Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 80, No. 8, pp. 1725–1733, 2008.

doi:10.1351/pac200880081725
© 2008 IUPAC

New catalytic transformations of carboxylic

acids*
Lukas J. Gooßen‡, Käthe Gooßen, Nuria Rodríguez,
Mathieu Blanchot, Christophe Linder, and Bettina Zimmermann
FB Chemie – Department of Organic Chemistry, Technical University
Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Str. Geb. 54, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany

Abstract: A series of metal-catalyzed processes are presented, in which carboxylic acids act
as sources of either carbon nucleophiles or electrophiles, depending on the catalyst em-
ployed, the mode of activation, and the reaction conditions. A first reaction mode is the ad-
dition of carboxylic acids or amides over C–C multiple bonds, giving rise to enol esters or
enamides, respectively. The challenge here is to control both the regio- and stereoselectivity
of these reactions by the choice of the catalyst system. Alternatively, carboxylic acids can ef-
ficiently be decarboxylated using new Cu catalysts to give aryl-metal intermediates. Under
protic conditions, these carbon nucleophiles give the corresponding arenes. If carboxylate
salts are employed instead of the free acids, the aryl-metal species resulting from the catalytic
decarboxylation can be utilized for the synthesis of biaryls in a novel cross-coupling reaction
with aryl halides, thus replacing stoichiometric organometallic reagents. An activation with
coupling reagents or simple conversion to esters allows the oxidative addition of carboxylic
acids to transition-metal catalysts under formation of acyl-metal species, which can either be
reduced to aldehydes, or coupled with nucleophiles. At elevated temperatures, such acyl-
metal species decarbonylate, so that carboxylic acids become synthetic equivalents for aryl
or alkyl halides, e.g., in Heck reactions.

Keywords: decarboxylation; enol esters; enamides; aryl-metal intermediates; copper catalyst;

carbon nucleophiles; biaryls.

INTRODUCTION
In the last years, the development of new catalytic methods for sustainable organic transformations was
the focus of our research. In this context, we viewed carboxylic acids as a highly desirable substrate
class, since they are available in great structural diversity at low cost both from natural and synthetic
sources, and are easy to store and handle. Nevertheless, they had so far been widely neglected as start-
ing materials for catalytic transformations.
We and others have disclosed a series of catalytic transformations of carboxylic acid derivatives
that can roughly be divided into four categories with regard to the position and polarity of bond for-
mation: (1) catalytic addition reactions, in which the carboxylate group is transferred as a whole to
C–C multiple bonds; (2) decarboxylative couplings, in which the carbon nucleophiles generated by ex-
trusion of CO2 from metal carboxylates are coupled with electrophiles, e.g., aryl halides; (3) cross-

*Paper based on a presentation at the 41st IUPAC World Chemistry Congress, 5–11 August 2007, Turin, Italy. Other presentations
are published in this issue, pp. 1631–1772.
‡Corresponding author: E-mail: goossen@chemie.uni-kl.de

1725
1726 L. J. GOOßEN et al.

coupling reactions of acyl-metal species generated by insertion of a metal catalyst into the C–O bond
of activated carboxylic acid derivatives; and (4) decarbonylative reactions, which involve the loss of
carbon monoxide from acyl-metal species under formation of carbon electrophiles. Scheme 1 gives an
overview of these reaction modes and the products that can be accessed in the corresponding
processes.

Scheme 1 Catalytic transformations of carboxylic acids.

CATALYTIC ADDITION TO ALKYNES

The most straightforward reaction mode of a carboxylic acid with a metal catalyst is the cleavage of the
acidic O–H bond under formation of a metal carboxylate. This is the initial step in the synthetically
valuable addition of carboxylic acids to alkynes under formation of enol esters.
Rotem et al. have shown for the first time that this process is mediated by Ru precursors [1]. Since
then, several efficient Ru catalysts have been developed that allow the addition of a range of carboxylic
acids to various terminal alkynes [2]. The regioselectivity of this reaction is most often controlled by
the choice of Ru precursor and phosphine ligand. We have recently disclosed a particularly robust, in-
expensive, and easy-to-use set of protocols, in which a base, added in catalytic amounts, plays a key
factor in regiocontrol (Scheme 2) [3]. When the catalyst is generated in situ from [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2,
trifurylphosphine as the ligand and sodium carbonate as the base, the reaction proceeds in Markovnikov
fashion (Scheme 2, bottom), while the use of tri-p-chlorophenylphosphine and 4-dimethylamino-
pyridine along with the same Ru precursor results in a complete reversal of selectivity, giving rise to the
(Z)-configured anti-Markovnikov products (Scheme 2, top). Both protocols have successfully been em-
ployed for the synthesis of a broad variety of enol esters.

Scheme 2 Catalytic addition of carboxylic acids to terminal alkynes and follow-up reactions.

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 Transformations of carboxylic acids 1727

Having established a convenient and easily scalable entry to vinyl esters, we sought preparative
applications of these compounds. Due to their rigid mode of coordination to transition-metal catalysts,
we hoped to achieve high enantioselectivities in their hydrogenation, even when using simple and in-
expensive ligand systems. In cooperation with the Reetz group, we thus investigated the Rh-catalyzed
hydrogenation of prochiral enol esters and identified a system consisting of (COD)2RhBF4 and a
sugar/2,2'-dihydroxy-1,1'-binaphthalene (BINOL)-based phosphite ligand to be particularly effective in
terms of both enantioselectivity and yield (Scheme 2, right) [4]. For the synthesis of chiral alkyl esters,
the two-step, atom-economic sequence of Ru-catalyzed Markovnikov addition of a carboxylic acid to a
terminal alkyne, followed by asymmetric hydrogenation constitutes a valuable alternative to the tradi-
tional approach of hydrogenating a prochiral ketone, then reacting it with an activated carboxylic acid
derivative.
In continuation of our work on Ru-catalyzed hydroacyloxylations, we developed more active Ru
catalysts that allow the selective anti-Markovnikov addition of amides and related compounds to ter-
minal alkynes, under formation of the corresponding enamide derivatives [5,6]. With catalyst systems
consisting of bis(2-methallyl)-1,5-cyclooctdienylruthenium and suitable ligands, such “hydroamida-
tions” proceed under mild conditions and are widely applicable to amides, anilides, lactams, ureas, bis-
lactams, carbamates, and imides in combination with various terminal alkynes. The stereochemistry of
the reaction can efficiently be controlled by the ligand system, so that depending on whether tri-n-
butylphosphine and dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) or bis(dicyclohexylphosphino)methane and
water are used, either the (E)- or the (Z)-isomers are selectively formed (Scheme 3). The ideal atom
economy in combination with a high chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivity and the excellent availabil-
ity of the starting materials makes this enamide synthesis attractive for various applications in syn-
thetic organic chemistry and drug discovery.

Scheme 3 Catalytic addition reactions of carboxylic acids and derivatives to terminal alkynes.

DECARBOXYLATIVE REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Cu-catalyzed protodecarboxylation
The decarboxylation of metal arenecarboxylates under formation of aryl-metal species is a highly endo-
thermic process and usually requires extreme reaction conditions. Even the widely known Cu-mediated

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protodecarboxylation of aromatic carboxylates in most cases entails stoichiometric amounts of Cu [7].

Our own process involving Cu(I)oxide and 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline for the first time allows
the use of Cu in only catalytic amounts for both activated and non-activated aromatic, heteroaromatic,
and vinylic carboxylates (Scheme 4) [8].

Scheme 4 Catalytic decarboxylative cross-coupling reactions of carboxylates.

Cu/Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions

The above investigation set the stage for the development of a new type of cross-coupling reactions in
which the carbon nucleophiles are generated in situ from easily available metal carboxylates via the ex-
trusion of CO2. A first example for this was our biaryl synthesis from aromatic carboxylic acids and
aryl halides [9]. This process is catalyzed by a bimetallic system consisting of a Cu-phenanthroline de-
carboxylation catalyst, and a coordinatively unsaturated Pd(0)-containing cross-coupling catalyst.
Following Cu-mediated decarboxylation of the arenecarboxylates under formation of an aryl-Cu
species, the aryl residue is transferred onto an aryl-Pd halide species generated in the reaction of the
aryl halide with the second catalyst component. Finally, the two aryl groups reductively eliminate under
formation of an unsymmetrical biaryl, regenerating the original Pd species.
The new reaction is broadly applicable with respect to the aryl halide component and has suc-
cessfully been applied to a growing number of aromatic carboxylic acids, including ortho-substituted
benzoic acids, heterocyclic carboxylates, and cinnamic acid (Scheme 5, left).

Scheme 5 Catalytic decarboxylative cross-coupling reactions of carboxylates. The residues originating from the
carboxylic acid are depicted on the left-hand sides.

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 Transformations of carboxylic acids 1729

In our proposed mechanism, a decarboxylation catalyst, e.g., a Cu or Ag complex, initially coor-

dinates to the carboxylate oxygen, then shifts to the aryl π-system and inserts into the C–C(O) bond
under extrusion of CO2 to form a stable aryl-Cu intermediate. A Pd catalyst then cross-couples this
species with an aryl electrophile to form the desired biaryl and the corresponding metal halide
(Scheme 6).

Scheme 6 Proposed mechanism for catalytic decarboxylative cross-coupling reactions of carboxylates.

Whereas the first-generation catalyst allowed the coupling of aryl iodides, bromides, and some
electron-poor chlorides, the latest systems currently under development in our group can smoothly con-
vert even notoriously unreactive electron-rich aryl chlorides such as 4-chloroanisole [9c]. The main fac-
tors in this increased activity were optimized steric and electronic properties of the phosphine ligands.
When using aryl halides as coupling partners, the coupling of meta- and para-substituted benzoic
acids has not yet been achieved in satisfactory yields. However, ongoing research indicates that this
structural limitation can be overcome when employing aryl triflates instead of halides.
Another exciting development was the extension of the concept of decarboxylative cross-coupling
to other substrate classes, as exemplified by a new ketone synthesis that draws on easily available potas-
sium α-oxocarboxylates as sources of acyl nucleophiles in a coupling reaction with aryl bromides
(Scheme 5, right) [10]. It is broadly applicable to the synthesis of various aryl and heteroaryl ketones
and compares favorably with traditional syntheses of ketones via organometallic reagents.

CATALYTIC REACTIONS OF ACTIVATED CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES

Cross-coupling reactions of acyl-Pd-complexes
The activation of carboxylic acids by their conversion into anhydrides, or N-hydroxysuccinates, permits
an insertion of transition-metal catalysts into the acyl-oxygen bond. The resulting acyl intermediates
can be hydrogenated to the corresponding aldehydes (Scheme 7, left) [11], or coupled with boronic
acids to give aryl ketones (Scheme 7, right).
Based on this mechanistic concept, we have developed a Pd-catalyzed ketone synthesis directly
from carboxylic and boronic acids. In this process, an equilibrium mixture of acids and anhydrides is
generated in situ from carboxylic acids and pivalic anhydride [12]. The steric bulk of the tert-butyl
groups precludes an insertion of the Pd-phosphine catalyst into the sterically highly encumbered
C(O)–O bond on the pivalate side, so that the less hindered aryl ketone is exclusively obtained in the
coupling with the areneboronic acids, releasing pivalic acid as the by-product. The mild, base-free con-
ditions allow the synthesis of various sensitive ketones. Besides pivalic anhydride, dimethyl dicarbon-
ate can also be used as an activator, with the advantage that only volatile by-products are formed, thus
allowing even easier product isolation at the cost of a slightly reduced substrate scope [13]. For partic-

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1730 L. J. GOOßEN et al.

Scheme 7 Catalytic transformations of acyl nucleophiles generated using coupling reagents.

ularly sensitive substrates, a third reaction variant was designed involving in situ activation of the car-
boxylic acids with disuccinimidyl carbonate (DSC) [14]. In this process, we demonstrated the first ap-
plication of easy-to-use peptide coupling reagents in transition-metal catalysis.

Reactions involving a decarbonylation step

At elevated temperatures, acyl-metal species resulting from the above-mentioned insertion into the
C(O)–O bond of activated carboxylic acids tend to decarbonylate, giving rise to alkyl- or aryl-metal
complexes. This behavior is exploited in the Pd-catalyzed decarbonylative elimination reaction of alkyl-
carboxylic acids in the presence of pivalic anhydride, which gives the corresponding alkenes, pivalic
acid, and carbon monoxide [15]. The general outline of this reaction along with selected examples of
suitable starting materials is given in Scheme 8.

Scheme 8 Catalytic decarbonylative elimination of alkylcarboxylic acids.

A similar decarbonylation is observed in the Heck reactions of aromatic anhydrides [16]. In the
process depicted in Scheme 9, aromatic carboxylic acids are activated in situ with di-tert-butyl dicar-
bonate and vinylated under extrusion of CO. All by-products are volatile, which makes product isola-
tion particularly easy [17].

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 Transformations of carboxylic acids 1731

Scheme 9 Catalytic decarbonylative Heck reaction of carboxylic acids.

With especially developed Pd catalysts, even poorly reactive carboxylates can serve as substrates
in such decarbonylative Heck reactions. We have demonstrated the coupling of various electron-defi-
cient phenol esters with olefins to give the vinyl arenes, along with CO and the corresponding phenols
(Scheme 10, top) [3,18]. The latter were successfully recycled into the starting material in an esterifi-
cation step with fresh carboxylic acid. With this reaction sequence, it was demonstrated for the first time
that the production of waste salts is avoidable in Heck reactions [19].

Scheme 10 Catalytic decarbonylative Heck reactions of carboxylic esters.

Further development of the catalysts enabled the decarbonylative Heck reaction of aryl iso-
propenoates to give the vinyl arenes, CO, and acetone. Combined with the formation of the isopropenyl
esters from the carboxylic acids and propyne (see Scheme 2)—a side product in oil refining—this rep-
resents our third approach to salt-free Heck reactions (Scheme 10, bottom): Besides CO, acetone is the
only by-product and can be incinerated without much negative impact on the environment [20].
The scope of the decarbonylative Heck reactions is visible from the examples depicted in Fig. 1,
the given yields are those obtained starting with isolated 4-nitrophenol esters.

Fig. 1 Selected examples demonstrating the scope of the decarbonylative Heck reactions. The residues originating
from the 4-nitrophenol ester are depicted on the left-hand sides.

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1732 L. J. GOOßEN et al.

CONCLUSION
The catalytic transformations outlined in this paper exemplify the rich chemistry of carboxylic acids as
substrates in transition-metal catalysis that has evolved in recent years. Most of these reactions could
serve as prototypes for a new generation of more sustainable organic processes based on naturally oc-
curring carboxylic acids as renewable feedstocks. Some reactions, such as the ketone synthesis, are al-
ready highly developed, while others still require substantial optimization efforts until they reach syn-
thetic maturity. Notably, the decarboxylative cross-coupling reactions, though yet in their infancy, are
already the focus of industrial process research, as they have the potential to one day replace cross-cou-
plings of expensive organometallic reagents. It will be interesting to follow future innovation in this
emerging field of method development.

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© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 1725–1733