ELECTROSTATICS

ELECTROSTATICS
The branch of physics which deals with electric charges at rest.

CHARGE
The physical quantity which is the cause of electrostatic force of attraction just
like mass is for gravitational force is called electric charge.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROSTATICS

Charges are of two types : Positive and Negative or Vitreous and Resinous. Like
charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

ORIGIN OF CHARGE
WORK FUNCTION
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a metal surface or
substance is called work function of that metal surface or substance.
When we rub two substances, to overcome friction, we give energy to the system.
Gaining this energy, electron jump from substance of low work function to substance of
higher work function. This transfer of electron from substance of low work function to
substance of higher work function is the cause for origin of charge.

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QUANTIZATION OF CHARGE
According to it, charge on any body is always integral multiple of charge of an
electron.
.
. . q=ne , where n = + 1, + 2, + 3 …

q = Charge on body

e = Charge of electron

CAUSE OF QUANTIZATION OF CHARGE

Charge on a body is due to transfer of electrons and as electron transfer as a whole
and not in fraction. Therefore, charge on body is always an integral multiple of charge on
an electron.

The smallest known quantity of charge is quark which has charge equal to e / 3 or
2e / 3. Even then, charge will remain quantized.

ELECTRIC CHARGE IS ADDITIVE

The total charge on a body is the algebraic sum of charges present at any point of
the object keeping the sign of charge in mind.

2
CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
In an isolated system, charge can neither be created nor destroyed. If a body
acquires a charge, the same amount of charge is lost by some other body.

EXAMPLES OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE

1. PAIR PRODUCTION

γ = e+ + e-

2. CHARGE ANNIHILATION

e+ + e- = 2 γ

No. CHARGE MASS

1 Force between two charges Force of attraction between
may be attractive or two masses is always
repulsive. attractive.
2 Charge may be positive, Mass is always positive
negative or neutral. only.
3 There is no effect on charge Mass of a body can increase
of a body due to its speed. with increase in velocity
when body moves with
speed of light.
4 Charge is quantized . Mass is yet to be quantized.
5 Charge is conservative. Mass is not conservative. E
= mc2

COULOMB’S LAW

q1 q2
3
 F α q1 . .

r
α q2

α 1
2
r

F α q1 q2
r2

F α k q1 q2 k = Electrostatic force const

r2 k = 1 / 4π Є0 = 9 * 109 Nm2c-2 [In Vacuum]

STATEMENT :
The force of interaction between any two point charges at rest is directly
proportional to the product of magnitude of two charges and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between them.

COULOMB’S LAW IN VECTOR FORM AND PROOF THAT COULOMB’S

LAW FOLLOWS NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION AND
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES ARE CENTRAL FORCE.

F12 = F12 r21

F12 = kq1q2 r21 – (1)

r2

Similarly, F21 = F21 r12

F21 = kq1q2 r12 – (2)

r2

As r12 = - r21 -(3)

4
 Putting (3) in (2)

F21 = - kq1q2 ( r 21 )
r2

..
. . F12 = - F21

Since F12 and F21 are equal and opposite. It proves that Coloumb’s law follows
Newton’s third law.
Since F12 and F21 act along the line joining the centre of two charges, they are
called central forces.

F = 1 Є q1q2
4π
r2

Є = Є0 . Єr [Єr = Relative permittivity or Dielectrical constant ]

Є r = F0
Fm

SUPERIMPOSITION PRINCIPLE

5
 It states that in a system of charges q1, q2, q3, …. qn, the force on q1 due to q2 is
same as given by Coulomb’s law and is unaffected by the presence of other charges. The
total force acting on a charge due to presence of other charges is the vector sum of the
individual forces.

F1 = F12 + F13 + F14 + ----- + F1n

. F = k [ q1q2 r 12 + q1q3 r 13 + ------]

. . r212 r213

ELECTROSTATIC FORCES
Special Cases
1. If F = - ve,

F = - ve => q1q2 = - ve
.
. . Either q1 = - ve & q2 = + ve or q1 = + ve & q2 = - ve

.
. . They are unlike charges. Hence attractive.

2. If F>0

q1q2 > 0

.
. . Both are like charges. Hence repulsive force.

ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
It may be defined as the force that a unit positive charge would experience if
placed at that point.

6
 E = F [ q0 = Test charge]
q0

E = Limit F / q0
q0 0

Also, F = q E

F = k q q0
r2

E = F / q0, E = k q
r2

E=kq
r2

ELECTROSTATIC LINES OF FORCE

Electrostatic lines of force are the pathways followed by a unit positive test
charge when allowed to do so freely. These are imaginary lines and normal to the surface.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINES OF FORCE

1. Normal to surface
2. Starts from positive and ends with negative

7
 3. Doesn’t form closed loops
4. No two lines of force intersect
5. Longitudinal contraction
6. More the number of lines, greater is the strength
7. Doesn’t pass inside the body
8. Tangent drawn at the line gives direction of field at that point

ELECTRIC DIPOLE
The existence of two equal and opposite charges separated by a definite distance.
a 0 a
+q -q
2a

DIPOLE MOMENT

p = qx2a

S1 unit = Cm

ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT IN THE AXIAL LINE OF DIPOLE

At point P

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 E = E +q - E -q

E +q = kq , E –q = kq
(r - a)2 (r + a)2

E = ( kq ) / ( r – a )2 – ( kq ) / ( r + a )2

= kq [ 1 / ( r – a )2 – 1 / ( r + a )2 ]

= kq [ (( r + a )2 – ( r – a )2 ) / ( r2 – a2 )2 ]

= kq ( r2 + a2 + 2ar – r2 – a2 + 2ar ) / ( r2 – a2 )2

= (kq 4ar) / ( r2 – a2 )2

= ( 2 kpr ) / ( r2 – a2 )2

Case : When a << r,

E = ( 2 kp ) / r3

FOR POINT ON THE EQUATORIAL LINES

Let +q and –q be separated by 2a,

9
 E +q Sin θ = - E –q Sin θ

Hence get cancelled.

E = E +q Cos θ + E –q Cos θ

= ( E +q + E –q ) Cos θ

E +q = ( kq ) / ( r2 + a2 )

E –q = ( kq ) / ( r2 + a2 )

Therefore, E = [ ( 2kq ) / ( r2 + a2 ) ] Cos θ

= [ ( 2kq ) / ( r2 + a2) ] [( a) / ( r2 + a2 ) ½ ]

E = ( kp ) / ( r2 + a2 ) 3/2

If a << r ,

E = ( kp ) / r3

( Eaxis ) / (Eequ ) = ( 2 / 1 )

=2:1

ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCES

1. REPULSION

10
 2. ATTRACTION

TORQUE ON ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

Consider AB a dipole with a distance 2a kept in uniform electric field at angle θ
inclination to the field.

11
Net force = +qE – qE = 0

c = F x Perpedicular distance

= qE x BC

= qE x 2aSin θ

c = pE Sin θ

c = p x E

CASES :
1. When θ = 00
Sinθ = 0, Then c = 0

2. When θ = 900
Sin 900 = 1, Then c = PE :- Max

If dipole moment is parallel to electric field, it is called stable equilibrium.

If dipole moment is opposite to electric field, it is called unstable equilibrium.

12
 c is perpendicular to the plane containing p and E.

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Let torque, c change the position of the dipole by angle dθ, Then, work done,
dW = c dθ
= PE sinθ dθ

θ2
Total Work Done, W =θ1 ∫ PE Sinθ dθ

θ2
W = PEθ ∫ Sinθ dθ
1

W = PE [ - Cosθ1 – Cosθ2 ]

SPECIAL CASES
θ1 = 900, θ2 = θ
W = PE [ - Cos θ ]
W = - PE Cos θ

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 W= -P. E

AREA VECTOR
The line drawn perpendicular to a given area is called its area vector.

ELECTRIC FLUX
Let ds be the area vector of a surface kept in uniform electric field E.

Then, Φ= E . S
Φ = E . S Cos θ

SPECIAL CASE
Flux is maximum when electric field is parallel to the area vector. [i.e. θ = 00 ]
If θ = 0, Cos θ = 1
Φ = E . S.

GAUSS’S THEOREM

STATEMENT

14
 Gauss’s theorem states that the total electric flux associated with a closed surface
areas in vacuum is equal to 1 / Є0 times the total charge contained in the surface.

ΦE = ( 1 / Є0 ) Q

PROOF
Let q be a charge at the centre of a closed surface (circular) with radius “r”.

dΦ = Eds Cosθ
θ=q
E = ( 1 / 4π Є0 ) ( q / r2 )
dΦ = ( q / 4π Є0 R2 ) ds
Φ = Σ dΦ
= ( q / 4π Є0 R2 ) Σ ds
= ( q / 4π Є0 R2 ) x ( 4πR2 )

Φ = ( q / Є0 )

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S THEOREM

1. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A LINE OF CHARGE

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 At the cylindrical part of the surface, E is normal to the surface at every
point, it depends only on r. Flux through the Gaussian surface = Flux
through curved part of the surface.

+ E x 2π r l ( λ > 0 )

- E x 2π r l ( λ < 0 )

Since λ < 0, E is inward

E x 2π r l = (λ l / Є0 ) ( λ > 0 )

- E x 2π r l = (λ l / Є0 ) ( λ < 0 )

E= λ
2π r Є0

E= λ ^n , ^ n = radial unit vector in the plane

2π r Є0

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED INFINITE PLANE

SHEET
Let a be the uniform surface charge. Cross section area of A. Flux through the
Gaussian surface = Flux through the two face normal to
E = 2E x A ( σ > 0 )

16
 = - 2E x A ( σ < 0 )
Charge enclosed by the closed surface = σ x A
By Gauss’s Theorem,
2EA = ( σ A ) / Є0
- 2EA = (σ A ) / Є0

^
E = (σ / 2 Є0 ) n

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO THICK CONDUCTOR

At point A, flux due to AB ,

Φ=E.ds

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 Therefore, E1 = (σ / 2 Є0 )
Electric field due to C D,

E2 = (σ / 2 Є0 )
Therefore, Total field at A = 2 (σ / 2 Є0 )

E = ( σ / Є0 )

At B, E1 = (σ / 2 Є0 )

E2 = - (σ / 2 Є0 )

Therefore, E=0

At C, as in A, E = (σ / Є0 )

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE OPPOSITELY CHARGED THICK CONDUCTOR

At A, E1 = - E2

Therefore, E = E1 + E2

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 E=0

Similarly, at C , E=0

At B ,
E1 = (σ / 2 Є0 )

E2 = (σ / 2 Є0 )

Therefore, E = 2 (σ / 2 Є0 )

E = (σ / Є0 )

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SPHERICAL SHELL OF UNIFORM CHARGE AT

B
∫ E . ds = Є0
E ∫ ds = q / Є0

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 E . 4πR2 = q / Є0

E = q / (4π R2 Є0 )

At A, ( r < R )

∫ E . ds = q Є0

Since , q = 0
E=0
At C ( r > R )
∫ E d s = q / Є0
E ∫ ds = q / Є0

E = q / (4π r2 Є0 )

Electrostatic Potential [ V ]
The amount of work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to a point
in the electrostatic field is called electrostatic potential.

V=(kq)/r

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EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SINGLE CHARGE
Suppose we have to calculate electric potential at P due to +q at O, where OP = r.
At A,
E = ( k q ) / r2 , along OA

Small amount of work done in moving a unit charge from A to B, AB = d x

dW = E . d x
= E d x Cos θ
As θ = 1800, Cos θ = -1
dW = - E d x
Total work done in moving unit positive charge from ∞ to P.

r
W =∞ ∫ - E dx

r
=∞ ∫ - ( kq ) / x2 dx

r
= - kq ∫ x -2 dx
∞
r
= - kq ∫ ( x -2+1 ) / -1
∞
r
= - kq∞ ∫ - 1 / x

r
= kq [ 1/x ]
∞

= kq ( 1/r – 1/∞ )

W = ( kq ) / r

Since V = W , V = ( kq ) / r

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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A GROUP OF POINT CHARGES

Suppose there are q1, q2, q3, ---- qn at distances r1, r2, r3, ---- rn from P, where electric field
is to be calculated.
Now V at P due to q1
V 1 = k ( q1 / r1 )
Similarly,
V2 = k ( q2 / r2 ) , V3 = k ( q3 / r3 ) , ……

V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ….. Vn

= k [ ( q1 / r1 ) + ( q2 / r2 ) + …… + ( qn / rn )

n
Therefore, V = k ∑ ( qi / ri )
i=1

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POTENTIAL DUE TO A DIPOLE
Let AB be a dipole of length 2a with centre O.

So, P = qx2a

OD = OC = a Cos θ

OP = r , AP = r1 , BP = r2

Net Potential P due to dipole ,

V = ( kq / r2 ) – ( kq / r1 )

= kq [ (1 / r2 ) – ( 1 / r1 )

r12 = ( r + a Cos θ ) 2 + ( a Sin θ ) 2

= r2 + a2 + 2 ar Cos θ

r1 = ( r2 + 2 ar Cos θ ) ½ [ a2 is neglected because a << r ]

r2 = ( r2 - 2 ar Cos θ ) ½

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r1 = r ( r + 2 a Cos θ ) ½

r2 = r ( r - 2 a Cos θ ) ½

1/ r1 = 1/r ( r + 2 a Cos θ )-1/2

1/ r2 = 1/r ( r - 2 a Cos θ )-1/2 Using Binomial Theorem,

Therefore, V = kq [ 1/r ( r - 2 a Cos θ )-1/2 - 1/r ( r + 2 a Cos θ )-1/2 ]

= kq / r [ ( 1/ √ r - 2 a Cos θ ) – ( 1 / √ r + 2 a Cos θ ) ]

= kq / r [ ( √ r + 2 a Cos θ - √ r - 2 a Cos θ ) / √ r2 – (2 a Cos θ)2 ]

As a << r ,
V = ( kq ) / r [( √ r + 2 a Cos θ - √ r - 2 a Cos θ ) / √ r2 ]
V = ( kq ) / r2 [( √ r + 2 a Cos θ ) - ( √ r - 2 a Cos θ ) ]

V = ( kq 2a Cos θ ) / ( r2 – a2 Cos2θ )

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 V = ( k p Cos θ ) / ( r2 – a2 Cos2θ )

When a << r and θ = 00

V = ( k p ) / r2

When θ = 900

V=0

Hence, at a point on equatorial line, the potential is 0.

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
At surface, at every point of which the electric potential is same is called
equipotential surface. Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to field lines.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Electric potential energy of a system of point charges is defined as the total
amount of work done in bringing the various charges to their respective positions from
infinity.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY FOR A SYSTEM OF TWO PARTICLES

Suppose a charge q1 is held at a point P1 with position vector r1 in space.

Another point charge q2 is at infinite distance from q1. This is to be brought to the

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position P2 ( r2 ) where P1P2 = r12

Now, electric potential at P2 due to charge q1 at P1 is

V = ( 1 / 4πЄ0 ) ( q1 / r12 )
V = k ( q1 / r12 )

Work done in carrying charge q2 from ∞ to P2

W = Potential x Charge
W = k ( q1 / r12 ) x q2

Therefore, Potential Energy , U = ( kq1q2 / r12 )

Similarly for n particles

U = k [ ( q1q2 ) / r12 + ( q1q3 ) / r12 + q14 / r14 + …….. + q1n / r12 )

DIELECTRIC
A dielectric is defined as an insulator which can transmit electric effects without
conducting.

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BEHAVIOUR OF CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
1. Net electric field in the interior of a conductor is zero.
2. Net charge in the interior of a conductor is zero.
3. Charge always resides on the outer surface of a conductor.
4. Electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface of
the conductor at every point.
5. Electric potential is constant within and at the surface of each conductor.
6. Surface density of charge is different at different points.

ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING
Electrostatic shielding is the phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space
from external electric field.

Hollow conductors are called Faraday Cages.

CAPACITANCE
It is the measure of ability of the conductor to store charges on it.

Charges stored on a conductor is directly proportional to the electric potential.

Therefore , V α Q
Or , Q α V

Therefore Q = CV C = Capacitance

C depends on size and shape of the conductor and medium in which the conductor is
located.
DEFINITION
Capacitance of a conductor is the amount of charge required to raise its potential
by unity.

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SI unit : Q = CV
C = Q / V = Coulom Volt -1
= Farad

POLAR DIELECTRIC
Induced polarization is directly proportional to electric field.

P α E

P = α E0 E α = Atomic Polarizability

In a substance,

P α E

P = ﴿﴾ E0 E ﴿﴾ = Susceptibility :- Ability of a metal to

allow the lines of forces to pass through it.

PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR
Capacitance of an insulated conductor is increased considerably by bringing near
it an uncharged earthed conductor.
Such an arrangement of two conductors separated by a dielectric medium is said
to form a capacitor or condenser.

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

It consists of two thin conducting plates of area A at distance d from each other.
One of them is insulated and the other is earthed.

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EXPRESSION FOR CAPACITANCE
The electric field intensity between the plates is
E = σ / Є0

As electric intensity between the plates is uniform :

E = V / d , V = Potential difference between the plates
Therefore, V = E d
= ( σ d ) Є0
As, σ = Q / A , therefore
V = Q / A ( d / Є0 )
C = Q / V = Q / ( Qd / A Є0 )
C = Є0A / d

Therefore, C = Є0A / d

CAPACITORS IN SERIES

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 In series connection, Q remains constant.

VAB = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4

Therefore,
Q / C = ( Q / C1 ) + ( Q / C 2 ) + ( Q / C 3 ) + ( Q / C 4 )

Therefore,
1 / C = ( 1 / C1 ) + ( 1 / C2 ) + ( 1 / C3 ) + ( 1 / C4 )

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
In series combination, V is constant.

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 Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

Therefore ,
VC = VC1 + VC2 + VC3

Therefore ,
C = C1 + C 2 + C 3

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR V = Q / C

We know that V = Q / C
Small amount of work done in giving an additional charge dq to the capacitor is
dW = V x dq

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 = ( Q / C ) x dq
Total work done
W = ∫ dW

= ∫ (q / C) dq
q
= 1 / Co ∫ q dq

Q
2
= 1 / C [ q / 2 ]o

W = 1 / 2 ( Q2 / C )

Work done is stored as energy

Therefore ,

U = 1 / 2 ( Q2 / C )

OR ,

U = 1 / 2 CV2 = 1 / 2 QV

ENERGY IN TERMS OF ELECTRIC FIELD

E = ( σ / Є0 ) = Q / ( A Є0 ) Q = EA Є0

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 We know ,
U = Q2 / 2C = ( E2 Є02A2 ) / 2 ( Є0A ) / d

U = ½ E2 Є0 Ad

U = ½ E2 Є0 V
When Volume is unity ,

V = ½ E2 Є0

CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH A DIELECTRIC

SLAB BETWEEN THE PLATES.
Let a dielectric slab of thickness t be placed in between the plates of a capacitor d
apart.

Effective field inside the dielectric is ,

E = E0 – EP
Outside the slab , field remains E0.
Potential difference between two plates is

33
 V = E0 ( d – t ) + E t

But , E0 / E = Єr or K

E = E0 / K

V = E0 ( d – t ) + ( E0 / K ) t

= E0 ( d – t + ( t / K ) )

E0 = σ / Є0 = Q / A Є0

V = Q / A Є0 [ d – t + ( t / K ) ]

C = Q / V = A Є0 / ( d – t + ( t / K )

= Є0A / ( d – t ( 1 - ( 1 / K )

C = Є0A / ( d – t ( 1 - ( 1 / K )

Multiplying with Єr ,

C = ( A Є0Єr / d [ Єr + t / d ( 1 – Єr ) ]

C = Є0Єr / [ Єr + t / d ( 1 – Єr ) ]

VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR

It is a device used for building up high potential differences of the order of a few
million volts.

PRINCIPLE : It is based on :-

34
 1. The action of sharp points, i.e. the phenomena of corona discharge.
2. Charge given to a hollow container is transferred to outer surface and is
distributed uniformly over it.

CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a large spherical conducting shell of radius equal to a few metres.
This is supported at suitable height over insulating pillars P1, P2. A narrow dielectric belt
is wound around two pulley P1 and P2. P1 is at ground level and P2 is at the centre of S.

35
The belt moves continuously with the help of motor. B1 and B2 are two sharply pointed
combs called spray combs. The +ve ions to be accelerated are produced in a discharge
tube D. The ion source lies at its head and the target is at the other end. The generator is
enclosed in a steel chamber filled with N2 or Ch4 at high pressure.

WORKING
The spray comb is given a +ve potential ( ≈ 10 4 V ). (Due to discharging action of
sharp points), a +vely charged electric wind is set up, which is transferred to the belt. As
the belt moves, the charges reach B2 and are deposited on the spherical shell. If q is the
charge on the ion to be accelerated and V is the potential difference developed across the
ends of the discharge tube, then energy acquired by the ions = qV. The ions hit the target
with energy and carry out artificial transmutation.

NUMERICALS

1. How many e- will have a total charge of 1C.

Ans: Q= ne
n=Q/e
= 1 / ( 1.6 x 10-19 )
= 0.625 x 1019
= 6.25 x 1018 e –

2. Calculate Coulomb force between an alpha particle and proton separated by 5.12
x 10-15 m
Ans : Charge on α = 3.2 x 10-19 C
Charge on proton = 1.6 x 10-19 C

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 F = ( Kq1q2 ) / r2
= ( 9 x 109 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 3.2 x 10-19 ) / ( 5.12 x 5.12 x 10-30 )
= ( 9 / 5.12 ) x 101
= 19.1 N

3. What charge will be required to electrify a sphere of radius 25cm so as to get a

surface charge density of 3 / π Cm-2 ?
Ans : σ=3/π
r = 0.25 m
Q=σA
= ( 3 / π ) x 4 π x (0.25)2
= 12 x 625 x 10-4
= 0.75 C

4. A particle of mass 4 x 10-13 kg and charge 2.4 x 10-18 C is hanging stationary

between two horizontal charged plates separated by a distance of 2cm. Find the
potential difference between the plates.
Ans : F = mg
Or, qE = mg
V = Ed
= ( mg / q ) d
= ( 4 x 10-13 x 9.8 x 0.02 ) / ( 2.4 x 10-18 )
= [ ( 8 x 9.8 ) / 2.4 ] x 103
= ( 98 / 3 ) x 103
= 32.6 x 103 Volts
= 3.26 x 104 Volts
5. A parallel plate capacitor is partially filled with an ebonite plate of thickness
6mm. The area of plates is 2 x 10-2m2. The distance between the plates is 0.1m.
The dielectric constant for ebonite is 3. Calculate the capacitance.
Ans: C = ( Є0 Єx A ) / d
= CO / [ 1 – ( t / d ) ] [ 1 – ( 1 / k ) ]

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 = ( 8.85 x 10-12 x 2 x 10-2 ) / ( - ( 6 x 10-3 ) / 0.1 ) ( 1 – 1 / 3 )
= ( 8.85 x 2 x 10-14 ) / [ ( 100 – 6 ) x 10-3 ] / ( 100 x 10-3 ) ( 2 / 3 )
= ( 17.7 x 10-14 ) / [ ( 94 / 100 ) ( 2 / 3 )
= 18.44 x 10-13 Farad

6. A potential difference of 120V is applied to a combination of 2 capacitors :- C1 =

4μF , C2 = 12μF connected in series. Calculate :-

1. Effective Capacitance
Ans : 1 / C S = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2
= 1 / 4 + 1 / 12
1 / CS = 4 / 12
CS = 12 / 4 = 3μF

2. The potential difference and charge for each of these capacitors

Ans: In Series connection , Q remains constant
Cs = Q / V
Q = CSV
= 3 x 120 = 360 μC
V 1 = Q / C1 = 360 / 4 = 90 V
V 2 = Q / C2 = 360 / 12 = 30 V

7. If 200 J of work is done in carrying a charge of 2C from a place where potential

difference is -10V to another place where potential is V. Find V.
Ans: W = QdV
dV = V – ( -10 ) = V + 10
Q = 2C

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 W = 200 J
Therefore, V + 10 = 200 / 2 = 100
V = 90 Volts

8. Two point charges +100μC and - 400 μC are kept 30cm apart. Find the point of
zero potential on the line joining the 2 charges.
Ans: Let the point be x distance for +100μC.
Then it will be 0.30 –x cm from - 400 μC
Then,
k [ ( q1 / r1 ) + ( q2 + r2 )] = 0
( q1 / r1 ) + ( q2 + r2 ) = 0
( 100 / x ) = ( 400 / ( 30 – x ) )
30 – x = 4 x
5 x = 30
x = 6 cm

9. Find the potential at the centre of the square

U = U1 + U2 + U3 + U4
= ( kq1 / r ) + ( kq2 / r ) + ( kq3 / r ) + ( kq4 / r )
= ( k / r ) ( q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 )
= ( 9 x 103 ) / ( 1 / √ 2 ) [ 1-2+2+3 ]
= 9 √ 2 x 40
= 1.41 x 9 x 40
= 507.6 NmC-1

39
10. Find the effective capacitance

1 / C1 = (1 / C3) + (1 / C4) + (1 / C5)

= (1 / 3) + (1 / 2) + (1 / 3)
= (2 / 3) + (1 / 2)
=(4+3)/6

40
 =7/6
C1 = 6 / 7
C11 = C2 + C 1
= 2 + (6 / 7)
= 20 / 7
Resultant
1 / CR = (1 / C1 ) + (1 / C11) + (1 / C6)
1 / CR = (1 / 3) + (7 / 20) + (1 / 3)
= (2 / 3) + (7 / 20 )
1 / CR = ( 40 + 21 ) / 60
Cr = 60 / 61

11. Find the value of C if total C = 1μF

41
C1 = + [ 4 + ( 1 / ( 1/6 + 1/12 ))]
=4+4=8
C11 = 4
1 / sC1 = 1 / 1 + 1 / 8

1 / sC1 = 9 / 8

1
C
s =8/9

11
1/C
s =1/8+1/4
=3/8

11
C
s = 8/3

CR = 8 / 9 + 8 / 3 = 32 / 9

1 / C + 1 / CR = 1

1 / C + 9 / 32 = 1

32 C = 32 + 9C
23 C = 32
C = 32 / 23

42
12. Calculate the charge through each capacitor

V = 300 V
C1 = 100 pF
Q1 = C1V
= 3 x 104 pC
V = 300 V
C2 = 200 pF
Therefore, Q2 = 6 x 104 pC
Q3 = 6 x 104 pC
Q4 = 100 x 300
= 3 x 104 pC

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

ELECTRIC CURRENT

43
 Electric current across an area held perpendicular to the direction of flow of
charge is defined to be the amount of charge flowing across the area per unit time.
I=Q/t

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
It comes to act when a non-electric conducting battery is placed on a surface.
E.mf of a cell is always greater than the potential difference.
The electrochemical cell and thermocouples and the electric generator are
examples of sources of emf.
DEFINITION : The max work done per unit charge by the source in taking the charge
from lower to higher potential energy is called the emf.

DRIFT VELOCITY [Vd]

Drift velocity is the average velocity with which electrons move in the direction
opposite to the direction of flow of current.
Vd = a c
=(F/m)c
=[(eЄ)/m] c

Vd = [ ( e V ) / ml ] c [ c = Relaxation time ]

CURRENT IN TERMS OF Vd
I=Q/t
Vd = [ ( e V ) / ml ] c

Or , I = n e A Vd n = No. of e- per unit volume

OHM’S LAW

44
 The electric current I flowing through a substance is proportional to the voltage V
across its ends, i.e. V α I or V = IR, where R is called the resistance. Unit of resistance is
ohm. 1 Ω = 1 V A-1
VαI

V= I R

Or, R=V/I

RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

The resistance R of a conductor depends on its length l and cross-sectional area
through
Rα l/A

R=

* Resistivity depends upon physical conditions and nature of the substance and is
independent of the cross sectional area.

The inverse of ----- is called conductivity and is denoted by the symbol “σ “. The
unit of σ is ( Ω m-1 ) or Siemen m-1.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP OF OHM’S LAW

45
According to the interpretation of Ohm’s law which states that V α I when temp is
constant has a graph straight line. After a considerable time, when T is not constant V is
not α to I and the graph becomes curved.

COLOUR CODE FOR RESISTORS

A colour code is used to indicate the resistance value and its percentage accuracy.

46
RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY IN TERMS OF “N” AND “E-“
1. RESISTANCE
I = n e A Vd

I = [ ( n e2 A V ) / ml ] I

But R = V / I

R = ( ml / n e2 A I )

2. RESISTIVITY

MOBILITY [ μ ]
Mobility is defined as the magnitude of Vd per unit electric field.

μ = Vd / E

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE

1. CONDUCTORS
For conductors when temperature increases c decreases and resistance increases.

2. ALLOYS
Alloys weakly depend on temperature

3. INSULATORS

47
 For insulators, resistance increases with increase in temperature. Over a limited
temperature range that is not too large, the resistivity of a metallic conductor
increases.

4. ELECTROLYTES
Resistance decreases with increase in temp can often be represented
approximately by a linear relation.

RT = R0 [ 1 + α ( T – T0 ) ]
Temperature t = [ ( Rt – R0 ) / ( R100 – R0 ) ] x 100
Where, Rt = R0 ( 1 + α t )

RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance [%]

Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5
Silver 10-2 10
No colour 20

LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW :

1. Ohm’s law is not a fundamental law of nature.

2. There are a no. of commonly used circuits with one or more of the following
properties.
a. V depends on I non-linearly.

48
 b. The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V for the same absolute
value of V.
c. The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e, for the same current I, there is
more than one value of voltage.

CELL
Cell is a source of emf chemical energy stored in a cell. Combination of cell gives
a battery.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELL :

The prevention to the flow of current offered by the cell. Internal resistance
depends on the following factors.
1. Area of electrodes.
2. Distance of separation of electrodes.
3. Nature of electrodes and electrolytes.

W1 = I r [ Internal ] Vint
W2 = Vext = I R
E = I r + Vext
r = ( E – Vext ) / I
E=I(r+R)
E/I=r+R

49
 Therefore, r=(E/I)–R
= R[(E/IR)–1]

r=R[(E/V)–1]

COMBINATION OF CELLS
1. SERIES
I=(nE)/(nr+R)

2. PARALLEL
I=E/(r/n+R)

OHMIC SUBSTANCES
The substances which follow ohm’s law are called ohmic substances.

NON-OHMIC SUBSTANCES
The substances which do not follow ohm’s law are called non-ohmic substances.

50
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
1. SERIES

In series combination, the current I remains constant.

V = V1 + V2 + V3
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IR = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3

2. PARALLEL

In parallel combination, V is constant and

I = I1 + I2 + I3
V / R = V/ R1 + V/ R2 + V/ R3
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

KIRCHOFF’S RULE
1. JUNCTION RULE

51
 It states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in a closed
circuit is zero.
I1 + I3 = I2 + I4

2. LOOP RULE
It states that in any closed path of an electrical circuit (or closed loop), the
algebraic sum of all the potential difference is zero.

ΣΔV=0

In loop, ABEFA ,
E1 = I3R3 – I1R1 = 0

In loop, BCDEB ,
- E2 + I2R2 + I3R3 = 0

52
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE PRINCIPLE

It states that if four resistances P,Q,R,S are arranged to form a bridge with a cell E
and one way key K1 between A and C and a galvanometer G and tapping key K2 between
the points B and D, on closing K1 and K2 later on, if galvanometer shows no deflection,
then bridge is balanced.

PROOF : In loopABDA,
I1P + Ig G – ( I – I1 ) R = 0 ----- (1)
In loop BCDB,
( I1 – Ig )Q – ( I – I1 + Ig )S – IgG = 0 ----- (2)
We know, Ig = 0
Therefore, I1P = ( I – I1 )R ---- (1)

And I1Q = ( I – I1 )S ---- (2)

Dividing (1) and (2) ,

P/Q=R/S
53
APPLICATIONS OF WHEATSTONE PRINCIPLE
1. METRE BRIDGE
To find the unknown resistance

54
2. TO DETERMINE UNKNOWN TEMPERATURE

P/Q=R/S
P / Q = R / R0
R0 = ( Q / P ) R ----- (1)
R100 = ( Q / P ) R1 ----- (2)
Rt = (Q / P ) R11 ----- (3)
R100 = R0 ( 1 + α 100 )
R100 – R0 = R0 x α x 100 ---- (4)
Rt – R0 = R 0 α t ---- (5)
(5) / (4) gives

55
 t = [ ( Rt – R0 ) / ( R100 – R0) ] 100

LIMITATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Wheatstone bridge cannot measure very small or very high resistances.

POTENTIOMETER
The device which can measure potential difference and using which we can
compare emf of two cell and can find the internal resistance of given cell is known as
potentiometer

PRINCIPLE: According to it, the potential drops across a wire is directly proportional to
the length of wire.
V=IR

V = Kl [ If A and I are constant ]

Where k = V / l [ Potential gradient ]

APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER :
1. A battery of emf E is connected between terminals A and B of a potentiometer with
Rh and key K. Two cells of emf E1 and E2 to be compared are connected in parallel.
The +ve terminal of both cells are connected to A and the negative to B via two keys
K1 and K2. K1 and K2 are commonly connected to the jockey through the
galvanometer.
Now, E1 = VAD = kl1 [ where k is the potential gradient ]
Also, E2 = VAC = kl2

Therefore, E1 / E2 = l1 / l2

56
2. To find the internal resistance of a cell :
Close key K and maintain a suitable current. Adjust the position of jockey such
that there is no deflection. Note the length of wire.
E = VAD = kl1 ---- (1)
Now, switch K1 also on, then R is also introduced in the circuit. Again find the
position of jockey where there is no deflection. Let the length be l2.
Therefore, VAC = kl2
V = kl2 ----(2)
Dividing, (1) and (2),
E / V = l1 / l2
Internal resistance of cell is given by :-

57
 r = R (( E / V ) – 1 )
Therefore r = [ ( l1 / l2 ) – 1 ] R

r = [ ( l1 – l2 ) / l2] R

NUMERICALS

1. How many e- pass through a lamp in one minute if the current is 300mA.
I = 300 mA
= 300 x 10-3 A
t = 60 s
I=Q/t
Q=ne
Therefore, I=ne/t
n=It/e
= ( 300 x 10-3 x 60 ) / ( 1.6 x 10-19 )

58
 = 1.125 x 1020

2. What is the drift velocity of an e- in a Cu of cross section 5x10-6m2, if current is

10A. Assume that there are 8x1028 e- per m3.
I = 10 A
n = 8 x 1028
e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
A = 5 x 10-6 m2
Therefore, Vd = I / ( n e A )
= 10 / ( 8 x 1028 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 5 x 10-6 )
= ( 10 / 64 ) x 10-3
= 1.56 x 10-4 m/s

3. Two wires A and B of equal mass and of same material are taken. Diameter of A
is half the diameter B. If resistance of A is 32 Ω. Find R of B.

4. At what temperature would the resistance of a Cu (Copper) conductor be doubled

its resistance at 0o C.

59
 α = ( Rt – R0 ) / R0t
2 R 0 = Rt
α = (1 / 273)0 C-1
α = ( 2R0 – R0 ) / R0t
α = R0 / ( R0t )
1 / 273 = 1 / t
Therefore t = 2730 C

5. Find the equivalent resistance between A and B.

Resistances at ACD =3+2
=5Ω
1 / RAD = 1 / 5 + 1 / 10
= 3 / 10
Therefore, RAD = 10 / 3
RACDB = ( 10 / 3 ) + 5
= 25 / 3
RAB = ( 3 / 25 ) + ( 1 / 10 )
= 250 / 55
= 50 / 11
= 4.5 Ω

60
6. Find resistance between A and B.
We can take it as :-

1 / RCD = ( 1 / 10 ) + ( 1 / 20 )
= 3 / 20
RCD = 20 / 3
Therefore, RAB = 10 + ( 20 / 3 ) + 10
= 80 / 3

7. Find the resistance between A and B.

61
 RACD = 3 + 3
=6Ω
1 / RAD = ( 1 / 6 ) + ( 1 / 6 )
=2/6
=1/3
RAD = 3 Ω
RADE = 3 + 3 = 6 Ω
RAE =3Ω
RAEB =3+3=6Ω
Therefore, 1 / RAB = ( 1 / 6 ) + ( 1 / 6 )
=1/3
Therefore, RAB = 3Ω
1. Define electric potential and find the formula for dipole.
2. What is the new capacitance of a parallel plate capacitors with a dielectric slab.
What is the change in energy and potential of dielectric slab.

1. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive test charge from infinity to a
point against the electric field is called the electric potential at that point.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO DIPOLE.

Let AB be a dipole and P be the point where we have to find the electric potential.

62
 OP = r
AO = OB = a
In Δ AOR, OR = a Cosθ

E at P due to ( - q ) and ( + q ) at P

AP ≈ PR
≈ r + a Cosθ
PB ≈ r – a Cosθ
Therefore, Potential at P = ( kq ) / ( PB ) – ( kq ) / ( AP )
= kq ( 1 / PB – 1/ AP )
= kq [ 1 / ( r – a Cosθ ) – 1 / ( r + a Cosθ ) ]
= kq [ ( r + a Cosθ ) – ( r – a Cosθ ) ] / ( r2 – a2Cos2θ )
= kq ( 2a Cosθ ) / ( r2 – a2Cos2θ )
= kP Cosθ / ( r2 – a2 Cos2θ )

2. Let a capacitor be of distance d and a dielectric slab of thickness t.

Then, net electric field intensity.
E = E0 + E1
V = E0 ( d – t ) + Ei t

63
 Ei = E0 / K
Therefore, V = E0 ( d – t ) + ( E0 / k ) t
= E0 [ ( d – t ) + ( t / k ) ]
= E0 [ d – t ( 1 – 1 / k )]
= σ / Є0 [ d – t ( 1 – 1 / k ) ]
= Q / AЄ0 [ d – t ( 1 – 1 / k ) ]
C=Q/V
= ( AЄ0 ) / [ d – t ( 1 – 1 / k )]
Energy stored = ( 1/ 2 ) QV
= ( 1 / 2 ) Q2 / AЄ0 [ d – t ( 1 – 1 / k )]
New potential = Q / AЄ0 [ d – t ( 1 – 1 / k ) ]
Energy increases potential remains the same.

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT

When we pass current through a conductor, the conductor starts behaving like a
magnet , this property of current is called magnetic effect of current.

OERSTED’S EXPERIMENT
Oersted proved the presence of magnetic effect of current experimentally. He
allowed the current to pass through a conductor as shown in the figure placing a magnetic
needle first under a conductor. When he passed current, the magnetic needle got deflected

64
and the deflection got reverse on the reversing of direction of current which proves the
presence of magnetic field.

65
AMPERE’S SWIMMING RULE
According to this, if a person swimming along the conductor facing the needle in
such a way that current enters his leg and leaves his head, then direction of deflection of
north pole of needle will be towards the left hand side of the swimmer.

SNOW
If direction of current is from south to north, then the north pole of the needle will
be deflected towards westward direction.

MAGNETIC FIELD
The space around a magnet or current carrying conductor in which its magnetic
effects can be experienced is called magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH

66
 FαB
Fαq
F α V Sinθ
F α BqV Sinθ
F = k BqV Sinθ
When k = 1,
F = BqV Sinθ

F=q(V x B)

F = BqV Sinθ
If q = 1 C
v = 1 m/s2
θ = 900

F=B
DEFINITION
Magnetic field strength may be defined as a force experienced by a unit charged
body with unit velocity moving at 90o to the direction of magnetic field.

SPECIAL CASES
1. If q = 0, F=0

2. v = 0, F=0

3. If θ = 0 or 1800

67
 Sinθ = Sin1800 = 0
Therefore, F=0

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

If we stretch the middle finger, thumb and index finger mutually perpendicular to
each other such that the index finger gives the direction of magnetic field, the middle
finger shows the direction of current, then the thumb will show the direction of force
experienced by the conductor.

SI UNIT OF B
B = F / qVSinθ
= N / C m/s
= Ns c-1 m-1
= Telsa [ T ]
Or, = N / As m/s
= N A-1 m-1

DIMENSIONAL FORMULA

68
 B = F / I t V Sinθ
= ( M1 L1 T-2 ) / ( A T L1 T-1 )
B = [ M1 L-2 A-1 ]

BIOT SAVART’S LAW

dB α ( I dl Sinθ ) / r2
dB = ( K I dl Sinθ ) / r2
K = μ0 / 4π [ SI system ]
K=1 [ C.G.S. system ]

dB = μ0 / 4π ( I dl Sinθ ) / r2 μ0 = Permeability of free space

μ0 = 4π x 10-7 TA-1m
In vector form,
d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl Sinθ ) / r2] r
= ( μ0 / 4π ) [ ( I dl Sinθ r / r3 ]

d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) I (dl x r ) / r3

69
STATEMENT
The magnetic field near a small current carrying conductor (element) is directly
proportional to the current flowing through the conductor (element) its length, angle
between the conductor and position vector of the point and inversely proportional to the
square of distance between them.

Direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r and can be
found by Right Hand Thumb or Screw Rule.

MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING

CURRENT

a = radius of coil
I = current through coil
P = Centre of coil

70
 According to Biot – Savort’s Law,
d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl Sinθ ) / r2]
Let the coil be divided in a number of small divisions dl
d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl Sin900 ) / a2]
d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl ) / a2]
B = ∫ ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl ) / a2]
B = ( μ0 / 4π ) ( I / a2 ) ∫ dl
= ( μ0 I / 4π a2 ) x 2π a

B = ( μ0 I ) / 2 a

If there are n coils,

B = n [ ( μ0 I ) / 2 a ]

B = ( μ0 n I ) / 2 a ]

RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE

If we curl the fingers of right hand in a plane perpendicular to thumb such that
direction of thumb indicate direction of current in a straight conductor, then direction of
fingers will give the direction of field in straight current carrying conductor.

71
DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTRE OF THE COIL
Direction of magnetic field at the centre of coil will be perpendicular to the plane
of the coil and directed inward and can be found by Right Hand Thumb / Palm Rule.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING

CURRENT.

72
 d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl Sinθ ) / r2] ---- (1)
In Δ OCP, θ + Φ = 900
θ = 90 – Φ

Sinθ = Sin ( 90 – Φ )
Sinθ = Cos Φ ----- (2)
Cos Φ = a / r
r = a / Cos Φ ---- (3)
tan Φ = l / a
l = a tan Φ
dl = a sec2Φ dΦ ----- (4)

d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I a sec2Φ dΦ Cos Φ) / a2 sec2Φ ] --- [from (!),(2),(3) & (4)]

d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I Cos Φ dΦ) / a]
d B = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I Cos Φ dΦ) / a] ---- (5)
B = ∫ dB

Φ2
=Φ1 ∫ ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I Cos Φ dΦ) / a]
Φ2
= ( μ0 / 4π ) ( I / a )Φ1 ∫ Cos Φ dΦ

Φ2
= ( μ0 / 4π ) ( I / a ) [ SinΦ Φ
]
1

B = ( μ0 / 4π ) ( I / a ) [ SinΦ / 2 – Sin ( - Φ1 )]

73
 = ( μ0 / 4π ) ( I / a ) [ SinΦ2 + Sin Φ1 ]

SPECIAL CASES
1. If point P is near the centre of wire & conductor is of infinite length,
Then Φ1 = 900 , Φ2 = 900
B = ( μ0 I / 4π a ) ( Sin 900 + Sin 900 )

B = ( μ0 I / 2π a )

2. If P is near one end , say X,

Φ1 = 0 , Φ2 = 900
B = ( μ0 I / 4π a ) ---(1)

B = ( μ0 I / 4π a )

3. If point P is at the centre of wire / conductor ,

Φ1 = 0 , Φ2 = 0 or 1800 ,

B=0

NOTE : a is not 0 , because there is some distance between centre of conductor

and point.
DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field will be in form of concentric circle perpendicular to the straight
conductor and direction can be found by right hand thumb rule.

74
MAGNETIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE AXIS OF CURRENT CARRYING
COIL

Let a is radius of coil carrying current I

a << x
Two current elements K & L are at opposite ends of diameter.
Magnetic field at P due to element K
dB = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl Sinθ ) / r2]
θ = 900 ( Angle between dl & r ) , r = √ a2 + x2
Therefore, dB = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl / ( √ a2 + x2 )2] [ Along PM ]
dB = ( μ0 / 4π ) [( I dl / ( √ a2 + x2 )2] ---- (1)
dB is magnetic field at point P due to current element at diametrically opposite end
dB1 = ( μ0 I dl / 4π ( a2 + x2 ) ) along PN

75
 dBCosΦ and dBSinΦ are components of dB along BY and PX.
dBCosΦ & dB1SinΦ are components of dB1 along PY1 and PX
dBCosΦ and dB1CosΦ cancel each other.
Net magnetic field due to both elements = 2dBSinΦ
Magnetic field due to 1 element = dBSinΦ
Total magnetic field B = ∫ dBSinΦ
B = ∫ ( μ0 I dl / 4π ( a2 + x2 ) ) SinΦ
B = ( μ0 I SinΦ / 4π ( a2 + x2 ) ) ∫ dl
SinΦ = a / ( √ a2 + x2 )
B = [( μ0 I ) / 4π ( a2 + x2 )] [( a ) / ( √ a2 + x2 ) ∫ dl
= [( μ0 I a ) / 4π ( a2 + x2 )3/2] x 2π a
= [( μ0 I a2 ) / 2( a2 + x2 )3/2]

SPECIAL CASE
If point P is at the centre of coil , x = 0
B = [( μ0 I 2π a2 ) / 4π ( a2 )3/2]

B = ( μ0 I ) / 2a

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

It states that line integral of magnetic filed in a closed path in vacuum is µ o times
the current threading through the closed path (current causing the magnetic field).

76
PROOF OF AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
Let XY is a straight conductor carrying I current.
B is strength of magnetic field at any point P r distance away from it.
B = ( μ0 I ) / 2π r

SOLENOID
An insulated long wire closely wounded in the form of helix such that its length is
very large as compared to its diameter is called solenoid.

77
TOROID
A long solenoid bound in form of a ring is called toroid.

78
 Toroid have magnetic field without any magnetic pole.

NUMERICALS
Q.1. A horizontal overhead powerline carries I = 90 A. What is the direction and
magnitude of magnetic field due to current 1.5m below the line.
Ans. B = μ0I / 2πA
= μ0 2 II / 4πA
= ( 4 π x 10-7 x 2 x 90 T ) / ( 4 π x 1.5 )
= 120 x 10-7 T
= 12 μT in southward direction

79
Q.2. A cell is connected across two points P & Q of uniform circular conductor. Find
the magnetic field at centre O.

B = μ0I / 2a
B = ( μ0I / 4πA ) / 2π

Let a be radius of loop, l1 and l2 be length of PST and PRT respectively.

For loop PST,
B = ( μ0I2 l2 sin 900 ) / 4πa2 perpendicular inwards
For loop PRT,
B = ( μ0I1 l1 sin 900 ) / 4πa2 perpendicular inwards

As both are connected in parallel,

I1R1 = I2R2
I1 l 1 = I 2 l 2

80
 Using equation 3 in 1 & 2,
B = B’
As B due to both parts are equal and opposite. So, it will cancel each other and the
net magnetic field will be zero.

Q.3. A circular segment of radius 10cm subtend an angle of 600 at its centre. A current
of 9A. Find the B at centre.
Ans. A = 10cm = 10-1m
I=9A
B = ( 4π x 10-7 x 9 ) / ( 4π x 10-1 ) x ( π / 3 )
= 3π x 10-6 T
= 3π μT
= 9.42 μT
Direction will be perpendicularly inwards.

Q.4. Two wires A and B have the same length equal to 44cm and carry a current of
10A each. Wire A is bent into a circle and wire B is bent into a square. Which wire
produces a greater magnetic field at the centre. Obtain the magnetic field magnitude @
the centre of the 2 wires.
Ans. In 1st case [ loop ]
2π r = 44
a = - 44 / 2π = 22 / π = 7 x 10-2
B = ( μ0I / 4π a ) x 2π
= ( 10-7 x 10 x 2π ) / ( 22 / π x 10-2 )
= 10-6 x π2 / 11 x 10-2
= 10-6 x 2π / 7 x 10-2
= ( 2π / 7 ) x 10-4 T
= ( 2 x 22 / 49 ) x 10-4 T
= 0.9 x 10-4 T
= 9 x 10-5 T --- (1)

81
 In 2nd case
l = 11 x 10-2 m
We know for straight conductor,
B = μ0I / 4π a ( Sin Φ1 + Sin Φ2 )
= [ [ ( 4π x 10-7 x 10 ) / ( 4π x 11/2 ) ] √ 2 ] 4
= ( 2√ 2 x 10 x 10-7 ) / 11/2 x 10-2 ) 4
= 4 ( 2.57 x 10-7 ) / 10-2
= 10.28 x 10-5 T
= 10.28 x 10-5 T ---- (2)

From 1 & 2,
Magnetic field at the centre of square is greater than that at the centre of circle.

H.W
1. Find B at the centre of the loop

2. The wire shown in fig carries a current of 60A. Determine the magnitude of
magnetic field induction. Given radius of bent coil is 2cm.

82
 3. An electric current of I Ampere is flowing in a long conductor CG. Find the
magnitude and direction of B @ centre of path.

4. If a long horizontal conductor is bent and I is passed, find the magnitude and
direction of B at the centre of path.

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

Let m = mass of charged particle
q = charge on it
v = it’s velocity
a = acceleration
E = Electric field intensity
Force acting , F = Eq
Acceleration a = F / m = Eq / m ---- (1)

83
 Time taken by charged particle to cross field,
t=x/v ---- (2)
S = ut + ½ a t2
For motion along y axis
S = y , u = 0 , a = Eq / m , t = x / v

y = 0 + ½ ( Eq / m ) ( x / v )2
y = [ ( Eq ) / ( 2 mv2 ) ] x2

y = kx2 [ k = ( Eq) / 2 mv2 ]

Thus, we conclude that if a charged particle enter a field perpendicularly, it

follows a parabolic path inside the field and come out of field with higher velocity
[ increased energy]

If particle is moving parallel to electric field its velocity will increase with a = Eq / m.

If particle is moving antiparallel, it experiences acceleration of Eq/m and its velocity will
decrease.

84
FORCE ON CHARGED PARTICLE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

Let B is the strength of magnetic field

q = Charge of particle
v = Velocity of particle
θ = Angle at which the particle moves with respect to field
v Cosθ = v1
v Sinθ = v2

Force acting on v2 component

F = q ( v2 x B )
= q v2BSin900

F = q v2B

Direction of force is always perpendicular to the plane containing v2 & B.

Thus, forces the charge to move in a circular path ,

85
 Force on v1
F = q ( v1 x B )
F = q v1BSin 0

F=0 v1 remains constant

As a resultant of both forces, the charged particle follow a helical path and come
out of the field without any change in energy.

SPECIAL CASES
If θ = 900, the charged particle will move in a circular path.

LORENTZ FORCE
The force experienced by a charged particle in a space where both electric and
magnetic field exist is known as Lorentz Force.

Fe = q E

Fm = q ( v x B )

F = Fe + Fm

F=qE +q(v x B)

F=q[E + (v x B)]

CYCLOTRONE
A device which can accelerate positive charged particle like proton, positron, etc.

86
PRINCIPLE :
A charged particle can be accelerated to large speed and energy by passing it
through an oscillating electric field again and again using a strong perpendicular
magnetic field.

CONSTRUCTION

WORKING
When we introduce a positively charged particle at P, when D1 have –ve & D2
have +ve charge. The +ve charge will accelerate towards D1. After entering D1 it follows
a semi-circular path and reach the end of D1 in fixed time. Exactly same time polarities of
the discs change. D2 becomes –ve and D1 becomes +ve. And the charged particle again
accelerate while passing through the gap between the Ds and reach D2 with higher
velocity and follow a semi-circular path in D2 with higher radius and velocity. This
process continues and everytime the charge crosses the gap between the discs, its velocity

87
increases and radius of its circular path keep on increasing (spiral path) until we bring it
out of window W1 using a small –ve potential.
q = Charge on the particle
v = Velocity of the particle
B = Magnetic field intensity
M = Mass of the charged particle

The magnetic field apply force on the charged particle which provide necessary
centripetal force
Therefore, Bqv = ( mv2 ) / r

r = ( mv ) / Bq ---- (1)
Time taken to complete semi – circular path
t=(πr)/v

t = ( πmv ) / ( Bqv )

t = ( πm ) / Bq

Time period of cyclotron,

T=2t
T = 2 ( πm ) / Bq

T = ( 2πm ) / Bq
Frequency of cyclotron,
υ = 1 / T = 1 / ( 2πm / Bq )

υ = ( Bq ) / ( 2πm ) which is constant & kept equal to frequency

of oscillator.

Maximum Kinetic Energy of Cyclotron,

Let r0 & v0 are max radius & max velocity respectively.

88
 Bqv0 = ( mv02 ) / r0
v0 = ( Bqr0 ) / m
Max K.E = ½ m ( Bqr0 / m )2

KE = ½ [ ( B2q2r02 ) / m ]

LIMITATIONS OF CYCLOTRON :
1. It cannot accelerate the speed of charged particle beyond a certain limit. Because,
with increase in speed, the mass of charged particle start increasing (v is
comparable to c), following m = m0 / √ 1 – (v2/c2) and because of increased mass
the charge take longer time to reach the edge & thus go out of step with changing
polarity.

2. It cannot accelerate electron because of smaller mass of e-, e- will reach edge of D
before the change in polarity of D. as a result, e- quickly go out of step to the
changing polarity of electric field.

3. It cannot accelerate neutral charged particles.

FORCE OF CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN MAGNETIC

FIELD.
l = length
A = area
n = No. of e- per unit volume
Vd = Drift velocity
B = Magnetic field intensity
I = Magnitude of current

89
 Force acting of 1 free e-

f = - e- ( Vd x B )

Total number of free e- in conductor N = nAl

Total force on all the e- = F = f N

Therefore, F = nAl [ - e- ( Vd x B ) ]

= - nAle- ( Vd x B ) --- (1)

We know I = AneVd
I l = Ane Vd l ---- (2)
Putting (2) in (1)

F=Il x B
= B I l Sinθ

Case
1. If θ = 900
Therefore, F=BIl [Max] Perpendicular to plane containing l & B

90
 2. If θ = 00
F=0

The direction of force can be found out by Fleming’s left hand rule.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS CARRYING CURRENT

B1 is the magnetic field due to 1st conductor @ r distance away from it.
B1 = ( μ02I1 ) / ( 4π r )
2nd conductor is placed in the field of 1st conductor
Therefore, for acting per unit length of 2nd conductor due to 1st conductor.
F2 = B1I2 l Sinθ
F2 = B1I2 [ l = 1 , θ = 900 ]
F2 = ( μ02I1I2 ) / ( 4π r ) [ Perpendicularly towards second
Conductor ]
B2 = ( μ02I2 ) / ( 4π r )
Force per unit length of 1st conductor,
F1 = B2I11 Sin 900
F1 = B2I1
F1 = ( μ02I2I1 ) / ( 4π r ) [ Direction is perpendicular to the 1st
Conductor in the plane of paper
towards 2nd conductor ]
F1 = F2
It shows 2 linear parallel conductors carrying current in same direction will attract
each other with force.
F = ( 2μ0I1I2 ) / ( 4π r )

91
II. When current is in opposite directions, they will repel each other with same force,
which is equal to F = ( μ02I1I2 ) / ( 4π r )

92
 B1 is the magnetic field due to 1st conductor at r distance away from it.
B1 = ( μ02I1 ) / ( 4π r )
2nd conductor is in field of 1st conductor
Therefore, force acting per unit length of 2nd conductor due to 1st.
F2 = B1I2
F2 = ( μ02I1I2 ) / ( 4π r ) [ Perpendicularly away from 2nd
Conductor ]
B2 = ( μ02I2 ) / ( 4π r )
Force per unit length of 2nd conductor
F1 = B2I1
= ( μ02I1I2 ) / ( 4π r ) [ Perpendicularly away from 2nd
Conductor ]
Therefore, F1 = - F2
It shows two linear parallel conductor carrying current in opposite
direction will repel each other with force.
F = 2 ( μ0I1I2 ) / ( 4π r )

AMPERE
F = ( μ0 2 I1I2 ) / ( 4π r )
If I1 = I2 = I
r=1

93
 F = 2 x 10-7 Nm-1
Therefore, 2 x 10-7 = ( 4π x 10-7 x 2 I2 ) / ( 4π x 1 )
Therefore I2 = 1

Therefore I =1

OR

F = ( μ0 2 I1I2 ) / ( 4π r )
If I1 = I2 = I
r=1
Then, F = ( 4π x 10-7 x 2 x 1) / ( 4π )

Therefore = 2 x 10-7 N

DEFINITION
1 Ampere is that much amount of current which when flows through two parallel
conductors placed 1m apart in vacuum, then both the conductors experience a force of
2x10-7 N per unit length on each other.

* When conductors of different length, still the conductors experience equal force on
each other with magnitude of F = [ 2 ( μ0 I1I2 ) / ( 4π r )] x l , where “l” is the length of
smaller one.

TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL PLACED IN A MAGNETIC

FIELD.
Let l = length of the coil
b = breadth of the coil
I = current passing through the coil
Φ = Angle between face of coil & B

94
Let F1, F2, F3 and F4 are the forces acting on PQ, QR, RS and SP branch of coil.

F1 = BIPQ Sin 900

F1 = BI l [ Along outward direction perpendicular plane of paper ]

F2 = B l QR Sin Φ
= B I b Sin Φ [ Perpendicularly downward in perpendicular plane of paper ]

F3 = B I RS Sin 900
=BIl [ Perpendicularly inward to the plane of paper ]

F4 = B l SP Sin (180 – Φ )
F4 = B l b Sin Φ [ Perpendicular upward in the plane of paper ]

95
F2 and F4 are equal and opposite acting on a same line and cancel each other.

F1 and F3 are equal and opposite acting parallel to each other, thus form a couple which
tends to rotate the coil.

Torque = Force x arm of couple

F1 = F3 = BI l
Arm of couple = ST
ST = SP CosΦ
= b CosΦ

96
 C = BI l x b CosΦ

C = B I A CosΦ
If there are n coils

C = n B I A CosΦ

If α is angle between normal to the coil and magnetic field

Φ + α = 900
Φ = 900 – α

C = B I A Cos ( 90 – α )

C = B I Sin α

SPECIAL CASES
If Φ = 0 or α = 900

C = B I A Cos 0

C=BIA [ Max ]
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
GALVANOMETER :
The instrument which is used to detect and measure small electric current is
known as moving coil galvanometer.

PRINCIPLE :
It works on the fact that when a current carrying coil is placed in magnetic field it
experiences a torque.

CONSTRUCTION

97
 PQRS = Rectangular coil having insulated copper wire wound over a metallic
frame of Bronze.
H = Tursion Head
M = Concave Mirror
S = Hair Spring ( quartz or phosphor bronze )
N & S are pole of a cylindrical magnet.
L = Iron Core

WORKING :
When we pass current through the galvanometer by connecting supply to terminal
T1 and T2, the current carrying coil PQRS experience a

98
 C = n I B A CosΦ
As magnetic field is radial
C=nIBA
Due to this torque, the coil and the strip get twisted by some angle θ producing a
restoring C in the strip. Let C is the restoring torque.
Then,
C αθ
Therefore, C = k θ , where k is a constant [ restoring torque per unit angle
which depends on the nature of the strip]

In equilibrium C = C 1
Therefore nIBA=kθ
I=[k/(nBA)]θ

Therefore I =Gθ [ G = k / ( n BA) ]

Therefore Iα θ G = Galvanometer constant

By measuring the angle we can estimate the current flowing through the conductor.

CURRENT SENSITIVITY
The ratio of deflection shown by Galvanometer to the current flowing through it
is known as its current sensitivity.

IS = θ / I

IS = ( nBA ) / k

Unit of IS = Radian Ampere -1 = Rad A-1

VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY

99
 The deflection produced in the Galvanometer per unit voltage of current is called
Voltage Sensitivity
VS = θ / V
=θ/IR
= (θ / I ) / R
= ( nBA / k) / R

VS = (nBA) / kR

SI unit is Rad V-1

CONDITIONS FOR SENSITIVE GALVANOMETER

I = [k / (nBA)] θ

θ = [ (nBA) / k ] I

1. By increasing the number of turns

2. By increasing strength of magnetic field
3. By increasing area of coil
4. By choosing a substance like Phosphor Bronze which have very small value of k,
we can increase the sensitivity.

As increasing no. of turns & area make the coil bulky, and difficult to handle
[difficult to get radial magnetic field and uniform magnetic field throughout the coil ],
therefore we increase sensitivity by using strong horse-shoe magnet & substance like
Phosphor – Bronze which have very small value of k.

WESTON GALVANOMETER

100
SHUNT
A small resistance connected in parallel to the Galvanometer or ammeter to save
it from strong current is called Shunt.

APPLICATIONS OF SHUNT
1. To protect the Galvanometer from strong current
2. To convert Galvanometer into ammeter
3. To increase the range of ammeter.

AMMETER
Ammeter is a low resistance Galvanometer which can measure large current
passing through a circuit.

* A Galvanometer can be converted to ammeter by connecting a low resistance (shunt) in

parallel to Galvanometer.

Let n = number of divisions in the galvanometer

k = Ig / n [ Current per division ]
G = Galvanometer
Ig = Current passing through galvanometer

Ig = n k

Let S be the shunt resistance

( I – Ig ) S = IgG

101
 S = ( IgG ) / ( I – Ig )
nk=I
k=I/n
Therefore, new value of current per division

k=I/n

EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF AMMETER

1/R=1/G+1/S
1 / R = ( S + G ) / SG

R = SG / ( S + G )

Effective value of resistance will be less than the value of shunt resistance. For an
ideal ammeter it will be zero.

VOLTMETER
A high resistance device used to measure the potential difference between two
points in a circuit is called voltmeter.

A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting large resistance in series.

V = Range of voltmeter which we want to construct
R = High resistance connected in series
V = Ig ( G + R )
V = IgG + IgR

R = ( V / Ig ) - G

102
 New value of k

k = ( Ig R ) / n

Effective resistance , R1 = R + G
As value of R is large, therefore resistance of a voltmeter is very very large and
infinite for an ideal voltmeter.

NUMERICALS
1. A cyclotron oscillator ν = 10 x 106 Hz, what should be the operating B for
accelerating protons if the radius of Dee’s is 60cm, what is the K.E. of proton
beam produced by it. e = 1.6 x 10-19 C , m = 1.67 x 10-27 Kg.
Ans. ν = Bq / 2 π m
B=(2πmν)/q
= ( 2 x 3.14 x 1.6 x 10-27 x 107 ) / ( 1.6 x 10-19 )
= 0.656 T

K.E = ½ ( B2q2ro2 ) / m
= [ 0.5 x ( 0.656 )2 x ( 1.6 x 10-19 )2 ( 60 )2 x 10-4 ] / ( 1.6 x 10-27 )
= 7.412 MeV
= 11.87 x 10-12 J

2. An electron being accelerated through a potential difference of 100V enters a

uniform magnetic field of 0.004 T perpendicular to direction of magnetic field.
Calculate the radius of path transversed by the particle.
Ans. V = 100 V
B = 0.004 T
θ = 600
e- = 1.6 x 10-19 C
eV = ½ mV2

103
 2eV / m = v2
V = √ 2eV / m
BeV = mV2 / r
r = mV2 / BeV
r = mV / Be
r = ( m / Be )(√ 2eV / m)
r = ( √ 2 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 100 x 9.1 x 10-34 ) / ( 0.004 x 1.6 x 10-19 )
Therefore, r = 8.4 x 10-3 m

3. What is the force on a wire of length 0.02m placed inside a long solenoid near its
centre and making an angle of 600 with the axis of the solenoid. The wires carry a
current of 1A and the magnetic field due to solenoid is 0.2 T.
Ans. l = 0.02 m
I = 1A
B = 0.2 T
θ = 600
F = B I l Sin θ
= 0.2 x 1 x 0.02 x √3 / 2
= 0.003464 N
= 3.464 x 10-3 N
4. A rectangular loop of side 25cm & 10cm carry a current of 15A placed with its
longer side parallel to a long straight conductor 2cm apart carrying a current of
25A. What is the net force on the loop?
Ans. F = [ ( μ02I1I2 ) / ( 4π r ) ] l
I1 = 25A
I2 = 15A
l = 25cm
Force on AB
F1 = [ ( μ0 2 I1I2 x 25 x 10-2 ) / ( 4π x 2 x 10-2 ) ]
= 25 x 15 x 25 x 10-7
= 9375 x 10-7

104
 = 9.375 x 10-4 N [ Towards ]
Force on CD
r = 12cm = 12 x 10-2m
F2 = ( 4π x 10-7 x 2 x 25 x 15 x 25 x 10-2 ) / ( 4π x 12 x 10-2 )
= 1.563 x 10-4 N [ Away ]

Therefore, Net force = 7.812 x 10-4 N

H.W
1. A proton and alpha particle enter a uniform magnetic field at right angle to it with
same velocity, find the ratio of time period of revolution of both.

2. A rectangular loop of side 27cm x 12cm carries a current of 12A. It is placed with
its longer side parallel to the long straight conductor 3cm apart and carrying
current of 20A, find the net force on the loop.

3. What will be the difference in force if the current is reversed .

105
 A. A galvanometer with resistance 12Ω shows a full scale deflection for current
2.5mA. How will you convert the metre into an ammeter of range 0 to 7.5A and a
voltmeter of range 10V. Determine the net resistance of the meter in each case.
When an ammeter is put in circuit, does it read slightly less or more than the
original current in the circuit. When a voltmeter is put across a part of the circuit
does it read slightly less or more than the voltage. Explain.
Ans. G = 12 Ω
Ig = 2.5mA = 2.5 x 10-3A
I) Galvanometer into Ammeter
I = 7.5A
S = IgG / ( I – Ig )
S = ( 2.5 x 10-3 x 12 ) / ( 7.5 – 2.5 x 10-3 )
S = ( 2.5 x 10-3 x 12 ) / ( 7497.5 x 10-3 )
S = 4 x 10-3 Ω
Equivalent resistance, R = SG / ( S + G )
= ( 4 x 10-3 x 12 ) / ( 4 x 10-3 + 12 )
= ( 48 x 10-3 ) / 12.04
= 48 / 12040
≈ 4 x 10-3 Ω
Therefore, Ammeter reads more than the actual current because it has a
small resistance and thus decrease the net resistance slightly.

106
II ) Galvanometer into Voltmeter
V = Ig ( G + R )
G + R = V / Ig
R = ( V / Ig ) – G
R = [ 10 / ( 2.5 x 10-3 ) ] – 12
= ( 104 / 2.5 ) – 12
= 4 x 103 – 12
= 3988 Ω

Effective resistance R’ = R + G
= 12 + 3988
= 4000 Ω

Therefore, voltage which is measured by a voltmeter is slightly less than

the actual voltage in the circuit because it draws some current from the circuit
** This is the reason why voltmeter can’t determine emf of the cell. It can only
determine approximately the potential difference across terminals.

107
Q. When a galvanometer having 30 division scale and 100 Ω resistance is connected
in series to the battery of emf 3V through a resistance of 200 Ω shows full scale
deflection, find the figure of merit of galvanometer and convert it into an
ammeter of 1A range.

MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM

MAGNET :
A substance which can attract other magnetic substance like iron, nickel, cobalt,
etc is called a magnet.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS :

1. Magnet attracts other magnetic substance like Fe, Ni, Co, etc towards itself.
2. A freely suspended magnet always comes to rest in north – south direction.
3. Like pole attract & unlike poles repel.

108
4. Magnetic poles always exist in pair. Unipolar magnet is not possible.
5. The force of attraction between two poles is directly proportional to the product of
pole strength and inversely proportional to the square of distance.
F α ( m1m2 ) / r2

F = ( μ0 / 4π ) [ ( m1m2 ) / r2 ]

6. The poles of magnet do not exist exactly at geometrical edge but exists slightly
inside.
2l=5/6x
OR
2l=6/7x

109
MAGNETIC MERIDIAN
A vertical plane passing through axis ( N-S line) of a freely suspended magent is
called magnetic meridian.

ATOMIC OR MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETISM

1. Every atom of a magnetic substance is a small magnet having a north pole and
south pole.
2. In unmagnetised magnetic substance, the atomic magnets are distributed
randomly in such a way that the north pole of one lie near the south pole of
another and thus canceling the magnetic pole. Thus the net magnetism is zero.
3. In case of magnetized magnetic substances, all the atomic magnet align
themselves in a regular pattern such that all North pole are in one direction and
south pole in other direction. As a result of which, they give net non-zero
magnetism.

110
UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform if magnitude and direction of
magnetic field is same at every point of that region.

NON – UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

If either of direction or magnitude of magnetic field is changing in the given
region, then the field in that region is said to be non-uniform.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

The path along which magnetic compass needle will align themselves if allowed
to do freely is called magnetic lines of force.
OR
The path in magnetic field along which a hypothetical north pole would move if it
is free to do so.

CHARACTERISITICS OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

1. These are closed, continuous curves. Outside magnet they start from north and
ends at south pole and inside magnet they move from south to north.
2. Tangent drawn on them at point gives the direction of magnetic field at that point.
3. No two lines of force can intersect each other.
4. The contract longitudinally & dilate or expand in laternal direction.
5. Crowding of these lines in a region indicate the higher strength of magnetic field
and vice-versa.

111
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
1. Electric lines of force were discontinuous but magnetic field lines are continuous.
2. Unit electric charge is possible but unit poles in magnets is not possible. Magnets
always have 2 poles.

MAGNETIC DIPOLE
Two equal and opposite magnetic poles [unlike] separated by a small distance is
called a magnetic dipole.

MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT [ m ]

Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to the
product of pole strength and the distance between the two poles and direction is from
south to north pole.
m α 2l

M α m

M=2lm , m = Pole strength, 2l = Dipole strength

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH AT A POINT DUE TO BAR MAGNET

1. ON AXIAL LINE

112
 Let M = Magnetic dipole moment
m = Dipole strength
2 l = Dipole length
d = OP
Let B1 is magnetic field strength at P due North pole ( at N )
B1 = [ μ0 m / 4π (PN)2 ] along PX
B1 = [ μ0 m / 4π ( d – l )2 ] ---- (1)
Let B2 is the magnetic field at P because of South pole ( S )
B2 = [ μ0 m / 4π (SP)2 ] along PO
B2 = [ μ0 m / 4π ( d + l )2 ] ---- (2)
B = B1 – B 2 along PX
= [ μ0 m / 4π (1 / (d - l)2) – (1 / (d + l)2) ]
= [ μ0 m / 4π ( (d2 + l2 + 2dl – d2 – l2 + 2dl ) / (d2 – l2)2) ]
= [ μ0 m 4 dl / 4π (d2 – l2)2 ]
= [ 2 μ0 M d / 4π (d2 – l2)2 ]
If dipole is ideal ( l << d )
B = [ 2 μ0 Md / 4π d4 ]

B = [ 2 μ0 M / 4π d3 ] along PX

B = [ 2 μ0 M / 4π d3 ]

2. ALONG EQUITORIAL LINE

The resultant magnetic field will be

B = B1 + B 2

113
B1 and B2 are resolved into 2 vectors, i.e., B1Cosθ , B1Sinθ and B2Cosθ,
B2Sinθ respectively.
B1Sinθ = - B2Sinθ
Therefore,
B = B1Cosθ + B2Cosθ
= ( B1 + B2 ) Cosθ

B1 = [ ( μ0 m ) / 4π (d2 + l2) ]
B2 = [ ( μ0 m ) / 4π (d2 + l2) ]

B = [ ( 2 μ0 m ) / 4π (d2 + l2) ] Cosθ

Cosθ = l / √ l2 + d2

Therefore, B = [ ( 2 μ0 m ) / 4π (d2 + l2) ] [( l ) / (√ d2 + l2) ]

B = [ ( μ0 m 2l ) / 4π (d2 + l2)3/2 ]
= [ ( μ0 M ) / 4π (d2 + l2)3/2 ]
If dipole is ideal, l << d

Bequi = ( μ0 M ) / ( 4π d3 )

114
TORQUE OF A BAR MAGNET IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

M = Magnetic dipole moment

m = Pole strength
2 l = Dipole Length
B = Magnetic field strength

M=m2l
Force on North pole = mB in direction of field
Force of south pole = mB away from field

115
As both these forces are equal and opposite acting at different points, they from a couple
& try to rotate the bar magnet in clockwise direction.

Torque = Force x Arm of couple

C = mB x AN
From Δ SAN , NA / SN = Sinθ
NA = SN Sinθ
NA = 2 l Sinθ
Therefore, c = mB 2 l Sinθ
c = m 2 l B Sinθ
c = MB Sinθ

c = M x B

Direction of c will be perpendicular to the plane containing M and B and can

be found by Right Hand Screw Rule.

CURRENT LOOP AS MAGNETIC DIPOLE

If you look at the upper face of loop, the direction of current is anticlockwise and
direction of magnetic field is perpendicularly outwards and thus upper face behaves like a
North pole. At lower face, the direction of current is clockwise and magnetic field is
perpendicularly inwards and as south pole and north pole are separated by a small
distance, we can say that the current carrying loop behave as dipole.

116
 M α I
M α A
M α IA
M=kIA , k=1

Therefore, M=IA

SI unit of M is Am2

MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH

EVIDENCES IN SUPPORT OF EARTH AS A HUGE MAGNET
1. If we suspend a magnet in unspun thread, it always comes to rest in N-S direction.
2. If we bury a soft iron rod in N-S direction, it acquires magnetic properties after
some time.
3. When we draw magnetic field of bar magnet, we obtain neutral point [where
magnetic field is zero]

CAUSE OF EARTH’S MAGNETISM

When earth rotates about its axis from west to east,
1. The molten fluid in earth core rotates resulting in to development of current in a
closed loop.
2. The charged particles present in the earth’s surface rotates and produce current in
a closed loop.
3. The ions present in atmosphere (ionosphere) rotate and produce current in a
closed loop.
Because of any or all of these causes, we may develop current loop and
thus the magnetic field which is the cause of earth’s magnetism.

117
Earth’s magnetism and magnetic field is like a huge magnet inside the earth having its
axis making a rough angle of 23.5o west of geographical axis. The places where the
magnetic axis of earth cut the surface of earth are known as its magnetic pole.

MAGNETIC ELEMENTS
The quantities which describe the magnetic field of earth at a place completely in
magnitude as well as direction are known as magnetic elements.

ANGLE OF DECLINATION
The angle between magnetic axis and geographical axis at a place is known as
angle of declination at that point
OR
The angle between geographical meridian and magnetic meridian at a point is
known as angle of declination.

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MAGENETIC DIP [ δ ]
The angle between direction of earth’s magnetic field and horizontal direction in
magnetic meridian is called angle of dip or inclination. It can be measured by using an
instrument called dip circle.

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 At geographical south pole [ earth’s magnet’s north pole ] angle of dip will be 90o
outwards.
At geographical north pole [ earth’s magnet’s south pole ] it will be 90o inwards.
At equator, it is 0o

HORIZONTAL COMPONENT H OR BH
In Δ AKC , AL / AK = Cos δ
AL = AK Cos δ

H = R Cos δ

AM / AK = Sin δ
AM = AK Sin δ

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 Vertical Component,

V = R Sin δ

The component of R along horizontal direction of magnetic meridian is known as

horizontal component of magnetic field.
From (1) and (2)
V 2 + H 2 = R2
R = √ V2 + H2
Dividing (2) by (1),

V / H = tan δ
VARIATIONS OF EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
1. ISOGONIC LINES
The lines which are obtained by joining the points having same angle of
declination.

2. ISOCLINIC LINES
The line which is obtained by joining the points having same angle of dip.

3. ISODYNAMIC LINES

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 The line obtained by joining all the points having equal horizontal components.

VARIATION OF EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

Earth’s magnetic field is very irregular and magnetic substances vary irregularly
from place to place and we have to find the elements every 30 years and it is expected in
105 or 106 years, the magnetic pole of earth will get reversed.

ATOM AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE OR MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF

REVOLVING ELECTRON.

e- = Charge on e-
r = Radius of orbit
T = Time period of that orbit
Current = Charge / time
i = e- / t ---- (1)
We know, w = 2π υ
= 2π / T
T = 2π / w ---- (2)
From (1) and (2)
Therefore, i = ( e- w ) / 2π

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 Magnetic moment due to current carrying loop,
M = Current x Area of loop
= i π r2
= [ ( e w ) / 2π ] π r2
M = ½ e- w r2 ---- (3)
According to Bohr’s theory,
mvr = nh / 2π
v=wr
mwr2 = nh / 2π
w r2 = nh / 2π m ----- (4)
Therefore, putting (4) in (3),
M = ½ e- ( nh / 2π m )
M = n ( e- h / 4π m )

M = n μB μB = Bohr magneton

Bohr magneton is the magnetic moment of an atom due to revolution of 1e- in 1st
orbit.

BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID

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 Magnetic field of a bar magnet is similar to the magnetic field of a current
carrying conductor. The point where current enters the solenoid [clockwise] behaves like
south pole and the point where current leaves the solenoid [anticlockwise] is like the
north pole of solenoid. Only difference is that the magnetic field inside the solenoid is
much higher than the magnetic field outside the solenoid.

MAGNETIZING FORCE OR MAGNETIC INTENSITY [ H ]

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 The component of a magnetic field which is responsible for magnetization of a
substance placed in the magnetic field is called the magnetizing force of that substance.
[It is the parameter for measuring ability of a magnetic field to magnetize an object].
B = μ0 n I
B = μ0 H
H=nI
Magnetizing force can also be defined as the no. of ampere turns per unit length
of solenoid to produce magnetic field strength B.

INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION
Intensity of magnetization ,

I = m / v

Intensity of magnetization of a substance placed in magnetic field is defined as

magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of substance.

SI unit of I = Am2 / m3 = Am-1

Second Definition
I=(mx2l)/(Ax2l)=m/A
= ( Magnetic pole strength ) / Area

Therefore, Intensity of magnetization of a substance placed in magnetic field is

defined as magnetic pole strength per unit area of substance.

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY [ χ ]
Ability of a substance to get into effect of some applied magnetic field is known
as its magnetic susceptibility.

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DEFINITION
The ratio of intensity of magnetization in the material to the magnetizing force
applied is known as magnetic susceptibility.

χm=I/H

RELATION BETWEEN RELATIVE MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY AND

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
In SI system ,
μr = 1 + χ m

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL

PARAMAGNETIC DIAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC

Definition Atoms of Those substances in Strong types of
paramagnetic which atoms have paramagnetic
substances have net zero magnetic substances in which
non-zero magnetic moment and which atomic magnets
moment of its own are weakly repelled arrange themselves in
and thus they are by magnetic field regular arrangement in
weakly attracted by are called small microscopic
magnetic field. diamagnetic. volumes called
Eg:-Liquid salts of Eg:- H2O, Hg, O2, domains and are
iron, Al, Pt, Cr, Bismuth, Antimony strongly attracted by
CuSO4, etc. magnetic field.
Eg:-Iron, Ni, Co, etc.
Properties When they are When placed in non When they are placed
placed in non- uniform magnetic in magnetic field, they
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 uniform magnetic field, they move move from stronger to
field, they move from strong to weak weaker magnetic field.
from weak magnetic magnetic field.
field to strong
magnetic.
Permeability of Permeability of Permeability of
paramagnetic diamagnetic ferromagnets is much
substance is more substance is less more than free space.
than free space. µ>1. than free space. µ >> 1.
µ<1.
They have +ve Xm They have –ve Xm They have very +ve
and hence can be and hence cannot be Xm and hence can be
magnetized. magnetized. easily
magnetized.
Their susceptibility Their susceptibility When we heat them,
decrease with is independent on their domains break
increase in temp. Temperature. and they change into
paramagnets.

CURIE LAW OF MAGNETISM

I α B
α 1/T
Therefore, I α B/T
As B = μ0 H
OR I α H/T
I/H α 1/T

χmα 1/ T

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 χm=C/ T C = Curie constant

Therefore χ m of a magnetic substance is inversely proportional to temperature.

HYSTERESIS
The lagging behind of I to the applied magnetizing force H is called hysteresis.
And the curve obtained in this process is known as hysteresis curve. This whole process
of magnetizing and demagnetizing the substance is called cycle of magnetization.

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RESIDUAL MAGNETISM OR RETENTIVITY
The value of intensity of manetization of the material which is left in it even after
reducing the magnetizing force back to zero is called retentivity [Shown by OB].

COERCIVITY
The value of magnetizing force in opposite direction which is required to
demagnetize the substance [I = 0] is known as coercivity of the substance [OC].

ENERGY LOST DUE TO HYSTERESIS

In the cycle of magnetization, we arrange and rearrange the orientation of the
atoms of the substance and we require some energy to do this work and that energy is
equal to the energy lost during hysteresis and is equal to the area of hysteresis curve.

USES OF FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

1. Permanent
To construct a permanent magnet we need a substance with higher retentivity and
very high coercivity. Because of these necessary properties, we prefer steel to
construct permanent magnets.

129
2. Electromagnets
Electromagnets should acquire magnetic field very fast, should have very low
coercivity and very low energy losses. These are found in soft iron. Therefore, we
prefer soft iron for preparing electromagnets.

3. Transformer Core
Transformer core should be of substance which acquire magnetic properties very
fast and which have very low energy losses. So, we prefer soft iron.

NUMERICALS
1. At a certain location in America, compass points 120W of Geographical North.
The North tip of magnetic needle of dip circle placed in the plane of magnetic
meridian points 600 above the horizontal and the horizontal component of earth’s
magnetic field is 0.16 Gauss. Specify the direction and magnitude of earth’s
magnetic field at that location.
Ans. θ = 120
δ = 600
H = 016 Gauss = 0.16 x 10-4 T
R=?
H = R Cos δ

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 R = H / Cos δ
= ( 0.16 x 10-4 ) / ½
= 0.32 x 10-4 T
Direction will be same as indicated by the north tip of dip-circle ( 60% above the
horizontal ).

2. A ship is to reach a place 200 south of west. In what direction should it be steared
if declination of that place is 170 West.
α = 90 – 17 + 20
= 930 westward

3. The vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is 0.16√3 x 10-4 T. Calculate the
value of H of earth’s magnetic field if angle of dip is 300.
Ans. V = 0.16√3 x 10-4 T
V = R Sin δ
V / H = tan δ
V / H = tan ( 300 )
V / H = 1 / √3
Therefore, H = 0.48 x 10-1 T

H.W

131
 1. A short bar magnet placed at an angle of 300 with a uniform external magnetic
field of 0.25T experience a torque of magnitude equal to 4.5 x 10 -2 J. What is the
magnitude of magnetic moment of magnet.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
MAGNETIC FLUX
Magnetic flux through an area in a magnetic field is defined as the total number of
magnetic lines of forces crossing that area normally.

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Magnetic flux may be defined as surface integral of B for given area.

d S = area vector

B = Magnetic field strength

d ΦB = B Cosθ d s

d ΦB = B . d s
ΦB =

Magnetic flux = B ds Cosθ

If 0 < = θ < = 900
Cosθ = + ve
Magnetic flux ( ΦB ) = + ve

133
If θ = 900 , Cos 900 = 0
Magnetic flux ( ΦB ) = 0

If 900 < θ < = 1800

Cos θ = - ve
ΦB = - ve

SI unit
Magnetic flux = B ds Cosθ = Tm2
= Weber [ Wb ]

134
DIMENSIONAL FORMULA ( Φ )
Φ = B ds Cosθ
B = F / qV = F / A c V

= ( M1 L1 T-2 ) / ( ALT T-1 )

B = M1 L0 T-2 A-1
Φ = M1 L0 T-2 A1 L2

Φ = [ M1 L2 T-2 A1 ]

FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF EMI

According to it, when magnetic flux associated with a conductor / coil changes,
emf is induced in the circuit which lasts as long as there is change in Φ.

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SECOND LAW
The magnitude of induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of
change in flux.
e α dΦ / d t
Further,
e α - dΦ / d t [ - ve sign indicates the induced emf oppose the change
in flux. This was proved by Lentz Law ]

LENZ LAW
According to it, the direction of induced current I will be in such a way that it will
oppose the change which is responsible for its production.

EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF LENZ LAW

136
 Lenz passed current through a solenoid or coil shown in diagram and observed
when direction of current at upper end is clockwise [ south ]. Galvanometer show
deflection to left. And when we reverse the direction of current, the direction, the
direction of current at upper and become anti-clockwise [ North ]. In that case,
galvanometer deflected is opposite and towards right.

Then he removed battery from the coil and closed the circuit of the coil. When he
brought North pole of magnet towards the coil, he observed that deflection in
galvanometer is towards right, which means upper end of coil have direction of coil anti-
clockwise and thus direction of current becomes North pole which proves the Lenz
statement that direction of induced current should oppose its cause of production.
Similarly, when we move the pole away, the deflection is towards left which indicates
upper pole of coil is south pole which again proves Lenz Law.

LENZ LAW AND ENERGY CONSERVATION LAW

Lenz law totally follow law of conservation of energy. When we move the coil
towards or away from the coil, the current induced in the coil is such that it opposes the
motion of magnet. Therefore, we have to do some mechanical work to overcome this
opposition and mechanical energy lost in doing so is actually converted into induced
electrical energy. So, it is just transformation of energy.

137
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE
According to it, if we stretch our first finger, middle and thumb fingers mutually
perpendicular in such a way that first finger gives direction of magnetic field, thumb
gives the direction of motion of conductor, then the middle finger will give the direction
of induced current.

VARIOUS METHODS OF INDUCING EMF

Φm = BA Cos θ
B = Magnetic field intensity
A = Area
θ = Angle between B and A

MAGNETIC FLUX CAN BE CHANGED BY CHANGING:-

1. Strength of magnetic [ B ]
2. Area of Conductor [ A ]

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3. Angle between B and A

1. Production of emf by changing B is same as in Faradays 1st and 2nd experiments.

2. By changing area
B = Magnetic filed intensity
l = Breadth of coil
x = Length of coil
v = velocity with which area is taken out
Let in time dt , dx length of the coil move out of field
Decrease in area of coil in field = - ldx
Magnetic flux linked with that area
( Decrease in magnetic flux through whole area ) dΦ = Bldx

According to Faraday’s 2nd law,

e = - dΦ / dt
= - ( - Bldx ) / dt
= Bldx / dt

e = Blv

If R is resistance of coil,
i=e/R

i.e i = Blv / R

3. Changing θ
Whenever we change the angle between B and A of conductor, the value Φm
through the conductor change which induce emf in the conductor.

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EDDY CURRENT
The current induced in a conductor when Φm associated with it changes is called
eddy current [ because the shape of this current is in the form of eddies ].
i = Induced emf / Resistance
i=e/R
i = ( - dΦ / dt ) / R

Therefore, i = - ( dΦ / dt R )

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF EDDY CURRENT

1. If you put a metallic disc on an electromagnet connected to a AC source, then as

soon as you switch on the AC current, the disc will be thrown out because of
Eddy current produced in it which opposes the cause of production.

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 2. When we oscillate a metallic plate in a magnetic field its oscillations are damped
and come to rest very fast because of Eddy current produced in it and time taken
by it is very small in comparison to the time taken when it was moving freely
without magnetic field.

APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT

1. Dead Beat galvanometer
In normal galvanometer, the meter vibrates on its actual position of I. To
stop this, we use a metallic frame and wound the coil over it. When the
coil vibrate angle between force and B change, changing Φm and thus
producing eddy current in the frame. This current opposes the cause of its
production, i.e. vibration of coil. Therefore, the needle comes to rest at
actual value of I immediately. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic
damping and G is called Dead Beat Galvanometer.

2. Induction Furnace
If we put conductor in a strong changing B, then due to the change in Φm,
eddy current is produced in the conductor which heats the conductor
following Joule’s Law of heating,
H = I2 R l
If heat is large, metallic conductor can be melted. This whole setup is
called electromagnetic induction furnace.

3. In speedometer
4. In generators and motors
5. Electromagnetic Brakes

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UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF EDDY CURRENT
1. It oppose the relative motion
2. To overcome this opposition due to Eddy current, we have to waste some useful
energy.
3. Because of heat produced in the conductor due to Eddy current, there can be wear
and tear in the conductor and the instrument.

DECREASING EDDY CURRENT

1. Eddy current can be decreased by increasing resistance by increasing length of
conductor by cutting slots in the conductor.
2. By using laminated core [ A group of thin and large number of insulated metallic
strips instead of solid core ]

SELF INDUCTION
The property of a coil due to which the coil oppose any change in strength of
current through itself by inducing an emf in itself is known as self induction.

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EXPLANATION
When we change current through the coil, magnetic field and thus magnetic flux
associated with a coil change which produce emf. According to Lenz’s law, the direction
of emf act in such a direction to oppose the cause of production.

COEFFICIENT OF SELF INDUCTION

Φ α I

Φ = LI L = Coefficient of Self Induction

L=Φ/I

If I = 1
L=Φ

DEFINITION
Coefficient of Self Induction is defined as magnetic flux linked with the coil when
unit current pass through the coil.

143
2ND DEFINITION [IN TERMS OF EMF]
e = - ( dΦ / dt )
e = - d ( LI ) / dt )
e = - L ( d I / dt )

L = - e / ( d I / dt )

When d I / dt = 1
Therefore, L=e

DEFINITION
Coefficient of self induction may also be defined as emf produced in coil when
rate of change of I is unity.
SI unit of L
L=Φ/I
L = Weber / Amper
= Wb / A
= H [ Henry ]

COEFFICIENT OF SELF INDUCTION FOR LONG SOLENOID

Let l = Length of solenoid

N = Total no. of turns
A = Area of solenoid
I = Current

Magnetic field at any point inside solenoid

144
 B = ( μ0 N I ) / l

Magnetic flux linked with one turn Φ1 = ( μ0 N I A ) / l

Total Magnetic flux linked with whole solenoid
Φ = No. of turns x Flux per turn

Φ = ( μ0 N2 I A ) / l ---- (1)

We know Φ = L I ---- (2)

From (1) and (2)

L = ( μ0 N2 A ) / l

FACTORS AFFECTING “ L “
1. Area of cross-section of coil of solenoid.
2. Number of turns of solenoid.
3. Length of the coil.
4. Nature of the medium over which the solenoid is wounded [ Medium inside the
coil ].

If we have some medium of permeability µ inside the coil, then

145
 L = ( μ0 N2 A ) / l

MUTUAL INDUCTION [ m ]
The property of 2 coils due to which each coil try to oppose variation of current in
opposite coil by inducing an emf in itself is called mutual induction.

COEFFICIENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTION [m]

ΦαI [ I is current in neighbouring coil ]
Φ=mI

M=Φ/I

When I = 1
M=Φ

DEFINITION
Coefficient of mutual induction may be defined as the Φ linked with one coil
when the current flowing in neighbouring coil is 1A.

146
2ND DEFINITION
e= -dΦ
dt

e= -d[mI]
dt
e= -mdI
dt

m= -e
dI/dt

If ( d I ) / (d t ) = 1
m= -e

M may also be defined as the emf induced in one coil when rate of change of I in
the neighbouring coil is unit.

EXPRESSION FOR MUTUAL INDUCTION

Let N1 = No. of turns in 1st coil.
N2 = No. of turns in 2nd coil.
A = Area of cross section of 1st coil.
I = Current in 1st coil.
B1 = Magnetic field strength at any point inside first coil.
l = Length of both coils.

B1 = ( µ0 N1 I ) / l

147
Magnetic flux with 1 turn of 2nd coil
Φ1 = B1A
Φ1 = ( µ0 N1 I A ) / l
Total Magnetic Flux = ( µ0 N1 N2 I A ) / l --- (1)

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