:', t.second)
print('microsecond:', t.microsecond)
print('tzinfo:', t.tzinfo)
04:20:01
hour : 4
minute: 20
second: 1
microsecond: 0
tzinfo: None
Note: A time instance only holds values of time, and not a date associated with the time.
We can also check the min and max values a time of day can have in the module:
In [2]:
print('Earliest :', datetime.time.min)
print('Latest :', datetime.time.max)
print('Resolution:', datetime.time.resolution)
Earliest : 00:00:00
Latest : 23:59:59.999999
Resolution: 0:00:00.000001
The min and max class attributes reflect the valid range of times in a single day.
Dates
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datetime (as you might suspect) also allows us to work with date timestamps. Calendar date values are
represented with the date class. Instances have attributes for year, month, and day. It is easy to create a date
representing today’s date using the today() class method.
Let's see some examples:
In [3]:
today = datetime.date.today()
print(today)
print('ctime:', today.ctime())
print('tuple:', today.timetuple())
print('ordinal:', today.toordinal())
print('Year :', today.year)
print('Month:', today.month)
print('Day :', today.day)
2018-02-05
ctime: Mon Feb 5 00:00:00 2018
tuple: time.struct_time(tm_year=2018, tm_mon=2, tm_mday=5, tm_hour=0, tm_min
=0, tm_sec=0, tm_wday=0, tm_yday=36, tm_isdst=-1)
ordinal: 736730
Year : 2018
Month: 2
Day : 5
As with time, the range of date values supported can be determined using the min and max attributes.
In [4]:
print('Earliest :', datetime.date.min)
print('Latest :', datetime.date.max)
print('Resolution:', datetime.date.resolution)
Earliest : 0001-01-01
Latest : 9999-12-31
Resolution: 1 day, 0:00:00
Another way to create new date instances uses the replace() method of an existing date. For example, you can
change the year, leaving the day and month alone.
In [5]:
d1 = datetime.date(2015, 3, 11)
print('d1:', d1)
d2 = d1.replace(year=1990)
print('d2:', d2)
d1: 2015-03-11
d2: 1990-03-11
Arithmetic
We can perform arithmetic on date objects to check for time differences. For example:
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In [6]:
d1
Out[6]:
datetime.date(2015, 3, 11)
In [7]:
d2
Out[7]:
datetime.date(1990, 3, 11)
In [8]:
d1-d2
Out[8]:
datetime.timedelta(9131)
This gives us the difference in days between the two dates. You can use the timedelta method to specify
various units of times (days, minutes, hours, etc.)
Great! You should now have a basic understanding of how to use datetime with Python to work with timestamps
in your code!
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7/21/2018 03-Python Debugger (pdb)
Python Debugger
You've probably used a variety of print statements to try to find errors in your code. A better way of doing this is
by using Python's built-in debugger module (pdb). The pdb module implements an interactive debugging
environment for Python programs. It includes features to let you pause your program, look at the values of
variables, and watch program execution step-by-step, so you can understand what your program actually does
and find bugs in the logic.
This is a bit difficult to show since it requires creating an error on purpose, but hopefully this simple example
illustrates the power of the pdb module.
Note: Keep in mind it would be pretty unusual to use pdb in an iPython Notebook setting.
Here we will create an error on purpose, trying to add a list to an integer
In [1]:
x = [1,3,4]
y = 2
z = 3
result = y + z
print(result)
result2 = y+x
print(result2)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-1-e7e4af986cb2> in <module>()
5 result = y + z
6 print(result)
----> 7 result2 = y+x
8 print(result2)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'list'
Hmmm, looks like we get an error! Let's implement a set_trace() using the pdb module. This will allow us to
basically pause the code at the point of the trace and check if anything is wrong.
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In [ ]:
import pdb
x = [1,3,4]
y = 2
z = 3
result = y + z
print(result)
# Set a trace using Python Debugger
pdb.set_trace()
result2 = y+x
print(result2)
Great! Now we could check what the various variables were and check for errors. You can use 'q' to quit the
debugger. For more information on general debugging techniques and more methods, check out the official
documentation: https://docs.python.org/3/library/pdb.html (https://docs.python.org/3/library/pdb.html)
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7/21/2018 01-Advanced Numbers
Advanced Numbers
In this lecture we will learn about a few more representations of numbers in Python.
Hexadecimal
Using the function hex() you can convert numbers into a hexadecimal
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal) format:
In [1]:
hex(246)
Out[1]:
'0xf6'
In [2]:
hex(512)
Out[2]:
'0x200'
Binary
Using the function bin() you can convert numbers into their binary
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number) format.
In [3]:
bin(1234)
Out[3]:
'0b10011010010'
In [4]:
bin(128)
Out[4]:
'0b10000000'
In [5]:
bin(512)
Out[5]:
'0b1000000000'
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Exponentials
The function pow() takes two arguments, equivalent to x^y . With three arguments it is equivalent to
(x^y)%z , but may be more efficient for long integers.
In [6]:
pow(3,4)
Out[6]:
81
In [7]:
pow(3,4,5)
Out[7]:
Absolute Value
The function abs() returns the absolute value of a number. The argument may be an integer or a floating
point number. If the argument is a complex number, its magnitude is returned.
In [8]:
abs(-3.14)
Out[8]:
3.14
In [9]:
abs(3)
Out[9]:
Round
The function round() will round a number to a given precision in decimal digits (default 0 digits). It does not
convert integers to floats.
In [10]:
round(3,2)
Out[10]:
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In [11]:
round(395,-2)
Out[11]:
400
In [12]:
round(3.1415926535,2)
Out[12]:
3.14
Python has a built-in math library that is also useful to play around with in case you are ever in need of some
mathematical operations. Explore the documentation here (https://docs.python.org/3/library/math.html)!
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Advanced Strings
String objects have a variety of methods we can use to save time and add functionality. Let's explore some of
them in this lecture:
In [1]:
s = 'hello world'
Changing case
We can use methods to capitalize the first word of a string, or change the case of the entire string.
In [2]:
# Capitalize first word in string
s.capitalize()
Out[2]:
'Hello world'
In [3]:
s.upper()
Out[3]:
'HELLO WORLD'
In [4]:
s.lower()
Out[4]:
'hello world'
Remember, strings are immutable. None of the above methods change the string in place, they only return
modified copies of the original string.
In [5]:
Out[5]:
'hello world'
To change a string requires reassignment:
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In [6]:
s = s.upper()
s
Out[6]:
'HELLO WORLD'
In [7]:
s = s.lower()
s
Out[7]:
'hello world'
Location and Counting
In [9]:
s.count('o') # returns the number of occurrences, without overlap
Out[9]:
In [10]:
s.find('o') # returns the starting index position of the first occurence
Out[10]:
Formatting
The center() method allows you to place your string 'centered' between a provided string with a certain
length. Personally, I've never actually used this in code as it seems pretty esoteric...
In [11]:
s.center(20,'z')
Out[11]:
'zzzzhello worldzzzzz'
The expandtabs() method will expand tab notations \t into spaces:
In [12]:
'hello\thi'.expandtabs()
Out[12]:
'hello hi'
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is check methods
These various methods below check if the string is some case. Let's explore them:
In [13]:
s = 'hello'
isalnum() will return True if all characters in s are alphanumeric
In [14]:
s.isalnum()
Out[14]:
True
isalpha() will return True if all characters in s are alphabetic
In [15]:
s.isalpha()
Out[15]:
True
islower() will return True if all cased characters in s are lowercase and there is at least one cased character
in s, False otherwise.
In [16]:
s.islower()
Out[16]:
True
isspace() will return True if all characters in s are whitespace.
In [17]:
s.isspace()
Out[17]:
False
istitle() will return True if s is a title cased string and there is at least one character in s, i.e. uppercase
characters may only follow uncased characters and lowercase characters only cased ones. It returns False
otherwise.
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In [18]:
s.istitle()
Out[18]:
False
isupper() will return True if all cased characters in s are uppercase and there is at least one cased character
in s, False otherwise.
In [19]:
s.isupper()
Out[19]:
False
Another method is endswith() which is essentially the same as a boolean check on s[-1]
In [20]:
s.endswith('o')
Out[20]:
True
Built-in Reg. Expressions
Strings have some built-in methods that can resemble regular expression operations. We can use split() to
split the string at a certain element and return a list of the results. We can use partition() to return a tuple
that includes the first occurrence of the separator sandwiched between the first half and the end half.
In [21]:
s.split('e')
Out[21]:
['h', 'llo']
In [22]:
s.partition('l')
Out[22]:
('he', 'l', 'lo')
Great! You should now feel comfortable using the variety of methods that are built-in string objects!
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Advanced Sets
In this lecture we will learn about the various methods for sets that you may not have seen yet. We'll go over the
basic ones you already know and then dive a little deeper.
In [1]:
s = set()
add
add elements to a set. Remember, a set won't duplicate elements; it will only present them once (that's why it's
called a set!)
In [2]:
s.add(1)
In [3]:
s.add(2)
In [4]:
Out[4]:
{1, 2}
clear
removes all elements from the set
In [5]:
s.clear()
In [6]:
Out[6]:
set()
copy
returns a copy of the set. Note it is a copy, so changes to the original don't effect the copy.
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In [7]:
s = {1,2,3}
sc = s.copy()
In [8]:
sc
Out[8]:
{1, 2, 3}
In [9]:
Out[9]:
{1, 2, 3}
In [10]:
s.add(4)
In [11]:
Out[11]:
{1, 2, 3, 4}
In [12]:
sc
Out[12]:
{1, 2, 3}
difference
difference returns the difference of two or more sets. The syntax is:
set1.difference(set2)
For example:
In [13]:
s.difference(sc)
Out[13]:
{4}
difference_update
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difference_update syntax is:
set1.difference_update(set2)
the method returns set1 after removing elements found in set2
In [14]:
s1 = {1,2,3}
In [15]:
s2 = {1,4,5}
In [16]:
s1.difference_update(s2)
In [17]:
s1
Out[17]:
{2, 3}
discard
Removes an element from a set if it is a member. If the element is not a member, do nothing.
In [18]:
Out[18]:
{1, 2, 3, 4}
In [19]:
s.discard(2)
In [20]:
Out[20]:
{1, 3, 4}
intersection and intersection_update
Returns the intersection of two or more sets as a new set.(i.e. elements that are common to all of the sets.)
In [21]:
s1 = {1,2,3}
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In [22]:
s2 = {1,2,4}
In [23]:
s1.intersection(s2)
Out[23]:
{1, 2}
In [24]:
s1
Out[24]:
{1, 2, 3}
intersection_update will update a set with the intersection of itself and another.
In [25]:
s1.intersection_update(s2)
In [26]:
s1
Out[26]:
{1, 2}
isdisjoint
This method will return True if two sets have a null intersection.
In [27]:
s1 = {1,2}
s2 = {1,2,4}
s3 = {5}
In [28]:
s1.isdisjoint(s2)
Out[28]:
False
In [29]:
s1.isdisjoint(s3)
Out[29]:
True
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issubset
This method reports whether another set contains this set.
In [30]:
s1
Out[30]:
{1, 2}
In [31]:
s2
Out[31]:
{1, 2, 4}
In [32]:
s1.issubset(s2)
Out[32]:
True
issuperset
This method will report whether this set contains another set.
In [33]:
s2.issuperset(s1)
Out[33]:
True
In [34]:
s1.issuperset(s2)
Out[34]:
False
symmetric_difference and symmetric_update
Return the symmetric difference of two sets as a new set.(i.e. all elements that are in exactly one of the sets.)
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In [35]:
s1
Out[35]:
{1, 2}
In [36]:
s2
Out[36]:
{1, 2, 4}
In [37]:
s1.symmetric_difference(s2)
Out[37]:
{4}
union
Returns the union of two sets (i.e. all elements that are in either set.)
In [38]:
s1.union(s2)
Out[38]:
{1, 2, 4}
update
Update a set with the union of itself and others.
In [39]:
s1.update(s2)
In [40]:
s1
Out[40]:
{1, 2, 4}
Great! You should now have a complete awareness of all the methods available to you for a set object type.
This data structure is extremely useful and is underutilized by beginners, so try to keep it in mind!
Good Job!
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7/21/2018 04-Advanced Dictionaries
Advanced Dictionaries
Unlike some of the other Data Structures we've worked with, most of the really useful methods available to us in
Dictionaries have already been explored throughout this course. Here we will touch on just a few more for good
measure:
Dictionary Comprehensions
Just like List Comprehensions, Dictionary Data Types also support their own version of comprehension for
quick creation. It is not as commonly used as List Comprehensions, but the syntax is:
In [1]:
{x:x**2 for x in range(10)}
Out[1]:
{0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25, 6: 36, 7: 49, 8: 64, 9: 81}
One of the reasons it is not as common is the difficulty in structuring key names that are not based off the
values.
Iteration over keys, values, and items
Dictionaries can be iterated over using the keys(), values() and items() methods. For example:
In [2]:
d = {'k1':1,'k2':2}
In [3]:
for k in d.keys():
print(k)
k1
k2
In [4]:
for v in d.values():
print(v)
1
2
In [5]:
for item in d.items():
print(item)
('k1', 1)
('k2', 2)
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Viewing keys, values and items
By themselves the keys(), values() and items() methods return a dictionary view object. This is not a separate
list of items. Instead, the view is always tied to the original dictionary.
In [6]:
key_view = d.keys()
key_view
Out[6]:
dict_keys(['k1', 'k2'])
In [7]:
d['k3'] = 3
Out[7]:
{'k1': 1, 'k2': 2, 'k3': 3}
In [8]:
key_view
Out[8]:
dict_keys(['k1', 'k2', 'k3'])
Great! You should now feel very comfortable using the variety of methods available to you in Dictionaries!
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7/21/2018 05-Advanced Lists
Advanced Lists
In this series of lectures we will be diving a little deeper into all the methods available in a list object. These
aren't officially "advanced" features, just methods that you wouldn't typically encounter without some additional
exploring. It's pretty likely that you've already encountered some of these yourself!
Let's begin!
In [1]:
list1 = [1,2,3]
append
You will definitely have used this method by now, which merely appends an element to the end of a list:
In [2]:
list1.append(4)
list1
Out[2]:
[1, 2, 3, 4]
count
We discussed this during the methods lectures, but here it is again. count() takes in an element and returns
the number of times it occurs in your list:
In [3]:
list1.count(10)
Out[3]:
In [4]:
list1.count(2)
Out[4]:
extend
Many times people find the difference between extend and append to be unclear. So note:
append: appends whole object at end:
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In [5]:
x = [1, 2, 3]
x.append([4, 5])
print(x)
[1, 2, 3, [4, 5]]
extend: extends list by appending elements from the iterable:
In [6]:
x = [1, 2, 3]
x.extend([4, 5])
print(x)
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Note how extend() appends each element from the passed-in list. That is the key difference.
index
index() will return the index of whatever element is placed as an argument. Note: If the the element is not in
the list an error is raised.
In [7]:
list1.index(2)
Out[7]:
In [8]:
list1.index(12)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-8-56b94ada72bf> in <module>()
----> 1 list1.index(12)
ValueError: 12 is not in list
insert
insert() takes in two arguments: insert(index,object) This method places the object at the index
supplied. For example:
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In [9]:
list1
Out[9]:
[1, 2, 3, 4]
In [10]:
# Place a letter at the index 2
list1.insert(2,'inserted')
In [11]:
list1
Out[11]:
[1, 2, 'inserted', 3, 4]
pop
You most likely have already seen pop() , which allows us to "pop" off the last element of a list. However, by
passing an index position you can remove and return a specific element.
In [12]:
ele = list1.pop(1) # pop the second element
In [13]:
list1
Out[13]:
[1, 'inserted', 3, 4]
In [14]:
ele
Out[14]:
remove
The remove() method removes the first occurrence of a value. For example:
In [15]:
list1
Out[15]:
[1, 'inserted', 3, 4]
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In [16]:
list1.remove('inserted')
In [17]:
list1
Out[17]:
[1, 3, 4]
In [18]:
list2 = [1,2,3,4,3]
In [19]:
list2.remove(3)
In [20]:
list2
Out[20]:
[1, 2, 4, 3]
reverse
As you might have guessed, reverse() reverses a list. Note this occurs in place! Meaning it affects your list
permanently.
In [21]:
list2.reverse()
In [22]:
list2
Out[22]:
[3, 4, 2, 1]
sort
The sort() method will sort your list in place:
In [23]:
list2
Out[23]:
[3, 4, 2, 1]
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In [24]:
list2.sort()
In [25]:
list2
Out[25]:
[1, 2, 3, 4]
The sort() method takes an optional argument for reverse sorting. Note this is different than simply reversing
the order of items.
In [26]:
list2.sort(reverse=True)
In [27]:
list2
Out[27]:
[4, 3, 2, 1]
Be Careful With Assignment!
A common programming mistake is to assume you can assign a modified list to a new variable. While this
typically works with immutable objects like strings and tuples:
In [28]:
x = 'hello world'
In [29]:
y = x.upper()
In [30]:
print(y)
HELLO WORLD
This will NOT work the same way with lists:
In [31]:
x = [1,2,3]
In [32]:
y = x.append(4)
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In [33]:
print(y)
None
What happened? In this case, since list methods like append() affect the list in-place, the operation returns a
None value. This is what was passed to y. In order to retain x you would have to assign a copy of x to y, and
then modify y:
In [34]:
x = [1,2,3]
y = x.copy()
y.append(4)
In [35]:
print(x)
[1, 2, 3]
In [36]:
print(y)
[1, 2, 3, 4]
Great! You should now have an understanding of all the methods available for a list in Python!
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7/21/2018 06-Advanced Python Objects Test
Advanced Python Objects Test
Advanced Numbers
Problem 1: Convert 1024 to binary and hexadecimal representation
In [ ]:
Problem 2: Round 5.23222 to two decimal places
In [ ]:
Advanced Strings
Problem 3: Check if every letter in the string s is lower case
In [ ]:
s = 'hello how are you Mary, are you feeling okay?'
Problem 4: How many times does the letter 'w' show up in the string below?
In [ ]:
s = 'twywywtwywbwhsjhwuwshshwuwwwjdjdid'
Advanced Sets
Problem 5: Find the elements in set1 that are not in set2:
In [ ]:
set1 = {2,3,1,5,6,8}
set2 = {3,1,7,5,6,8}
Problem 6: Find all elements that are in either set:
In [ ]:
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Advanced Dictionaries
Problem 7: Create this dictionary: {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 8, 3: 27, 4: 64} using a dictionary comprehension.
In [ ]:
Advanced Lists
Problem 8: Reverse the list below:
In [ ]:
list1 = [1,2,3,4]
Problem 9: Sort the list below:
In [ ]:
list2 = [3,4,2,5,1]
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 07-Advanced Python Objects Test - Solutions
Advanced Python Objects Test
Advanced Numbers
Problem 1: Convert 1024 to binary and hexadecimal representation
In [1]:
print(bin(1024))
print(hex(1024))
0b10000000000
0x400
Problem 2: Round 5.23222 to two decimal places
In [2]:
round(5.23222,2)
Out[2]:
5.23
Advanced Strings
Problem 3: Check if every letter in the string s is lower case
In [3]:
s = 'hello how are you Mary, are you feeling okay?'
s.islower()
Out[3]:
False
Problem 4: How many times does the letter 'w' show up in the string below?
In [4]:
s = 'twywywtwywbwhsjhwuwshshwuwwwjdjdid'
s.count('w')
Out[4]:
12
Advanced
Problem 5: Find the elements in set1 that are not in set2:
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In [5]:
set1 = {2,3,1,5,6,8}
set2 = {3,1,7,5,6,8}
set1.difference(set2)
Out[5]:
{2}
Problem 6: Find all elements that are in either set:
In [6]:
set1.union(set2)
Out[6]:
{1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Advanced Dictionaries
Problem 7: Create this dictionary: {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 8, 3: 27, 4: 64} using a dictionary comprehension.
In [7]:
{x:x**3 for x in range(5)}
Out[7]:
{0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 8, 3: 27, 4: 64}
Advanced Lists
Problem 8: Reverse the list below:
In [8]:
list1 = [1,2,3,4]
list1.reverse()
list1
Out[8]:
[4, 3, 2, 1]
Problem 9: Sort the list below:
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In [9]:
list2 = [3,4,2,5,1]
list2.sort()
list2
Out[9]:
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Great Job!
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7/21/2018 08-BONUS - With Statement Context Managers
With Statement Context Managers
When you open a file using f = open('test.txt') , the file stays open until you specifically call
f.close() . Should an exception be raised while working with the file, it remains open. This can lead to
vulnerabilities in your code, and inefficient use of resources.
A context manager handles the opening and closing of resources, and provides a built-in try/finally block
should any exceptions occur.
The best way to demonstrate this is with an example.
Standard open() procedure, with a raised exception:
In [1]:
p = open('oops.txt','a')
p.readlines()
p.close()
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
UnsupportedOperation Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-1-ad7a2000735b> in <module>()
1 p = open('oops.txt','a')
----> 2 p.readlines()
3 p.close()
UnsupportedOperation: not readable
Let's see if we can modify our file:
In [2]:
p.write('add more text')
Out[2]:
13
Ouch! I may not have wanted to do that until I traced the exception! Unfortunately, the exception prevented the
last line, p.close() from running. Let's close the file manually:
In [3]:
p.close()
Protect the file with try/except/finally
A common workaround is to insert a try/except/finally clause to close the file whenever an exception is
raised:
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In [4]:
p = open('oops.txt','a')
try:
p.readlines()
except:
print('An exception was raised!')
finally:
p.close()
An exception was raised!
Let's see if we can modify our file this time:
In [5]:
p.write('add more text')
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-5-1209a18e617d> in <module>()
----> 1 p.write('add more text')
ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.
Excellent! Our file is safe.
Save steps with with
Now we'll employ our context manager. The syntax follows with [resource] as [target]: do something
In [6]:
with open('oops.txt','a') as p:
p.readlines()
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
UnsupportedOperation Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-6-7ccc44e332f9> in <module>()
1 with open('oops.txt','a') as p:
----> 2 p.readlines()
UnsupportedOperation: not readable
Can we modify the file?
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In [7]:
p.write('add more text')
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-7-1209a18e617d> in <module>()
----> 1 p.write('add more text')
ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.
Great! With just one line of code we've handled opening the file, enclosing our code in a try/finally block,
and closing our file all at the same time.
Now you should have a basic understanding of context managers.
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7/21/2018 01-Advanced Object Oriented Programming
Advanced Object Oriented Programming
In the regular section on Object Oriented Programming (OOP) we covered:
Using the class keyword to define object classes
Creating class attributes
Creating class methods
Inheritance - where derived classes can inherit attributes and methods from a base class
Polymorphism - where different object classes that share the same method can be called from the same
place
Special Methods for classes like __init__ , __str__ , __len__ and __del__
In this section we'll dive deeper into
Multiple Inheritance
The self keyword
Method Resolution Order (MRO)
Python's built-in super() function
Inheritance Revisited
Recall that with Inheritance, one or more derived classes can inherit attributes and methods from a base class.
This reduces duplication, and means that any changes made to the base class will automatically translate to
derived classes. As a review:
In [1]:
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name): # Constructor of the class
self.name = name
def speak(self): # Abstract method, defined by convention only
raise NotImplementedError("Subclass must implement abstract method")
class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Woof!'
class Cat(Animal):
def speak(self):
return self.name+' says Meow!'
fido = Dog('Fido')
isis = Cat('Isis')
print(fido.speak())
print(isis.speak())
Fido says Woof!
Isis says Meow!
In this example, the derived classes did not need their own __init__ methods because the base class
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__init__ gets called automatically. However, if you do define an __init__ in the derived class, this will
override the base:
In [2]:
class Animal:
def __init__(self,name,legs):
self.name = name
self.legs = legs
class Bear(Animal):
def __init__(self,name,legs=4,hibernate='yes'):
self.name = name
self.legs = legs
self.hibernate = hibernate
This is inefficient - why inherit from Animal if we can't use its constructor? The answer is to call the Animal
__init__ inside our own __init__ .
In [3]:
class Animal:
def __init__(self,name,legs):
self.name = name
self.legs = legs
class Bear(Animal):
def __init__(self,name,legs=4,hibernate='yes'):
Animal.__init__(self,name,legs)
self.hibernate = hibernate
yogi = Bear('Yogi')
print(yogi.name)
print(yogi.legs)
print(yogi.hibernate)
Yogi
4
yes
Multiple Inheritance
Sometimes it makes sense for a derived class to inherit qualities from two or more base classes. Python allows
for this with multiple inheritance.
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In [4]:
class Car:
def __init__(self,wheels=4):
self.wheels = wheels
# We'll say that all cars, no matter their engine, have four wheels by default.
class Gasoline(Car):
def __init__(self,engine='Gasoline',tank_cap=20):
Car.__init__(self)
self.engine = engine
self.tank_cap = tank_cap # represents fuel tank capacity in gallons
self.tank = 0
def refuel(self):
self.tank = self.tank_cap
class Electric(Car):
def __init__(self,engine='Electric',kWh_cap=60):
Car.__init__(self)
self.engine = engine
self.kWh_cap = kWh_cap # represents battery capacity in kilowatt-hours
self.kWh = 0
def recharge(self):
self.kWh = self.kWh_cap
So what happens if we have an object that shares properties of both Gasolines and Electrics? We can create a
derived class that inherits from both!
In [5]:
class Hybrid(Gasoline, Electric):
def __init__(self,engine='Hybrid',tank_cap=11,kWh_cap=5):
Gasoline.__init__(self,engine,tank_cap)
Electric.__init__(self,engine,kWh_cap)
prius = Hybrid()
print(prius.tank)
print(prius.kWh)
0
0
In [6]:
prius.recharge()
print(prius.kWh)
Why do we use self ?
We've seen the word "self" show up in almost every example. What's the deal? The answer is, Python uses
self to find the right set of attributes and methods to apply to an object. When we say:
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prius.recharge()
What really happens is that Python first looks up the class belonging to prius (Hybrid), and then passes
prius to the Hybrid.recharge() method.
It's the same as running:
Hybrid.recharge(prius)
but shorter and more intuitive!
Method Resolution Order (MRO)
Things get complicated when you have several base classes and levels of inheritance. This is resolved using
Method Resolution Order - a formal plan that Python follows when running object methods.
To illustrate, if classes B and C each derive from A, and class D derives from both B and C, which class is "first
in line" when a method is called on D?
Consider the following:
In [7]:
class A:
num = 4
class B(A):
pass
class C(A):
num = 5
class D(B,C):
pass
Schematically, the relationship looks like this:
A
num=4
/ \
/ \
B C
pass num=5
\ /
\ /
D
pass
Here num is a class attribute belonging to all four classes. So what happens if we call D.num ?
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In [8]:
D.num
Out[8]:
You would think that D.num would follow B up to A and return 4. Instead, Python obeys the first method in
the chain that defines num. The order followed is [D, B, C, A, object] where object is Python's base
object class.
In our example, the first class to define and/or override a previously defined num is C .
super()
Python's built-in super() function provides a shortcut for calling base classes, because it automatically
follows Method Resolution Order.
In its simplest form with single inheritance, super() can be used in place of the base class name :
In [9]:
class MyBaseClass:
def __init__(self,x,y):
self.x = x
self.y = y
class MyDerivedClass(MyBaseClass):
def __init__(self,x,y,z):
super().__init__(x,y)
self.z = z
Note that we don't pass self to super().__init__() as super() handles this automatically.
In a more dynamic form, with multiple inheritance like the "diamond diagram" shown above, super() can be
used to properly manage method definitions:
In [10]:
class A:
def truth(self):
return 'All numbers are even'
class B(A):
pass
class C(A):
def truth(self):
return 'Some numbers are even'
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In [11]:
class D(B,C):
def truth(self,num):
if num%2 == 0:
return A.truth(self)
else:
return super().truth()
d = D()
d.truth(6)
Out[11]:
'All numbers are even'
In [12]:
d.truth(5)
Out[12]:
'Some numbers are even'
In the above example, if we pass an even number to d.truth() , we'll believe the A version of .truth()
and run with it. Otherwise, follow the MRO and return the more general case.
For more information on super() visit https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#super
(https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#super)
and https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/
(https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/)
Great! Now you should have a much deeper understanding of Object Oriented Programming!
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7/21/2018 01-Interact
Using Interact
In this lecture we will begin to learn about creating dashboard-type GUI with iPython widgets!
The interact function ( ipywidgets.interact ) automatically creates user interface (UI) controls for
exploring code and data interactively. It is the easiest way to get started using IPython's widgets.
In [1]:
# Start with some imports!
from ipywidgets import interact, interactive, fixed
import ipywidgets as widgets
Please Note! The widgets in this notebook won't show up on NbViewer or GitHub renderings. To view the
widgets and interact with them, you will need to download this notebook and run it with a Jupyter Notebook
server.
Basic interact
At the most basic level, interact auto-generates UI controls for function arguments, and then calls the
function with those arguments when you manipulate the controls interactively. To use interact , you need to
define a function that you want to explore. Here is a function that prints its only argument x .
In [2]:
# Very basic function
def f(x):
return x
When you pass this function as the first argument to interact along with an integer keyword argument
( x=10 ), a slider is generated and bound to the function parameter. Note that the semicolon here just prevents
an out cell from showing up.
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In [3]:
# Generate a slider to interact with
interact(f, x=10,);
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
When you move the slider, the function is called, which prints the current value of x .
If you pass True or False , interact will generate a check-box:
In [4]:
# Booleans generate check-boxes
interact(f, x=True);
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
If you pass a string, interact will generate a text area.
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In [5]:
# Strings generate text areas
interact(f, x='Hi there!');
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
interact can also be used as a decorator. This allows you to define a function and interact with it in a single
shot. As this example shows, interact also works with functions that have multiple arguments.
In [6]:
# Using a decorator!
@interact(x=True, y=1.0)
def g(x, y):
return (x, y)
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Fixing arguments using fixed
There are times when you may want to explore a function using interact , but fix one or more of its
arguments to specific values. This can be accomplished by wrapping values with the fixed function.
In [7]:
# Again, a simple function
def h(p, q):
return (p, q)
When we call interact , we pass fixed(20) for q to hold it fixed at a value of 20 .
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In [8]:
interact(h, p=5, q=fixed(20));
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Notice that a slider is only produced for p as the value of q is fixed.
Widget abbreviations
When you pass an integer-valued keyword argument of 10 ( x=10 ) to interact , it generates an integer-
valued slider control with a range of [-10,+3\times10] . In this case, 10 is an abbreviation for an actual
slider widget:
IntSlider(min=-10,max=30,step=1,value=10)
In fact, we can get the same result if we pass this IntSlider as the keyword argument for x :
In [9]:
# Can call the IntSlider to get more specific
interact(f, x=widgets.IntSlider(min=-10,max=30,step=1,value=10));
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
This examples clarifies how interact processes its keyword arguments:
1. If the keyword argument is a Widget instance with a value attribute, that widget is used. Any widget with
a value attribute can be used, even custom ones.
2. Otherwise, the value is treated as a widget abbreviation that is converted to a widget before it is used.
The following table gives an overview of different widget abbreviations:
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Keyword argument Widget
True or False Checkbox
'Hi there' Text
value or (min,max) or (min,max,step) if integers are IntSlider
passed
value or (min,max) or (min,max,step) if floats are FloatSlider
passed
['orange','apple'] or {'one':1,'two':2} Dropdown
Note that a dropdown is used if a list or a dict is given (signifying discrete choices), and a slider is used if a tuple
is given (signifying a range).
You have seen how the checkbox and text area widgets work above. Here, more details about the different
abbreviations for sliders and drop-downs are given.
If a 2-tuple of integers is passed (min,max) , an integer-valued slider is produced with those minimum and
maximum values (inclusively). In this case, the default step size of 1 is used.
In [10]:
# Min,Max slider with Tuples
interact(f, x=(0,4));
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
If a 3-tuple of integers is passed (min,max,step) , the step size can also be set.
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In [11]:
# (min, max, step)
interact(f, x=(0,8,2));
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
A float-valued slider is produced if the elements of the tuples are floats. Here the minimum is 0.0 , the
maximum is 10.0 and step size is 0.1 (the default).
In [12]:
interact(f, x=(0.0,10.0));
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
The step size can be changed by passing a third element in the tuple.
In [13]:
interact(f, x=(0.0,10.0,0.01));
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
For both integer and float-valued sliders, you can pick the initial value of the widget by passing a default
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keyword argument to the underlying Python function. Here we set the initial value of a float slider to 5.5 .
In [14]:
@interact(x=(0.0,20.0,0.5))
def h(x=5.5):
return x
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Dropdown menus are constructed by passing a list of strings. In this case, the strings are both used as the
names in the drop-down menu UI and passed to the underlying Python function.
In [15]:
interact(f, x=['apples','oranges']);
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
If you want a drop-down menu that passes non-string values to the Python function, you can pass a dictionary.
The keys in the dictionary are used for the names in the drop-down menu UI and the values are the arguments
that are passed to the underlying Python function.
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In [16]:
interact(f, x={'one': 10, 'two': 20});
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Using function annotations with interact
You can also specify widget abbreviations using function annotations
(https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#function-annotations).
Define a function with a checkbox widget abbreviation for the argument x .
In [17]:
def f(x:True): # Python 3 only
return x
Then, because the widget abbreviation has already been defined, you can call interact with a single
argument.
In [18]:
interact(f);
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
interactive
In addition to interact , IPython provides another function, interactive , that is useful when you want to
reuse the widgets that are produced or access the data that is bound to the UI controls.
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Note that unlike interact , the return value of the function will not be displayed automatically, but you can
display a value inside the function with IPython.display.display .
Here is a function that returns the sum of its two arguments and displays them. The display line may be omitted
if you don’t want to show the result of the function.
In [22]:
from IPython.display import display
def f(a, b):
display(a + b)
return a+b
Unlike interact , interactive returns a Widget instance rather than immediately displaying the widget.
In [23]:
w = interactive(f, a=10, b=20)
The widget is an interactive , a subclass of VBox , which is a container for other widgets.
In [24]:
type(w)
Out[24]:
ipywidgets.widgets.interaction.interactive
The children of the interactive are two integer-valued sliders and an output widget, produced by the widget
abbreviations above.
In [25]:
w.children
Out[25]:
(IntSlider(value=10, description='a', max=30, min=-10),
IntSlider(value=20, description='b', max=60, min=-20),
Output())
To actually display the widgets, you can use IPython's display function.
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In [26]:
display(w)
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
At this point, the UI controls work just like they would if interact had been used. You can manipulate them
interactively and the function will be called. However, the widget instance returned by interactive also give
you access to the current keyword arguments and return value of the underlying Python function.
Here are the current keyword arguments. If you rerun this cell after manipulating the sliders, the values will
have changed.
In [27]:
w.kwargs
Out[27]:
{'a': 10, 'b': 20}
Here is the current return value of the function.
In [28]:
w.result
Out[28]:
30
Conclusion
You should now have a basic understanding of how to use Interact in Jupyter Notebooks!
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Widget Basics
In this lecture we will continue to build off our understanding of interact and interactive to begin using full
widgets!
What are widgets?
Widgets are eventful python objects that have a representation in the browser, often as a control like a slider,
textbox, etc.
What can they be used for?
You can use widgets to build interactive GUIs for your notebooks.
You can also use widgets to synchronize stateful and stateless information between Python and JavaScript.
Using widgets
To use the widget framework, you need to import ipywidgets .
In [1]:
import ipywidgets as widgets
repr
Widgets have their own display repr which allows them to be displayed using IPython's display framework.
Constructing and returning an IntSlider automatically displays the widget (as seen below). Widgets are
displayed inside the output area below the code cell. Clearing cell output will also remove the widget.
In [2]:
widgets.IntSlider()
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type IntSlider .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
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display()
You can also explicitly display the widget using display(...) .
In [3]:
from IPython.display import display
w = widgets.IntSlider()
display(w)
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type IntSlider .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Multiple display() calls
If you display the same widget twice, the displayed instances in the front-end will remain in sync with each
other. Try dragging the slider below and watch the slider above.
In [4]:
display(w)
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type IntSlider .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Closing widgets
You can close a widget by calling its close() method.
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In [5]:
display(w)
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type IntSlider .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
In [6]:
w.close()
Widget properties
All of the IPython widgets share a similar naming scheme. To read the value of a widget, you can query its
value property.
In [7]:
w = widgets.IntSlider()
display(w)
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type IntSlider .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
In [8]:
w.value
Out[8]:
Similarly, to set a widget's value, you can set its value property.
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In [9]:
w.value = 100
Keys
In addition to value , most widgets share keys , description , and disabled . To see the entire list of
synchronized, stateful properties of any specific widget, you can query the keys property.
In [10]:
w.keys
Out[10]:
['_dom_classes',
'_model_module',
'_model_module_version',
'_model_name',
'_view_count',
'_view_module',
'_view_module_version',
'_view_name',
'continuous_update',
'description',
'disabled',
'layout',
'max',
'min',
'orientation',
'readout',
'readout_format',
'step',
'style',
'value']
Shorthand for setting the initial values of widget properties
While creating a widget, you can set some or all of the initial values of that widget by defining them as keyword
arguments in the widget's constructor (as seen below).
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In [12]:
widgets.Text(value='Hello World!', disabled=True)
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type Text .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Linking two similar widgets
If you need to display the same value two different ways, you'll have to use two different widgets. Instead of
attempting to manually synchronize the values of the two widgets, you can use the link or jslink function
to link two properties together (the difference between these is discussed in Widget Events). Below, the values
of two widgets are linked together.
In [13]:
a = widgets.FloatText()
b = widgets.FloatSlider()
display(a,b)
mylink = widgets.jslink((a, 'value'), (b, 'value'))
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type FloatText .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type FloatSlider .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
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Unlinking widgets
Unlinking the widgets is simple. All you have to do is call .unlink on the link object. Try changing one of the
widgets above after unlinking to see that they can be independently changed.
In [14]:
mylink.unlink()
Conclusion
You should now be beginning to have an understanding of how Widgets can interact with each other and how
you can begin to specify widget details.
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Widget List
This lecture will serve as a reference for widgets, providing a list of the GUI widgets available!
Complete list
For a complete list of the GUI widgets available to you, you can list the registered widget types. Widget is the
base class.
In [ ]:
import ipywidgets as widgets
# Show all available widgets!
for item in widgets.Widget.widget_types.items():
print(item[0][2][:-5])
Numeric widgets
There are 10 widgets distributed with IPython that are designed to display numeric values. Widgets exist for
displaying integers and floats, both bounded and unbounded. The integer widgets share a similar naming
scheme to their floating point counterparts. By replacing Float with Int in the widget name, you can find the
Integer equivalent.
IntSlider
In [ ]:
widgets.IntSlider(
value=7,
min=0,
max=10,
step=1,
description='Test:',
disabled=False,
continuous_update=False,
orientation='horizontal',
readout=True,
readout_format='d'
)
FloatSlider
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In [ ]:
widgets.FloatSlider(
value=7.5,
min=0,
max=10.0,
step=0.1,
description='Test:',
disabled=False,
continuous_update=False,
orientation='horizontal',
readout=True,
readout_format='.1f',
)
Sliders can also be displayed vertically.
In [ ]:
widgets.FloatSlider(
value=7.5,
min=0,
max=10.0,
step=0.1,
description='Test:',
disabled=False,
continuous_update=False,
orientation='vertical',
readout=True,
readout_format='.1f',
)
IntRangeSlider
In [ ]:
widgets.IntRangeSlider(
value=[5, 7],
min=0,
max=10,
step=1,
description='Test:',
disabled=False,
continuous_update=False,
orientation='horizontal',
readout=True,
readout_format='d',
)
FloatRangeSlider
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In [ ]:
widgets.FloatRangeSlider(
value=[5, 7.5],
min=0,
max=10.0,
step=0.1,
description='Test:',
disabled=False,
continuous_update=False,
orientation='horizontal',
readout=True,
readout_format='.1f',
)
IntProgress
In [ ]:
widgets.IntProgress(
value=7,
min=0,
max=10,
step=1,
description='Loading:',
bar_style='', # 'success', 'info', 'warning', 'danger' or ''
orientation='horizontal'
)
FloatProgress
In [ ]:
widgets.FloatProgress(
value=7.5,
min=0,
max=10.0,
step=0.1,
description='Loading:',
bar_style='info',
orientation='horizontal'
)
The numerical text boxes that impose some limit on the data (range, integer-only) impose that restriction when
the user presses enter.
BoundedIntText
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In [ ]:
widgets.BoundedIntText(
value=7,
min=0,
max=10,
step=1,
description='Text:',
disabled=False
)
BoundedFloatText
In [ ]:
widgets.BoundedFloatText(
value=7.5,
min=0,
max=10.0,
step=0.1,
description='Text:',
disabled=False
)
IntText
In [ ]:
widgets.IntText(
value=7,
description='Any:',
disabled=False
)
FloatText
In [ ]:
widgets.FloatText(
value=7.5,
description='Any:',
disabled=False
)
Boolean widgets
There are three widgets that are designed to display a boolean value.
ToggleButton
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In [ ]:
widgets.ToggleButton(
value=False,
description='Click me',
disabled=False,
button_style='', # 'success', 'info', 'warning', 'danger' or ''
tooltip='Description',
icon='check'
)
Checkbox
In [ ]:
widgets.Checkbox(
value=False,
description='Check me',
disabled=False
)
Valid
The valid widget provides a read-only indicator.
In [ ]:
widgets.Valid(
value=False,
description='Valid!',
)
Selection widgets
There are several widgets that can be used to display single selection lists, and two that can be used to select
multiple values. All inherit from the same base class. You can specify the enumeration of selectable options
by passing a list (options are either (label, value) pairs, or simply values for which the labels are derived by
calling str ). You can also specify the enumeration as a dictionary, in which case the keys will be used as
the item displayed in the list and the corresponding value will be used when an item is selected (in this case,
since dictionaries are unordered, the displayed order of items in the widget is unspecified).
Dropdown
In [ ]:
widgets.Dropdown(
options=['1', '2', '3'],
value='2',
description='Number:',
disabled=False,
)
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The following is also valid:
In [ ]:
widgets.Dropdown(
options={'One': 1, 'Two': 2, 'Three': 3},
value=2,
description='Number:',
)
RadioButtons
In [ ]:
widgets.RadioButtons(
options=['pepperoni', 'pineapple', 'anchovies'],
# value='pineapple',
description='Pizza topping:',
disabled=False
)
Select
In [ ]:
widgets.Select(
options=['Linux', 'Windows', 'OSX'],
value='OSX',
# rows=10,
description='OS:',
disabled=False
)
SelectionSlider
In [ ]:
widgets.SelectionSlider(
options=['scrambled', 'sunny side up', 'poached', 'over easy'],
value='sunny side up',
description='I like my eggs ...',
disabled=False,
continuous_update=False,
orientation='horizontal',
readout=True
)
SelectionRangeSlider
The value, index, and label keys are 2-tuples of the min and max values selected. The options must be
nonempty.
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In [ ]:
import datetime
dates = [datetime.date(2015,i,1) for i in range(1,13)]
options = [(i.strftime('%b'), i) for i in dates]
widgets.SelectionRangeSlider(
options=options,
index=(0,11),
description='Months (2015)',
disabled=False
)
ToggleButtons
In [ ]:
widgets.ToggleButtons(
options=['Slow', 'Regular', 'Fast'],
description='Speed:',
disabled=False,
button_style='', # 'success', 'info', 'warning', 'danger' or ''
tooltips=['Description of slow', 'Description of regular', 'Description of fast'],
# icons=['check'] * 3
)
SelectMultiple
Multiple values can be selected with shift and/or ctrl (or command ) pressed and mouse clicks or arrow
keys.
In [ ]:
widgets.SelectMultiple(
options=['Apples', 'Oranges', 'Pears'],
value=['Oranges'],
# rows=10,
description='Fruits',
disabled=False
)
String widgets
There are several widgets that can be used to display a string value. The Text and Textarea widgets
accept input. The HTML and HTMLMath widgets display a string as HTML ( HTMLMath also renders math).
The Label widget can be used to construct a custom control label.
Text
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In [ ]:
widgets.Text(
value='Hello World',
placeholder='Type something',
description='String:',
disabled=False
)
Textarea
In [ ]:
widgets.Textarea(
value='Hello World',
placeholder='Type something',
description='String:',
disabled=False
)
Label
The Label widget is useful if you need to build a custom description next to a control using similar styling to
the built-in control descriptions.
In [ ]:
widgets.HBox([widgets.Label(value="The $m$ in $E=mc^2$:"), widgets.FloatSlider()])
HTML
In [ ]:
widgets.HTML(
value="Hello <b>World</b>",
placeholder='Some HTML',
description='Some HTML',
)
HTML Math
In [ ]:
widgets.HTMLMath(
value=r"Some math and <i>HTML</i>: \(x^2\) and $$\frac{x+1}{x-1}$$",
placeholder='Some HTML',
description='Some HTML',
)
Image
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In [ ]:
file = open("images/WidgetArch.png", "rb")
image = file.read()
widgets.Image(
value=image,
format='png',
width=300,
height=400,
)
Button
In [ ]:
widgets.Button(
description='Click me',
disabled=False,
button_style='', # 'success', 'info', 'warning', 'danger' or ''
tooltip='Click me',
icon='check'
)
Conclusion
Even more widgets are described in the notebook Widget List - Advanced. Use these as a future reference for
yourself!
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7/21/2018 04-Widget Events
Widget Events
In this lecture we will discuss widget events, such as button clicks!
Special events
The Button is not used to represent a data type. Instead the button widget is used to handle mouse clicks.
The on_click method of the Button can be used to register a function to be called when the button is
clicked. The docstring of the on_click can be seen below.
In [ ]:
import ipywidgets as widgets
print(widgets.Button.on_click.__doc__)
Example #1 - on_click
Since button clicks are stateless, they are transmitted from the front-end to the back-end using custom
messages. By using the on_click method, a button that prints a message when it has been clicked is shown
below.
In [ ]:
from IPython.display import display
button = widgets.Button(description="Click Me!")
display(button)
def on_button_clicked(b):
print("Button clicked.")
button.on_click(on_button_clicked)
Example #2 - on_submit
The Text widget also has a special on_submit event. The on_submit event fires when the user hits
enter .
In [ ]:
text = widgets.Text()
display(text)
def handle_submit(sender):
print(text.value)
text.on_submit(handle_submit)
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Traitlet events
Widget properties are IPython traitlets and traitlets are eventful. To handle changes, the observe method of
the widget can be used to register a callback. The docstring for observe can be seen below.
In [ ]:
print(widgets.Widget.observe.__doc__)
Signatures
Mentioned in the docstring, the callback registered must have the signature handler(change) where
change is a dictionary holding the information about the change.
Using this method, an example of how to output an IntSlider ’s value as it is changed can be seen below.
In [ ]:
int_range = widgets.IntSlider()
display(int_range)
def on_value_change(change):
print(change['new'])
int_range.observe(on_value_change, names='value')
Linking Widgets
Often, you may want to simply link widget attributes together. Synchronization of attributes can be done in a
simpler way than by using bare traitlets events.
Linking traitlets attributes in the kernel¶
The first method is to use the link and dlink functions from the traitlets module. This only works if we
are interacting with a live kernel.
In [ ]:
import traitlets
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In [ ]:
# Create Caption
caption = widgets.Label(value = 'The values of slider1 and slider2 are synchronized')
# Create IntSliders
slider1 = widgets.IntSlider(description='Slider 1')
slider2 = widgets.IntSlider(description='Slider 2')
# Use trailets to link
l = traitlets.link((slider1, 'value'), (slider2, 'value'))
# Display!
display(caption, slider1, slider2)
In [ ]:
# Create Caption
caption = widgets.Label(value='Changes in source values are reflected in target1')
# Create Sliders
source = widgets.IntSlider(description='Source')
target1 = widgets.IntSlider(description='Target 1')
# Use dlink
dl = traitlets.dlink((source, 'value'), (target1, 'value'))
display(caption, source, target1)
Function traitlets.link and traitlets.dlink return a Link or DLink object. The link can be broken
by calling the unlink method.
In [ ]:
# May get an error depending on order of cells being run!
l.unlink()
dl.unlink()
Registering callbacks to trait changes in the kernel
Since attributes of widgets on the Python side are traitlets, you can register handlers to the change events
whenever the model gets updates from the front-end.
The handler passed to observe will be called with one change argument. The change object holds at least a
type key and a name key, corresponding respectively to the type of notification and the name of the attribute
that triggered the notification.
Other keys may be passed depending on the value of type . In the case where type is change , we also have
the following keys:
owner : the HasTraits instance
old : the old value of the modified trait attribute
new : the new value of the modified trait attribute
name : the name of the modified trait attribute.
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In [ ]:
caption = widgets.Label(value='The values of range1 and range2 are synchronized')
slider = widgets.IntSlider(min=-5, max=5, value=1, description='Slider')
def handle_slider_change(change):
caption.value = 'The slider value is ' + (
'negative' if change.new < 0 else 'nonnegative'
)
slider.observe(handle_slider_change, names='value')
display(caption, slider)
Linking widgets attributes from the client side
When synchronizing traitlets attributes, you may experience a lag because of the latency due to the roundtrip to
the server side. You can also directly link widget attributes in the browser using the link widgets, in either a
unidirectional or a bidirectional fashion.
Javascript links persist when embedding widgets in html web pages without a kernel.
In [ ]:
# NO LAG VERSION
caption = widgets.Label(value = 'The values of range1 and range2 are synchronized')
range1 = widgets.IntSlider(description='Range 1')
range2 = widgets.IntSlider(description='Range 2')
l = widgets.jslink((range1, 'value'), (range2, 'value'))
display(caption, range1, range2)
In [ ]:
# NO LAG VERSION
caption = widgets.Label(value = 'Changes in source_range values are reflected in target_ran
source_range = widgets.IntSlider(description='Source range')
target_range = widgets.IntSlider(description='Target range')
dl = widgets.jsdlink((source_range, 'value'), (target_range, 'value'))
display(caption, source_range, target_range)
Function widgets.jslink returns a Link widget. The link can be broken by calling the unlink method.
In [ ]:
l.unlink()
dl.unlink()
The difference between linking in the kernel and linking in the client
Linking in the kernel means linking via python. If two sliders are linked in the kernel, when one slider is changed
the browser sends a message to the kernel (python in this case) updating the changed slider, the link widget in
the kernel then propagates the change to the other slider object in the kernel, and then the other slider’s kernel
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object sends a message to the browser to update the other slider’s views in the browser. If the kernel is not
running (as in a static web page), then the controls will not be linked.
Linking using jslink (i.e., on the browser side) means contructing the link in Javascript. When one slider is
changed, Javascript running in the browser changes the value of the other slider in the browser, without
needing to communicate with the kernel at all. If the sliders are attached to kernel objects, each slider will
update their kernel-side objects independently.
To see the difference between the two, go to the ipywidgets documentation
(http://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/latest/examples/Widget%20Events.html) and try out the sliders near the
bottom. The ones linked in the kernel with link and dlink are no longer linked, but the ones linked in the
browser with jslink and jsdlink are still linked.
Continuous updates
Some widgets offer a choice with their continuous_update attribute between continually updating values or
only updating values when a user submits the value (for example, by pressing Enter or navigating away from
the control). In the next example, we see the “Delayed” controls only transmit their value after the user finishes
dragging the slider or submitting the textbox. The “Continuous” controls continually transmit their values as they
are changed. Try typing a two-digit number into each of the text boxes, or dragging each of the sliders, to see
the difference.
In [ ]:
import traitlets
a = widgets.IntSlider(description="Delayed", continuous_update=False)
b = widgets.IntText(description="Delayed", continuous_update=False)
c = widgets.IntSlider(description="Continuous", continuous_update=True)
d = widgets.IntText(description="Continuous", continuous_update=True)
traitlets.link((a, 'value'), (b, 'value'))
traitlets.link((a, 'value'), (c, 'value'))
traitlets.link((a, 'value'), (d, 'value'))
widgets.VBox([a,b,c,d])
Sliders, Text , and Textarea controls default to continuous_update=True . IntText and other text
boxes for entering integer or float numbers default to continuous_update=False (since often you’ll want to
type an entire number before submitting the value by pressing enter or navigating out of the box).
Conclusion
You should now feel comfortable linking Widget events!
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Widget Styling
In this lecture we will learn about the various ways to style widgets!
style vs. layout
There are two ways to change the appearance of widgets in the browser. The first is through the layout
attribute which exposes layout-related CSS properties for the top-level DOM element of widgets, such as
margins and positioning. The second is through the style attribute which exposes non-layout related
attributes like button color and font weight. While layout is general to all widgets and containers of widgets,
style offers tools specific to each type of widget.
Thorough understanding of all that layout has to offer requires knowledge of front-end web development,
including HTML and CSS. This section provides a brief overview of things that can be adjusted using layout .
However, the full set of tools are provided in the separate notebook Advanced Widget Styling with Layout.
To learn more about web development, including HTML and CSS, check out the course Python and Django Full
Stack Web Developer Bootcamp (https://www.udemy.com/python-and-django-full-stack-web-developer-
bootcamp/)
Basic styling is more intuitive as it relates directly to each type of widget. Here we provide a set of helpful
examples of the style attribute.
The layout attribute
Jupyter interactive widgets have a layout attribute exposing a number of CSS properties that impact how
widgets are laid out. These properties map to the values of the CSS properties of the same name (underscores
being replaced with dashes), applied to the top DOM elements of the corresponding widget.
Sizes
height
width
max_height
max_width
min_height
min_width
Display
visibility
display
overflow
overflow_x
overflow_y
Box model
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border
margin
padding
Positioning
top
left
bottom
right
Flexbox
order
flex_flow
align_items
flex
align_self
align_content
justify_content
A quick example of layout
We've already seen what a slider looks like without any layout adjustments:
In [ ]:
import ipywidgets as widgets
from IPython.display import display
w = widgets.IntSlider()
display(w)
Let's say we wanted to change two of the properties of this widget: margin and height . We want to center
the slider in the output area and increase its height. This can be done by adding layout attributes to w
In [ ]:
w.layout.margin = 'auto'
w.layout.height = '75px'
Notice that the slider changed positions on the page immediately!
Layout settings can be passed from one widget to another widget of the same type. Let's first create a new
IntSlider:
In [ ]:
x = widgets.IntSlider(value=15,description='New slider')
display(x)
Now assign w's layout settings to x:
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In [ ]:
x.layout = w.layout
That's it! For a complete set of instructions on using layout , visit the Advanced Widget Styling - Layout
notebook.
Predefined styles
Before we investigate the style attribute, it should be noted that many widgets offer a list of pre-defined
styles that can be passed as arguments during creation.
For example, the Button widget has a button_style attribute that may take 5 different values:
'primary'
'success'
'info'
'warning'
'danger'
besides the default empty string '' .
In [ ]:
import ipywidgets as widgets
widgets.Button(description='Ordinary Button', button_style='')
In [ ]:
widgets.Button(description='Danger Button', button_style='danger')
The style attribute
While the layout attribute only exposes layout-related CSS properties for the top-level DOM element of
widgets, the style attribute is used to expose non-layout related styling attributes of widgets.
However, the properties of the style atribute are specific to each widget type.
In [ ]:
b1 = widgets.Button(description='Custom color')
b1.style.button_color = 'lightgreen'
b1
You can get a list of the style attributes for a widget with the keys property.
In [ ]:
b1.style.keys
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Note that widgets.Button().style.keys also works.
Just like the layout attribute, widget styles can be assigned to other widgets.
In [ ]:
b2 = widgets.Button()
b2.style = b1.style
b2
Note that only the style was picked up by b2, not any other parameters like description .
Widget styling attributes are specific to each widget type.
In [ ]:
s1 = widgets.IntSlider(description='Blue handle')
s1.style.handle_color = 'lightblue'
s1
Widget style traits
These are traits that belong to some of the more common widgets:
Button
button_color
font_weight
IntSlider, FloatSlider, IntRangeSlider, FloatRangeSlider
description_width
handle_color
IntProgress, FloatProgress
bar_color
description_width
Most others such as ToggleButton , Checkbox , Dropdown , RadioButtons , Select and Text only
have description_width as an adjustable trait.
Conclusion
You should now have an understanding of how to style widgets!
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Custom Widget
Exploring the Lorenz System of Differential Equations
In this Notebook we explore the Lorenz system of differential equations:
ẋ = σ(y − x)
ẏ = ρx − y − xz
ż = −βz + xy
This is one of the classic systems in non-linear differential equations. It exhibits a range of different behaviors
σβρ
as the parameters ( , , ) are varied.
Imports
First, we import the needed things from IPython, NumPy (http://www.numpy.org/), Matplotlib
(http://matplotlib.org/index.html) and SciPy (http://www.scipy.org/). Check out the class Python for Data Science
and Machine Learning Bootcamp (https://www.udemy.com/python-for-data-science-and-machine-learning-
bootcamp/) if you're interested in learning more about this part of Python!
In [1]:
%matplotlib inline
In [2]:
from ipywidgets import interact, interactive
from IPython.display import clear_output, display, HTML
In [3]:
import numpy as np
from scipy import integrate
from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import Axes3D
from matplotlib.colors import cnames
from matplotlib import animation
Computing the trajectories and plotting the result
We define a function that can integrate the differential equations numerically and then plot the solutions. This
σβρ
function has arguments that control the parameters of the differential equation ( , , ), the numerical
integration ( N , max_time ) and the visualization ( angle ).
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In [4]:
def solve_lorenz(N=10, angle=0.0, max_time=4.0, sigma=10.0, beta=8./3, rho=28.0):
fig = plt.figure();
ax = fig.add_axes([0, 0, 1, 1], projection='3d');
ax.axis('off')
# prepare the axes limits
ax.set_xlim((-25, 25))
ax.set_ylim((-35, 35))
ax.set_zlim((5, 55))
def lorenz_deriv(x_y_z, t0, sigma=sigma, beta=beta, rho=rho):
"""Compute the time-derivative of a Lorenz system."""
x, y, z = x_y_z
return [sigma * (y - x), x * (rho - z) - y, x * y - beta * z]
# Choose random starting points, uniformly distributed from -15 to 15
np.random.seed(1)
x0 = -15 + 30 * np.random.random((N, 3))
# Solve for the trajectories
t = np.linspace(0, max_time, int(250*max_time))
x_t = np.asarray([integrate.odeint(lorenz_deriv, x0i, t)
for x0i in x0])
# choose a different color for each trajectory
colors = plt.cm.jet(np.linspace(0, 1, N));
for i in range(N):
x, y, z = x_t[i,:,:].T
lines = ax.plot(x, y, z, '-', c=colors[i])
_ = plt.setp(lines, linewidth=2);
ax.view_init(30, angle)
_ = plt.show();
return t, x_t
Let's call the function once to view the solutions. For this set of parameters, we see the trajectories swirling
around two points, called attractors.
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In [5]:
t, x_t = solve_lorenz(angle=0, N=10)
Using IPython's interactive function, we can explore how the trajectories behave as we change the various
parameters.
In [6]:
w = interactive(solve_lorenz, angle=(0.,360.), N=(0,50), sigma=(0.0,50.0), rho=(0.0,50.0))
display(w);
Failed to display Jupyter Widget of type interactive .
If you're reading this message in the Jupyter Notebook or JupyterLab Notebook, it may mean
that the widgets JavaScript is still loading. If this message persists, it likely means that the
widgets JavaScript library is either not installed or not enabled. See the Jupyter Widgets
Documentation (https://ipywidgets.readthedocs.io/en/stable/user_install.html) for setup
instructions.
If you're reading this message in another frontend (for example, a static rendering on GitHub or
NBViewer (https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/)), it may mean that your frontend doesn't currently
support widgets.
The object returned by interactive is a Widget object and it has attributes that contain the current result
and arguments:
In [7]:
t, x_t = w.result
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In [8]:
w.kwargs
Out[8]:
{'N': 10,
'angle': 0.0,
'beta': 2.6666666666666665,
'max_time': 4.0,
'rho': 28.0,
'sigma': 10.0}
After interacting with the system, we can take the result and perform further computations. In this case, we
xy z
compute the average positions in , and .
In [9]:
xyz_avg = x_t.mean(axis=1)
In [10]:
xyz_avg.shape
Out[10]:
(10, 3)
Creating histograms of the average positions (across different trajectories) show that on average the trajectories
swirl about the attractors.
NOTE: These will look different from the lecture version if you adjusted any of the sliders in the interactive
widget and changed the parameters.
In [11]:
plt.hist(xyz_avg[:,0])
plt.title('Average $x(t)$');
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In [12]:
plt.hist(xyz_avg[:,1])
plt.title('Average $y(t)$');
Conclusion
Hopefully you've enjoyed using widgets in the Jupyter Notebook system and have begun to explore the other
GUI possibilities for Python!
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Advanced Widget List
This notebook is an extension of Widget List, describing even more of the GUI widgets available!
In [ ]:
import ipywidgets as widgets
Output
The Output widget can capture and display stdout, stderr and rich output generated by IPython
(http://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api/generated/IPython.display.html#module-IPython.display). After the
widget is created, direct output to it using a context manager.
In [ ]:
out = widgets.Output()
out
You can print text to the output area as shown below.
In [ ]:
with out:
for i in range(10):
print(i, 'Hello world!')
Rich material can also be directed to the output area. Anything which displays nicely in a Jupyter notebook will
also display well in the Output widget.
In [ ]:
from IPython.display import YouTubeVideo
with out:
display(YouTubeVideo('eWzY2nGfkXk'))
Play (Animation) widget
The Play widget is useful to perform animations by iterating on a sequence of integers with a certain speed.
The value of the slider below is linked to the player.
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In [ ]:
play = widgets.Play(
# interval=10,
value=50,
min=0,
max=100,
step=1,
description="Press play",
disabled=False
)
slider = widgets.IntSlider()
widgets.jslink((play, 'value'), (slider, 'value'))
widgets.HBox([play, slider])
Date picker
The date picker widget works in Chrome and IE Edge, but does not currently work in Firefox or Safari because
they do not support the HTML date input field.
In [ ]:
widgets.DatePicker(
description='Pick a Date',
disabled=False
)
Color picker
In [ ]:
widgets.ColorPicker(
concise=False,
description='Pick a color',
value='blue',
disabled=False
)
Controller
The Controller allows a game controller to be used as an input device.
In [ ]:
widgets.Controller(
index=0,
)
Container/Layout widgets
These widgets are used to hold other widgets, called children. Each has a children property that may be set
either when the widget is created or later.
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Box
In [ ]:
items = [widgets.Label(str(i)) for i in range(4)]
widgets.Box(items)
HBox
In [ ]:
items = [widgets.Label(str(i)) for i in range(4)]
widgets.HBox(items)
VBox
In [ ]:
items = [widgets.Label(str(i)) for i in range(4)]
left_box = widgets.VBox([items[0], items[1]])
right_box = widgets.VBox([items[2], items[3]])
widgets.HBox([left_box, right_box])
Accordion
In [ ]:
accordion = widgets.Accordion(children=[widgets.IntSlider(), widgets.Text()])
accordion.set_title(0, 'Slider')
accordion.set_title(1, 'Text')
accordion
Tabs
In this example the children are set after the tab is created. Titles for the tabes are set in the same way they are
for Accordion .
In [ ]:
tab_contents = ['P0', 'P1', 'P2', 'P3', 'P4']
children = [widgets.Text(description=name) for name in tab_contents]
tab = widgets.Tab()
tab.children = children
for i in range(len(children)):
tab.set_title(i, str(i))
tab
Accordion and Tab use selected_index , not value
Unlike the rest of the widgets discussed earlier, the container widgets Accordion and Tab update their
selected_index attribute when the user changes which accordion or tab is selected. That means that you
can both see what the user is doing and programmatically set what the user sees by setting the value of
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selected_index .
Setting selected_index = None closes all of the accordions or deselects all tabs.
In the cells below try displaying or setting the selected_index of the tab and/or accordion .
In [ ]:
tab.selected_index = 3
In [ ]:
accordion.selected_index = None
Nesting tabs and accordions
Tabs and accordions can be nested as deeply as you want. If you have a few minutes, try nesting a few
accordions or putting an accordion inside a tab or a tab inside an accordion.
The example below makes a couple of tabs with an accordion children in one of them
In [ ]:
tab_nest = widgets.Tab()
tab_nest.children = [accordion, accordion]
tab_nest.set_title(0, 'An accordion')
tab_nest.set_title(1, 'Copy of the accordion')
tab_nest
Conclusion
Use this as a further reference for yourself!
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7/21/2018 08-Advanced Widget Styling with Layout
Advanced Widget Styling with Layout
This notebook expands on the Widget Styling lecture by describing the various HTML and CSS adjustments
that can be made through the layout attribute.
The layout attribute
Jupyter interactive widgets have a layout attribute exposing a number of CSS properties that impact how
widgets are laid out.
Exposed CSS properties
The following properties map to the values of the CSS properties of the same name (underscores
being replaced with dashes), applied to the top DOM elements of the corresponding widget.
Sizes
height
width
max_height
max_width
min_height
min_width
Display
visibility
display
overflow
overflow_x
overflow_y
Box model
border
margin
padding
Positioning
top
left
bottom
right
Flexbox
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7/21/2018 08-Advanced Widget Styling with Layout
order
flex_flow
align_items
flex
align_self
align_content
justify_content
Shorthand CSS properties
You may have noticed that certain CSS properties such as margin-[top/right/bottom/left] seem to be
missing. The same holds for padding-[top/right/bottom/left] etc.
In fact, you can atomically specify [top/right/bottom/left] margins via the margin attribute alone by
passing the string '100px 150px 100px 80px' for a respectively top , right , bottom and left
margins of 100 , 150 , 100 and 80 pixels.
Similarly, the flex attribute can hold values for flex-grow , flex-shrink and flex-basis . The
border attribute is a shorthand property for border-width , border-style (required) , and border-
color .
In [19]:
import ipywidgets as widgets
from IPython.display import display
Conclusion
You should now have an understanding of how to style widgets!
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
Multithreading and Multiprocessing
Recall the phrase "many hands make light work". This is as true in programming as anywhere else.
What if you could engineer your Python program to do four things at once? What would normally take an hour
could (almost) take one fourth the time.*
This is the idea behind parallel processing, or the ability to set up and run multiple tasks concurrently.
* We say almost, because you do have to take time setting up four processors, and it may take time to pass
information between them.
Threading vs. Processing
A good illustration of threading vs. processing would be to download an image file and turn it into a thumbnail.
The first part, communicating with an outside source to download a file, involves a thread. Once the file is
obtained, the work of converting it involves a process. Essentially, two factors determine how long this will take;
the input/output speed of the network communication, or I/O, and the available processor, or CPU.
I/O-intensive processes improved with multithreading:
webscraping
reading and writing to files
sharing data between programs
network communications
CPU-intensive processes improved with multiprocessing:
computations
text formatting
image rescaling
data analysis
Multithreading Example: Webscraping
Historically, the programming knowledge required to set up multithreading was beyond the scope of this course,
as it involved a good understanding of Python's Global Interpreter Lock (the GIL prevents multiple threads from
running the same Python code at once). Also, you had to set up special classes that behave like Producers to
divvy up the work, Consumers (aka "workers") to perform the work, and a Queue to hold tasks and provide
communcations. And that was just the beginning.
Fortunately, we've already learned one of the most valuable tools we'll need – the map() function. When we
apply it using two standard libraries, multiprocessing and multiprocessing.dummy, setting up parallel processes
and threads becomes fairly straightforward.
Here's a classic multithreading example provided by IBM (http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/aix/library/au-
threadingpython/) and adapted by Chris Kiehl (http://chriskiehl.com/article/parallelism-in-one-line/) where you
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
divide the task of retrieving web pages across multiple threads:
import time
import threading
import Queue
import urllib2
class Consumer(threading.Thread):
def __init__(self, queue):
threading.Thread.__init__(self)
self._queue = queue
def run(self):
while True:
content = self._queue.get()
if isinstance(content, str) and content == 'quit':
break
response = urllib2.urlopen(content)
print 'Thanks!'
def Producer():
urls = [
'http://www.python.org', 'http://www.yahoo.com'
'http://www.scala.org', 'http://www.google.com'
# etc..
]
queue = Queue.Queue()
worker_threads = build_worker_pool(queue, 4)
start_time = time.time()
# Add the urls to process
for url in urls:
queue.put(url)
# Add the poison pill
for worker in worker_threads:
queue.put('quit')
for worker in worker_threads:
worker.join()
print 'Done! Time taken: {}'.format(time.time() - start_time)
def build_worker_pool(queue, size):
workers = []
for _ in range(size):
worker = Consumer(queue)
worker.start()
workers.append(worker)
return workers
if __name__ == '__main__':
Producer()
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
Using the multithreading library provided by the multiprocessing.dummy module and map() all of this
becomes:
import urllib2
from multiprocessing.dummy import Pool as ThreadPool
pool = ThreadPool(4) # choose a number of workers
urls = [
'http://www.python.org', 'http://www.yahoo.com'
'http://www.scala.org', 'http://www.google.com'
# etc..
]
results = pool.map(urllib2.urlopen, urls)
pool.close()
pool.join()
In the above code, the multiprocessing.dummy module provides the parallel threads, and
map(urllib2.urlopen, urls) assigns the labor!
Multiprocessing Example: Monte Carlo
Let's code out an example to see how the parts fit together. We can time our results using the timeit module to
measure any performance gains. Our task is to apply the Monte Carlo Method to estimate the value of Pi.
Monte Carle Method and Estimating Pi
If you draw a circle of radius 1 (a unit circle) and enclose it in a square, the areas of the two shapes are given
as
Area Formulas
circle πr 2
square 4r 2
π
Therefore, the ratio of the volume of the circle to the volume of the square is
4
The Monte Carlo Method plots a series of random points inside the square. By comparing the number that fall
within the circle to those that fall outside, with a large enough sample we should have a good approximation of
Pi. You can see a good demonstration of this here (https://academo.org/demos/estimating-pi-monte-carlo/) (Hit
the Animate button on the page).
π = 4 ⋅ points inside circle
For a given number of points n, we have
total points n
To set up our multiprocessing program, we first derive a function for finding Pi that we can pass to map() :
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
In [1]:
from random import random # perform this import outside the function
def find_pi(n):
"""
Function to estimate the value of Pi
"""
inside=0
for i in range(0,n):
x=random()
y=random()
if (x*x+y*y)**(0.5)<=1: # if i falls inside the circle
inside+=1
pi=4*inside/n
return pi
Let's test find_pi on 5,000 points:
In [2]:
find_pi(5000)
Out[2]:
3.1064
This ran very quickly, but the results are not very accurate!
Next we'll write a script that sets up a pool of workers, and lets us time the results against varying sized pools.
We'll set up two arguments to represent processes and total_iterations. Inside the script, we'll break
total_iterations down into the number of iterations passed to each process, by making a processes-sized list.
For example:
total_iterations = 1000
processes = 5
iterations = [total_iterations//processes]*processes
iterations
# Output: [200, 200, 200, 200, 200]
This list will be passed to our map() function along with find_pi()
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
In [3]:
%%writefile test.py
from random import random
from multiprocessing import Pool
import timeit
def find_pi(n):
"""
Function to estimate the value of Pi
"""
inside=0
for i in range(0,n):
x=random()
y=random()
if (x*x+y*y)**(0.5)<=1: # if i falls inside the circle
inside+=1
pi=4*inside/n
return pi
if __name__ == '__main__':
N = 10**5 # total iterations
P = 5 # number of processes
p = Pool(P)
print(timeit.timeit(lambda: print(f'{sum(p.map(find_pi, [N//P]*P))/P:0.7f}'), number=10
p.close()
p.join()
print(f'{N} total iterations with {P} processes')
Writing test.py
In [4]:
! python test.py
3.1466800
3.1364400
3.1470400
3.1370400
3.1256400
3.1398400
3.1395200
3.1363600
3.1437200
3.1334400
0.2370227286270967
100000 total iterations with 5 processes
Great! The above test took under a second on our computer.
Now that we know our script works, let's increase the number of iterations, and compare two different pools. Sit
back, this may take awhile!
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
In [5]:
%%writefile test.py
from random import random
from multiprocessing import Pool
import timeit
def find_pi(n):
"""
Function to estimate the value of Pi
"""
inside=0
for i in range(0,n):
x=random()
y=random()
if (x*x+y*y)**(0.5)<=1: # if i falls inside the circle
inside+=1
pi=4*inside/n
return pi
if __name__ == '__main__':
N = 10**7 # total iterations
P = 1 # number of processes
p = Pool(P)
print(timeit.timeit(lambda: print(f'{sum(p.map(find_pi, [N//P]*P))/P:0.7f}'), number=10
p.close()
p.join()
print(f'{N} total iterations with {P} processes')
P = 5 # number of processes
p = Pool(P)
print(timeit.timeit(lambda: print(f'{sum(p.map(find_pi, [N//P]*P))/P:0.7f}'), number=10
p.close()
p.join()
print(f'{N} total iterations with {P} processes')
Overwriting test.py
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
In [6]:
! python test.py
3.1420964
3.1417412
3.1411108
3.1408184
3.1414204
3.1417656
3.1408324
3.1418828
3.1420492
3.1412804
36.03526345242264
10000000 total iterations with 1 processes
3.1424524
3.1418376
3.1415292
3.1410344
3.1422376
3.1418736
3.1420540
3.1411452
3.1421652
3.1410672
17.300921846344366
10000000 total iterations with 5 processes
Hopefully you saw that with 5 processes our script ran faster!
More is Better ...to a point.
The gain in speed as you add more parallel processes tends to flatten out at some point. In any collection of
tasks, there are going to be one or two that take longer than average, and no amount of added processing can
speed them up. This is best described in Amdahl's Law (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdahl%27s_law).
Advanced Script
In the example below, we'll add a context manager to shrink these three lines
p = Pool(P)
...
p.close()
p.join()
to one line:
with Pool(P) as p:
And we'll accept command line arguments using the sys module.
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7/21/2018 01-Multithreading and Multiprocessing
In [7]:
%%writefile test2.py
from random import random
from multiprocessing import Pool
import timeit
import sys
N = int(sys.argv[1]) # these arguments are passed in from the command line
P = int(sys.argv[2])
def find_pi(n):
"""
Function to estimate the value of Pi
"""
inside=0
for i in range(0,n):
x=random()
y=random()
if (x*x+y*y)**(0.5)<=1: # if i falls inside the circle
inside+=1
pi=4*inside/n
return pi
if __name__ == '__main__':
with Pool(P) as p:
print(timeit.timeit(lambda: print(f'{sum(p.map(find_pi, [N//P]*P))/P:0.5f}'), numbe
print(f'{N} total iterations with {P} processes')
Writing test2.py
In [8]:
! python test2.py 10000000 500
3.14121
3.14145
3.14178
3.14194
3.14109
3.14201
3.14243
3.14150
3.14203
3.14116
16.871822701405073
10000000 total iterations with 500 processes
Great! Now you should have a good understanding of multithreading and multiprocessing!
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7/21/2018 FAQ
#FAQ This Notebook will be updated with Frequently Asked Questions for the Course.
How do you see the hints? How do you see the DocStrings for functions? etc...
You can use Shift+Tab when you cursor is placed after an object or function for iPython to reveal the Docstring
or more information.
How do you auto-complete?
Use tab to autocomplete methods,objects, or functions. If there is more than one option available, multiple
options appear.
In [ ]:
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7/21/2018 Jupyter (iPython) Notebooks Guide
Guide to Using Jupyter Notebooks
In this lecture we will be going over the basics of the Jupyter (previously called iPython Notebooks).
For a complete User Manual check out the Bryn Mawr College Computer Science Guide
(https://jupyter.brynmawr.edu/services/public/dblank/Jupyter%20Notebook%20Users%20Manual.ipynb).
Most of the breakdown will actually occur in the presentation corresponding to this Notebook. So please refer to
either the presentation or the full User Manual linked above.
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