TRAINING MATERIAL

MATHEMATICS
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TABLE OF CONTENT

Table content ................................................................................................... 1

Mathematics in Aviation Maintenance ........................................................... 3

1.1. Arithmetic …………………………..……………………………..……….. 3

1.1.1 Whole Number................................................................................................. 7

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division

1.1.2 Fraction ........................................................................................................... 7

Common Denominator, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication. Division
Reducing Fraction

1.1.3 Mixed Number ................................................................................................ 10

Addition, Subtraction

1.1.4 The decimal Number System ......................................................................... 14

1.1.5 Percentage ....................................................................................................... 17

Decimal number of percentage
Fraction of percentage
Finding of percentage

I.6 Ratio and Proportion …................................................................................... 18

Extremes, Solving Proportion

1.2. Algebra .......................................................................................................... 20

1.2.1 Equations …………………………………………………………………
Linier Equation 20
Simultan Equation
Quadratic Equation
Complex Equation

1.2.2 Algebraic Rule …………......………………………...…………………… 26

1.2.3 Orders of Operation ……………………………………...………………….. 28

1.2.4 Logarithms …………………………..……………………………………. 30

Common Logarithms
Natural Logarithms
Rule of Logarithms

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1.2.5 Number System ………………………………..……………………………. 33

Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal

1.3. Geometry …………………………………………………………………… 41

1.3.1 Computing Area .............................................................................................. 41

Rectangle, Square, Triangle, Parallelogram, Trapezoid
Circle, Ellips, Wing Area, Units of Area

1.3.2 Computing Volume ......................................................................................... 45

Rectangular solid, Cube, Cylinder, Sphere, Cone
Unit of Volume

1.3.3 Trigonometry ……………………….……………………………………….. 47

Trigonometrical Relationship
Sin, Cosin and Tangen

1.3.4 Coordinate and Graph ……………………………………………………….. 51

Examination Problem ……………………………………………………... 55

Answer ……………………….……………………………………………… 61

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MATHEMATICS IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE

Mathematics is the basic language of science and technology. It is an exact language that has
a vocabulary and meaning for every term. Since mathematics follows definite rules and
behaves in the same way every time, scientists and engineers use it as their basic tool. Long
before any metal is cut for a new aircraft design, there are literally millions of mathematical
computations made. Aviation maintenance technicians perform their duties with the aid of
many different tools. Like the wrench or screwdriver, mathematics is an essential tool in the
repair and fabrication of replacement parts. With this in mind, you can see why you must be
able to use this important tool.

Many examples of using mathematical principles by the aviation mechanic are available.
Tolerances in turbine engine components are critical, making it necessary to measure within a
ten-thousandth of an inch. Because of these close tolerances, it is important that the aviation
mechanic be able to make accurate measurements and mathematical calculations. An aviation
mechanic working on aircraft fuel systems will also use mathematical principles to calculate
volumes and capacities of fuel tanks. The use of fractions and surface area calculations are
required to perform sheet metal repair on aircraft structures.

1.1 ARITHMETIC

Just as studying a new language begins with learning basic words, the study of mathematics
begins with arithmetic, its most basic branch. Arithmetic uses real, non-negative numbers,
which are also known as counting numbers, and consists of only four operations, addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. While you have been using arithmetic since
childhood, a review of its terms and operations will make learning the more difficult
mathematical concepts much easier.

1.1.1. WHOLE NUMBER

If zero is used as a starting point, all numbers larger than zero have a positive value, and
those smaller than zero have a negative value. This is illustrated by constructing a number
line.

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ADDING SIGNED NUMBERS

When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find the sum of
the values and then place the common sign in front of the answer. In other words, adding two
or more positive numbers always results in a positive sum, where as adding two or more
negative numbers results in a negative sum.

When adding a positive and negative number, find the difference between the two numbers
and apply the sign (+ or -) of the larger number. In other words, adding a negative number is
the same as subtracting a positive number. The result of adding or subtracting signed
numbers is called the algebraic sum of those numbers.

Add 25 + (-15) =

25 25
+ (-15) or - 15
10 10

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

THE SUM OF POSITIVE NUMBERS IS POSITIVE.

THE SUM OF NEGATIVE NUMBERS IS NEGATIVE.

When creating a number line, negative values are identified with a minus sign (-), and positive
values are identified by the plus (+) sign or by the absence of a sign.

SUBTRACTING SIGNED NUMBERS

When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to plus and change
the sign of the subtrahend. Once this is done, proceed as you do in addition. For example,
is the same as . It makes no difference if the subtrahend is larger than the
minuend, since the operation is done as though the two quantities are added.

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Example:
Subtract 48 from -216.

Step 1: Set up the subtraction problem.

Step 2: Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the sign of the subtrak end. Now
add.

MULTlPLYlNG SIGNED NUMBERS

Multiplication of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as multiplication of

any other number. However, after multiplying, the product must be given a sign. There are
three rules to follow when determining a product's sign.

1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive.

2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive.
3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative.

Example:

MULTIPLICATION

Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addition. When a given number is added to itself
a specified number of times, the process is called multiplication. The sum of 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4
= 20 is expressed by multiplication as 4 x 5 = 20. The numbers 4 and 5 are called factors and
the answer, 20, represents the product. The number multiplied (4) is called the multiplicand,
and the multiplier represents the number of times the multiplicand is added to itself.
Multiplication is typically indicated by an (x), ( ), or in certain equations, by the lack of any
other operation sign. One important fact to remember when multiplying is that the order in
which numbers are multiplied does not change the product.

Example:

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3 4
x4 or x3
12 12

Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important they be aligned
vertically. Regardless of the number of digits in the multiplicand or the multiplier, the
multiplicand should be written on top, and the multiplier beneath it. When multiplying
numbers greater than nine, multiply each digit in the multiplicand by each digit in the
multiplier. Once all multiplicands are used as a multiplier, the products of each multiplication
operation are added to arrive at a total product.

Example:

532 Multiplicand
X 24 Multiplier
2128 First partial product
1064 Second partial product
12,768

DIVIDING SIGNED NUMBERS

Like multiplying signed numbers, division of signed numbers is accomplished in the same
manner as dividing any other number. The sign of the quotient is determined using rules
identical to those used in multiplication.

1. The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive.

2. The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive.
3. The quotient of a positive and a negative number is always negative.

Example:

DIVISION

Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of multiplication. Division
is a means of finding out how many times a number is contained in another number. The
number divided is called the dividend, the number you are dividing by is the divisor, and the
result is the quotient. With some division problems, the quotient may include a remainder.

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A remainder represents that portion of the dividend that cannot be divided by the divisor.
Division is indicated by the use of the division sign ( ) with the dividend to the left and the
divisor to the right of the sign, or a ) with the dividend inside the sign and the divisor to the
left. Division also is indicated in fractional form. For example, in the fraction ¾ , the 3 is the
dividend and the 4 is the divisor. When division is carried out, the quotient is .75.

The process of dividing large quantities is performed by breaking the problem down into a
series of operations, each resulting in a single digit quotient. This is best illustrated by
example.

Example:
52
8 416
40
16
16
0

To check a division problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add the
remainder (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the result equals the dividend.

1.1.2 FRACTIONS

A common fraction represents a portion or part of a quantity. For example, if a number is

divided into three equal parts, each part is one-third of the number. A fraction consists
of two numbers, one above and one below a line, or fraction bar. The fraction bar indicates
division of the top number, or numerator, by the bottom number, or denominator. For
example, the fraction ¾ indicates that three is divided by four to find the decimal equivalent
of .75.

When a fraction's numerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is called a proper
fraction. A proper fraction is always less than 1. If the numerator is larger than the
denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. In this situation the fraction is
greater than 1. If the numerator and denominator are identical, the fraction is equal to 1.

A mixed number is the combination of a whole number and a proper fraction. Mixed
numbers are expressed as and and are typically used in place of improper
fractions.

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The numerator and denominator of a fraction can be changed without changing the fraction's
value. One way this is done is by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same
number.

Example:

A fraction's value also remains the same if both the numerator and denominator are divided
by the same number. This type of operation allows you to simplify, or reduce, large fractions
to their smallest terms.

Example:

REDUCING FRACTIONS

It is generally considered good practice to reduce fractions to their lowest terms. The simplest
reductions occur when the denominator is divisible by the numerator. If the denominator is
not evenly divided by the numerator, you must find a number by which the numerator and
denominator are divided evenly. Here are a few tips to help in the selection of divisors:

1. If both numbers are even, divide by 2.

2. If both numbers end in 0 or 5, divide by 5.
3. If both numbers end in 0, divide by 10.

Example:

Reduce to its lowest terms.

Step 1: Divide both the .numerator and denominator by 5

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Step 2: Reduce further by dividing both terms by 3.

When neither the numerator or denominator can be divided evenly, the fraction is reduced to
its lowest terms.

LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR

You cannot add or subtract common fractions without first converting all of the denominators
into identical units. This process is known as finding the least common denominator (LCD).
For example, the quickest way to find the least common denominator for and is to
multiply the two denominators (3 x 2 = 6). To determine the numerators, multiply the
numerator by the same number used to obtain the LCD.

Example:

ADDING COMMON FRACTIONS

As mentioned earlier, you cannot add common fractions without first determining the least
common denominator. However, once this is done, you only need to add the numerators to
arrive at a sum. This answer is then reduced to its lowest terms.

Example:

Add

Step 1: Rewrite using the least common denominator.

Step 2: Add the numerators and reduce to lowest terms, if possible.

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SUBTRACTING COMMON FRACTIONS

Subtracting fractions also requires an LCD to be determined. Once this is accomplished,

subtract the numerators, express the difference over the LCD, and reduce the answer to its
lowest terms.

Example: Subtract from

Step 1: Rewrite using the least common denominator.

Step 2: Subtract the numerators and reduce to

1.1.3 MIXED NUMBERS

Mixed numbers contain both whole numbers and proper fractions. Before adding or
subtracting mixed numbers, you must convert them to improper fractions. To convert a mixed
number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by the denominator and add the
product to the numerator. The sum of these two numbers becomes the numerator.

Example:
Convert to an improper fraction.

ADDING MIXED NUMBERS

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When adding mixed numbers, either to other mixed numbers or to proper fractions, you must
convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions. Once accomplished, determine the least
common denominator and add in the same manner as with proper fractions.

When adding improper fractions, the sum is usually another improper fraction. When faced
with. An improper fraction in an answer, you should convert it to a mixed number. To do
this, divide the numerator by the denominator to determine the whole number. If there is a
remainder, leave it in fractional form.

Example: Add the following:

Step 1: Convert each to an improper fraction.

Step 2: Find the LCD and add.

Step 3: Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number.

SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS

To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number or proper fraction, begin by
converting the mixed number to an improper fraction. Once converted, find the LCD and
perform the subtraction. To complete the problem, convert the resulting improper fraction
into a mixed number.

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Example: Subtract from

Step 1 : Convert to improper fractions

Step 2: Find the LCD and subtract.

Step 3: Convert to a mixed number.

MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS

Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplying the numerators of each fraction to

form the product numerator, and multiplying the individual denominators to form the product
denominator. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms.

Example: Multiply the following:

Step 1: Multiply the numerators and the denominators

Step 2: Reduce to lowest terms.

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SlMPLlFY FRACTIONS FOR MULTIPLICATION

It was mentioned earlier that the value of a fraction does not change when you perform the
same operation (multiplication or division) on both the numerator and denominator. You can
use this principle to simplify the multiplication of fractions. For example,
is equivalent to

Notice that there is an 8 in the numerator and denominator. Since these are equivalent values,
they can be removed from the equation. Furthermore, the 16 in the denominator is divisible
by the 4 in the numerator. Therefore, when both are divided by 4, the 4 in the numerator
reduces to 1 and the 16 reduces to 4.

Example: Simplify by cancellation, then multiply:

Step 1: Simplify
1

1
1

Step 2: Multiply and reduce, if possible.

DIVIDING FRACTIONS

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Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, or turning over, the divisor and
then multiplying. However, it is important that you invert the divisor only and not the
dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain a new numerator,
multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator, and reduce the quotient to its lowest
terms.

Example:

Divide by

Step 1: Invert the divisor and multiply.

Step 2: Multiply and simplify the product.

1.1.4 THE DECIMAL NUMBERS

Working with fractions is typically time consuming and complex. One way you can eliminate
fractions in complex equations is by replacing them with decimal fractions or decimals. A
common fraction is converted to a decimal fraction by dividing the numerator by the
denominator. For example, 3/4 is converted to a decimal by dividing the 3 by the 4 equal
0.75. (proper fractions)
are converted to decimals in the same manner. However, whole numbers appear to the left of
the decimal point. In a decimal, each digit represents a multiple of ten. The first digit
represents tenths, the second hundredths, the third thousandths.

Example:
.5 is read as five tenths
.05 is read as five hundredths
.005 is read as five thousandths

When writing decimals, the number of zeros to the right of the decimal does not affect the
value as long as no other number except zero appears. In other words, numerically, 2.5, 2.50,
and 2.5000 are the same.
ADDING DECIMALS

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The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole numbers.
However, care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points vertically.

Example:
Add the following: 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237

Step 1: Rewrite with the decimal points aligned, and add.

25.78
5.4
+ 0.237
31.417

Once everything is added, the decimal point in the answer is placed directly below the other
decimal points.

SUBTRACTING DECIMALS

Like adding, subtracting decimals is done in the same manner as with whole numbers. Again,
it is important that you keep the decimal points aligned.

Example:

If you have 325.25 pounds of ballast on board and remove 30.75 pounds, how much ballast
remains?
325.25
- 30.75
294.50

MULTIPLYING DECIMALS

When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting whole
numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the right of the
decimal point in both the multiplier and multiplicand. This number represents the number of
places from the left the decimal point is placed in the product.

Example: 26.757 3 decimal places

x .32 2 decimal places
53514
80271
856224 Count 5 decimal places

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8.56224 to the left of the 4

DIVIDING DECIMALS

When dividing decimals, the operation is carried out in the same manner as division of whole
numbers. However, to ensure accurate placement of the decimal point in the quotient, two
rules apply:
1. When the divisor is a whole number, the decimal point in the quotient aligns vertically
with the decimal in the dividend when doing long division.
2. When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole number by
moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in the divisor is
moved, the decimal in the dividend must also move in the same direction and the same
number of spaces.

Example:
Divide 37.26 by 2.7

Step 1: Move the decimal in the divisor to the right to convert it to a whole number.

27. 37.26

Step 2: Move the decimal in the dividend the same number of places to the right.

27. 372.6

Step 3: Divide.

13.8
27 372.6
27
102
81
216
216
0
CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS

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Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use of a
fraction is more practical. For example, when measuring something, most scales are in
fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know how to convert a decimal
number into a fraction. For example, .125 is read as 125 thousandths, which is written as
125/1000. This fraction is then reduced to its lowest terms.

Example: .
Convert 0.625 into a common fraction.

Step 1 : Rewrite as a fraction.

Step 2 : Reduce to lowest terms.

ROUNDING DECIMALS

Because decimal numbers can often be carried out an unreasonable number of places, they
are usually limited to a workable size. This process of retaining a certain number of digits and
discarding the rest is known as rounding. In other words, the retained number is an
approximation of the computed number.

Rounding is accomplished by viewing the digit immediately to the right of the last retained
digit. If this number is 5 or greater, increase the last retained digit to the next highest value.
When the number to the right of the last retained digit is less than 5, leave the last retained
digit unchanged. For example, when rounding 3.167 to 2 decimal places, the 7 determines
what is done to the 6, which is the last retained digit. Since 7 is greater than 5, the rounded
number is 3.17.

1.1.5 PERCENTAGE

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Percentages are special fractions whose denominator is 100. The decimal fraction 0.33 is the
same as and is equivalent to 33 percent or 33%. You can convert common fractions
to percentages by first converting them to decimal fractions, and then multiplying by 100. For
example, expressed as a decimal is 0.625, and is converted to a percentage by moving the
decimal right two places, becoming 62.5 % .

To find the percentage of a number, multiply the number by the decimal equivalent of the
percentage. For example, to find 10% of 200, begin by converting 10% to its decimal
equivalent which is .10. Now multiply 200 by .10 to arrive at a value of 20.

If you want to find the percentage one number is of another, you must divide the first number
by the second and multiply the quotient by 100. For instance, let's say an engine develops 85
horsepower of a possible 125 horsepower. What percentage of the total power available is
developed? To solve this, divide 85 by 125 and multiply the quotient by 100.

Example:

power is developed.

Another way percentages are used is to determine a number when only a portion of the
number is known.
For example, if 4,180 rpm is 38% of the maximum speed, what is the maximum speed? To
determine this, you must divide the known quantity, 4,180 rpm, by the decimal equivalent of
the percentage.

Example:
rpm maximum

A common mistake made on this type of problem is multiplying by the percentage instead of
dividing. One way to avoid making this error is to look at the problem and determine what
exactly is being asked. In the problem above, if 4,180 rpm is 38% of the maximum, then the
maximum rpm must be greater than 4,180. The only way to get an answer that meets this
criterion is to divide by 0.38.

1.1.6 RATIO AND PROPORTION

A ratio provides a means of comparing one number to another. For example, if an engine
turns at 4,000 rpm and the propeller turns at 2,400 rpm, the ratio of the two speeds is 4,000 to
2,400, or 5 to 3, when reduced to lowest terms. This relationship can also be expressed as
or 5:3.

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The use of ratios is common in aviation. One ratio you must be familiar with is compression
ratio, which is the ratio of cylinder displacement when the piston is at bottom center to the
cylinder displacement when the piston is at top center. For example, if the volume of a
cylinder with the piston at bottom center is 96 cubic inches and the volume with the piston at
top center is 12 cubic inches, the compression ratio is 96:12 or 8:1 when simplified.

Another typical ratio is that of different gear sizes. For example, the gear ratio of a drive gear
with 15 teeth to a driven gear with 45 teeth is 15:45 or 1:3 when reduced. This means that for
every one tooth on the drive gear there are three teeth on the driven gear. However, when
working with gears, the ratio of teeth is opposite the ratio of revolutions. In other words,
since the drive gear has one third as many teeth as the driven gear, the driven gear must
complete three revolutions to turn the driven gear one revolution. This results in a revolution
ratio of 3:1, which is opposite the ratio of teeth.

A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios and represents a

convenient way to solve problems involving ratios.

For example, if an engine has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and the propeller
of 3:2, and the engine is turning 2,700 rpm, what is the speed of the propeller? In this
problem, let "x" represent the unknown value, which in this case is the speed of the propeller.
Next, set up a proportional statement using the fractional form, . To solve this
equation, cross multiply to arrive at the equation , or 5,400. To solve for (x),
divide 5,400 by 3. The speed of the propeller is 1,800 rpm.

rpm

This same proportion may also be expressed as 3:2 = 2,700 : x. The first and last terms of the
proportion are called the extremes, and the second and third terms are called the means. In
any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means. In this
example, multiply the extremes to get 3x, and multiply the means to get 2 x 2,700, or 5,400.
This results in the identical equation derived earlier; .

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rpm

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1.2 ALGEBRA
Algebra is a form of arithmetic that uses letters or symbols to represent numbers in equations
and formulas. For example, if an airplane cruises at 200 knots, how long will it take to fly
600 nautical miles? To solve this problem, an equation is set up with the unknown variable of
time represented by the letter "T". The equation is 200 kts. x T = 600 n.m. Through algebra,
you calculate the time (T) required of 3 hours. While some forms of algebra are extremely
complex, others are fairly simple and straightforward. This section introduces you to the
basic algebra you need to know to perform your duties as an aviation maintenance technician.

1.2.1 EQUATIONS

One way to express a math problem is to write it out in words. For example, "What is 24
divided by 3?" This is written in an algebraic sentence in the form . In this
example, "x" represents the unknown quantity, or variable, you are solving for. The
expression is called an equation. The purpose of the equation is to identify two
equal quantities. Typically, once you get a math problem set up in an equation, the problem is
fairly easy to solve. For example, if asked to determine what quantity, when added to 23,
results in 48, your first step should be to set up an equation. The equation used to solve this
problem is . To find the value of "x," subtract 23 from both sides of the
equation. The equation now reads . Once simplified, the equation reads .

LINIER EQUATION

Any statement of equality between two quantities is an equation. This chapter is concerned
with
the solution of equations that can be rearranged into the form
ax + b = 0
where x is the unknown (variable), and a and b are constants.

To solve equations of this form (variable) in the equation, we may first need to manipulate
the
equation SO that all the terms involving the unknown (variable) appear on one side of the
equation, and only constants appear on the other side.

Note.
When manipulating the terms of an equation it must remembered that whatever
arithmetic operation is performed to one side of the equation must also be performed
to the other side.

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Example:
Solve 2 x - 4 = 10
We want to find the numerical value of x that satisfies this equation. By moving 4 to the
R.H.S. of the equation, remembering that we must change the sign (i.e. by adding + 4 to both
sides of the equation) we obtain
2x = 10 + 4
2x = 14
now, by dividing both sides of the equation by 2, we obtain x=7
Hence x = 7 is the solution to the equation 2x - 4 = 10.
We can check our answer by substituting it back into the original equation

i.e. 2x - 4 = 10
2(7) - 4 = 10
14 - 4 = 10
Since this is true, our solution is correct.

Example:
Solve 3x - 2 = 2x + 4
We aim to get the terms in x on one side of the equation and the constants on the other.
Now, by moving -2 to the R.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by adding + 2 to both sides of the
equation), we obtain
3x - 2 = 2x + 4
3x = 2x + 6

Now by moving 2x to the L.H.S. of the equation (i.e. by subtracting 2x from both sides of
the equation), we obtain
3x - 2x = 6
x = 6
This is the solution and we can check it by substituting back into the original equation, i.e.
3x - 2 = 2x + 4
3(6) - 2 = 2(6) + 4
18 - 2 = 12 + 4
16 = 16

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Since this is true, our solution is correct.

Example;

Solve

By multiplying both sides of the equation by 5, we obtain

by dividing both sides of the equation by 4, we obtain

We can check this answer by substituting it back into the original equation

SIMULTAN EQUATION

Method 1 : By Substitution
Let 2x + 3y = 11 (1)
and 4x + 2y = 10 (2)

11 – 3y
Then from equation (1), x =
2

Let this expression for x be substituted into equation (2). Thus

This is now a simple equation in y and may be solved. Multiplying both sides of the equation
by 2 gives

4(11 -3y) + 4y = 20

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Removing brackets gives

44 - 12y + 4y = 20
Rearranging gives
44 - 20 = 12y - 4y
Hence
24 = 8y
y=3

This value of y may be substituted into either equation (1) or equation (2). (The result should
be the same in both cases.)
Substituting in equation (1) gives
2x + 3(3) = 11

Therefore 2x + 9 = 11
2x = 11 - 9

Hence 2x = 11 -9
2x = 2
x=1

Therefore the solution of the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 11 and 4x + 2y = 10 is x = 1

and y = 3. This is the only pair of values that satisfies both equations.

Method 2: By Elimination

let 2x + 3y = 11 (1)
and 4x + 2y = 10 (2)

If equation (1) is multiplied throughout by 2 the resulting equation will be

4x + 6y = 22 (3)
The reason that equation (1) is multiplied by 2 is that the coefficient ofx (i.e. the number
multiplying x) in equation (2) and equation (3) is now the same. Sometimes it is necessary to
multiply both equations by constants chosen so that the coefficients of x or y in each equation
become the same.

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Equation (2) can now be subtracted from equation (3). Thus

4x + 6y= 22 (3)
4x + 2y= 10 (2)
Subtracting 0 + 4y = 12
Hence 4y = 12
Therefore y=3

This value of y may now be substituted in equation (1) or equation (2) exactiy as in method 1
to find the value of x.

It will be found from experience that in many cases method 1, that of substitution is
unnecessarily cumbersome, so that method 2, the elimination procedure will be employed.

QUADRATIC EQUATION

A quadratic function is a function of the form

y = ax2 + bx + c (1)
where a, b, c are constants, and a * 0

Examples of the graphs of quadratic functions are given below:

y = x2 – 4x + 3 y = -x2 + 6x = 8

y = x2 – 4x + 3 y = -x2 + 6x = 8

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A quadratic equation may be written in the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (2)

where a, b, c are constants, and a ≠ 0

Note that this corresponds to putting y = 0 in the quadratic function (1)
The solution of the quadratic equation (2) is given by

(3)

N. B. The derivation of formula (3) is not considered here.

It should be noted that if b2 – 4ac ˂ 0 then (3) involves taking the square root of a neqative
number. This is not possible in terms of real numbers and such cases are not considered here.

Example:
Solve x2 - 4x + 3 = 0

Comparing this equation with (2) we see that

a = 1; b = - 4; c = 3

(a is the coefficient of x2 ; b is the coefficient of x; and c is the constant term)

Using (3) we obtain

x = 3 and 1

The solution of X2 - 4x + 3 = 0 is x = 1 and x=3

This can be verified by looking at Fig. 1 (i.e. the solution occurs where the curve
y = x2 - 4x + 3 cuts the x axis).

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COMPLEX EQUATIONS

The algebraic rules presented in this section are not only useful for answering test questions,
they also allow you to use the complex formulas frequently found in the study of electricity
and weight and balance computations. Work the following equation.

Perform the calculations in parentheses first.

Exponent work is done next.

Add the elements within the square root sign.

Extract the root.

While it may seem complex, a problem of this type is fairly simple to solve when you
observe the basic rules of signed numbers and follow the proper order of operations.

1.2.2 ALGEBRAIC RULES

There are some basic rules you must use to simplify and solve algebraic equations. First,
consider fractions. As discussed earlier, when working with fractions, the numerator and
denominator can be changed without changing the fraction's value as long as you do the same
operation to both. This is often useful in reducing or combining fractions. For example, to
reduce to its lowest terms, divide both the numerator and denominator by 9.

Example:

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This same principle also is used to simplify fractions and cancel out units such as gallons,
miles, or foot-pounds. For example, in the given equation

Since "Hour" is in each element, it cancels. Furthermore, since the 60 in the numerator is
divisible by the 2 in the denominator, both figures reduce. Once complete, you are left with
the formula

which is equivalent to x = 30 miles.

In another example, determine the number of revolutions a gear completes in 30 seconds

when the gear turns at 100 revolutions per minute (rpm).

Example:

Step 1: Convert the word problem to an equation.

Step 2: Cancel the like terms and reduce where appropriate.

50

Therefore, x = 50 revolutions.

It is important to keep all labels in an equation. If this is not done, it may be difficult to
determine the appropriate label for the answer.

Another important rule you must follow when solving algebraic equations is to never perform
an operation to one side of an equation without performing the identical operation to the other
side. In other words, you can add, subtract, multiply, or divide on one side of an equation as

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long as you do the same thing to the other side. For example, when solving the equation
, 16 is subtracted from both sides of the equation.

Example:

Subtract 16 from both sides to solve for x.

USES OF PARENTHESES

In algebra, parentheses indicate an operation that must carried out before any other operation.
For example, in the expression , the 8 and 7 must be added first. When using
parentheses, the absence of an operation sign between a number and parenthetical statement
indicates multiplication. For example, is the same as . Furthermore, if a
negative sign (-) precedes the parentheses, it is the same as multiplying -1 by each of the
quantities within the parenthese.

Example:

or

Complex algebraic equations can include brackets and braces in addition to parentheses.
These are called grouping symbols. When working out a solution to an equation with
multiple grouping symbols, always begin by solving the equation in the innermost set, and
then the work outward.

1.2.3 ORDER OF OPERATIONS

When solving complex equations, the only way you can arrive at the correct answer is if you
follow the correct order of operations. For example, when solving the equation
, it is possible to arrive at several different answers by doing the math operations in different
orders. You could, for example, multiply before add, add before multiply, or wok the
equation from left to right. However, only one of these results in the correct answer. The
proper order for performing mathematical operations is as follows:

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1. Parentheses: Operation contained in parentheses are always done first

2. Exponents: One all operations within parentheses are complete, exponent operations are
done.
3. Multiplication and Division: The operations of multiplication and division are performed
from left to right after exponents.
4. Addition and Subtraction: Once the operations of multiplication and division are done,
you may add and subtract from left to right.

Apply the correct order of operations to solving this equation.

Do the operations in parentheses contained in the numerator

Now multiply from left to right

Add the terms in the numerator.

Calculate the square root in the denominator.

Reduce the fraction to a decimal number.

Notice that you now have a fraction, and that you did not the division for the fraction after
multiplication. When an equation is presented in the form of fraction, complete all operations
in the numerator and denominator before you reduce the fraction. The same is true for

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operations within a square root sign. Do the operations within the square root sign in the
proper order before extracting the root.
If you perform mathematical operations in the proper order, calculations typically go
smoother and you obtain the right answer. The importance of proper order becomes clear
when you begin performing more complex equations.

1.2.4 LOGARITHMS

Why Logs? In the discussion of indices it was noted that whenever a number is "raised" to a
power then we write that in exponential notation and the meaning of it is that the number
appearing in the base is being multiplied by itself the number of times that is indicated by the
exponent. The notation used was such that if we write 53, what we actually mean is "5
multiplied by itself 3 times".

Logarithms are mathematical inventions in order to answer a slightly different question

(notice the word "invention"; logarithms make certain operations easier to handle and that is
all they do, so you should think of them as a definition). In order to motivate why logarithms
are introduced in the first place, let us invent a scenario. Suppose someone asked you the
following question:

What number do I have to raise to the power of 3 in order to get 1,000? Well... this might
seem pretty simple and obvious. If you multiply 10 x 10 you get 100, and if you multiply 100
x 10 you get 1,000. So, you would say that 10 multiplied by itself 3 times - or, in our power
notation, 103 - is equal to 1,000.

Now, this is easy to answer by thinking about powers because the above example is simple
powers and simple number, and once can reason it out relatively quickly. However, things
can get more complicated. Suppose now that you were asked "what number do I have to raise
10 to in order to get 735. All of a sudden the answer is not very obvious. What is so different
about this question?

There is actually nothing different about this question. You still can try doing the same
process, but now the number isn't that pretty and if s not exactly obvious how many times
you should multiply 10 by itself to get 735. If you multiply it by itself 2 times you get 100,
but 3 times gives 1,000, and you have already exceeded 735! How do we "get out" this power
that we need?

Logarithms are - at the most basic level - invented to answer the more general question of
how does one extract the base or exponent of an algebraic power when one of these is an
unknown.

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Definition
Continuing on the above reasoning, let us take our simple example again: what number raised
to the power of 3 gives 1,000? If we invent an unknown variable - call it “y” and try to write
out our question in terms of the notation of algebraic powers we have the following situation:
10y = 1,000

The question is: what is “y” in the above formula? How do we solve for y? We invent an
operation called the logarithm - abbreviated to Log - and we apply this operation to the above
relation.

Thus:
If by = x
Then logb(x) = y

This is the definition of a log.

How does this help us with anything? It seems like we went in a big loop, and we knew the
answer to begin with anyway! But... now consider the slightly more complicated question
that we had above: "what number do I raise 10 to, in order to get 735?". Let us apply the
logarithmic process to this situation:

10y = 735
Log10 735 = y

If you take the Log of 735 on your calculator you get, 2.866...! So, 10 raised to the power of
2.866,.. gives you 735, and the question is answered. Recall that algebraic powers need NOT
be integers, and here we have a clear example of a non-integer power.

A series of togs can be drawn on a graph as shown below

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Thus it can be seen that

 Log10 1 = 0
 Log10 10 = 1
 Log10 100 = 2
 Log10 1000 = 3
 Log10 10000 = 4
 etc.

It can be said then that Log10150 = 2.xxx, where the x’s are any numbers after the decimal
point. The “2” is known as the Characteristic of the Log, and the decimals areknown as
Mantissa. Hence, the characteristic of the Log of any number between 100 and 999 is 2. (The
'Characteristic' is in fact ‘n-1' where 'n' is the quantity of digits you are taking a tog of).

COMMON LOGARITHMS
There are two basic types of logarithms that are important to know. In the previous section,
where logarithms were defined, you already saw the definition of one kind of logarithms, that
was the so called "log base 10".

The logarithmic operation that we have introduced serves the main purpose of extracting the
exponents in an algebraic power. This is true of the operation of "taking the logarithm".

The logarithm of base 10 is most often useful when powers of 10 are involved, but not
necessarily. It can be used in many other situations. For instance, suppose you were asked the
following question. 3 raised to what power gives 16.8? Again, applying our definition of
logarithm Of base 10 - as defined in the previous Section - we can answer this question but,

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in order to do this we need to define some rules of operation for logarithms (this is outlined in
the next few pages).

Logarithms having a base of 10 are called common logarithms and log10 is often abbreviated
to Lg.

NATURAL LOGARITHMS
There is another logarithm that is also useful (and in fact more common in natural processes).
Many natural phenomenon are seen to exhibit changes that are either exponentially decaying
(radioactive decay for instance) or exponentially increasing (population growth for example).
These exponentially changing function are written as ex, were X represents the rate of the
exponential.

In such cases where exponential changes are involved we usually use another kind of
logarithm called natural logarithm. The natural log can be thought of as Logarithm Base-e.
What this means is that it is a logarithmic operation that when carried out on e raised to some
power gives us the power itself. This logarithm is labelled with Ln (for "natural log") and it is
definition is :
Ln(ex) = x
Logarithms having a base of e (where e is a mathematical constant approximately
approximately equal to 2.7183) are called hyperbolic or natural logarithms, and loge is often
abbreviated to 'ln’ .

RULE OF LOGARITHMS
There are three rules of logarithms, which apply to any base.

Rule 1. To multiply two numbers:

log AB = log A + log B

The following may be checked by using a calculator

log 10 = 1
Also lg5 + lg 2 = 0.69897 + 0.301029 = 1
Hence lg (5 x 2) = Ig 10 = Ig 5 + Ig 2

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Rule 2. To divide two numbers:

The following may be checked using a calculator

Also In 5 - In 2 = In 2.5 =1.60943 - 0.69314 = 0.91629

Hence

Rule 3. To raise a number to a power

log An = n log A

The following may be checked using a calculator

Ig 52 = lg 25 =1.39794
Also 2 lg 5 = 2(0.69897) = 1.39794
Hence lg 52 = 2 lg 5

1.2.5 NUMBER SYSTEMS

BINARY
Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another system called
Binary. Binary is the main number systems used by computer scientists.

The binary number system is a base 2 number system which uses only the digits 0 and 1.
It is also a place value system which means that each place represents a power of 2, just as
the place represents a power of 10 in the decimal system:

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Powers of 2: 25 24 23 22 21 2° . 2-1 2-2

Decimal No.: 32 16 8 4 2 1 . 0.5 0.25

e.g.: 1010.012 0 0 1 0 1 0 . 0 1

The number 1010.012 therefore means:

1x8 =8
+1 x 2 = 2
+ 1 x 0.25 = 0.25

S O, 1010.012 = 10.2510

Binary to Decimal Conversions

Example:

Convert 1001001 to Decimal

Write down the powers of 2, and the number to be converted below them, as follows

64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Then add all the numbers above the 1 ’s
i.e. 64 + 8 + 1 = 73

Decimal to Binary Conversions

Example:
Convert 271 to Binary
Write down the powers of two up to the next higher number (256 in this case) than the
number to be converted
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Next write in the first digit 1 under the highest number (256). Subtract the 256 from 271

271 - 256 = 15

Insert 1’s under the numbers which, when added, come to 15.

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256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 1

The Decimal number 27110 is therefore 1000011112

Adding Binary Numbers

Example:
Add 1100010 to 1000111
Line up the numbers as shown, and add each column starting from the left (as you would
when adding decimal numbers). When two 1’s are added, this would normally be 2. But 2
is not allowed in binary, so write 0 and carry 1 to the next column to the left and include it
in the addition of the next column.

1100010 1 ’s carried to next left column

10101001

OCTAL

Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another system called
octal. Like binary, octal is one of the three main number systems used by computer
scientists.

The octal number system is a base 8 number system which uses only the eight digits 0,1, 2,
3,
4, 5, 6, and 7. It is also a place value system which means that each place represents a power of
8, just as the place represents a power of 10 in the decimal system:

Powers of 8: 84 83 82 81 8° . 8"1 8'2

Decimal No: 4096 512 64 8 1 . 0.125 0.015625

e.g.: 2378 2 3 7

Thus, an octal number such as 2378 = 2x8 2 + 3x8 1 +7x8 0 =128 + 24 + 7 = 15910.

Converting

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Binary to Octal and Octal to Binary

To convert a binary number to an octal number, construct a 3-bit binary / octal lookup
table like the one below. Starting at the binary decimal point of the binary number, take
the first 3 bits and find the corresponding octal value from the table. Repeat with next 3
bits and so on. If less than 3 bits remain, pad them with 0's until there are 3 bits. Again
use the table.

3-bit binary octal

000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7

Example:

Convert 11010010 to octal.

1. Take the 3 most right bits, 010 and find the corresponding octal value in the
above lookup table. The octal value is '2'.

2. Take the next 3 bits, 010. The corresponding octal value from the lookup
table is '2' again.

3. Now, only 2 bits, 11 of the binary number remain. Pad the left hand side with a 0
to get 011. The corresponding octal value from the lookup table is '3'.

So, 110100102 = 3228

To convert from octal to binary, write down the binary representation of each octal digit.
Note that each octal digit should take up 3 bits.

Example;

Convert 3228 to binary

3 = 011
2 = 010
2 = 010
So, 3228 = 0110100102

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HEXADECIMAL

Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another system called
hexadecimal. Hexadecimal is the last of the three main number systems used by computer
scientists.

The hexadecimal number system is a base 16 number system which uses the sixteen digits 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. Here, we need the extra digits A, B, C, D, E,
and F to represent the numbers 10,11,12, 13,14, and 15, since there are no digits in the
decimal numeral system to do this.

DECIMAL HEXADECIMAL

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F

Converting Hexadecimal to Binary and Binary to Hexadecimal

To convert a binary number to an hexadecimal number, construct a 4-bit binary / hexadecimal
lookup table like the one below. Starting at the binary decimal point of the binary number, take the
first 4 bits and find the corresponding hexadecimal value from the table. Repeat with next 4 bits
and so on. If there is less than 4 bits remaining, pad them out to 4 bits.

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4 BIT BINARY HEXADECIMAL

0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F

Example:

Convert 11010010 to hexadecimal.

1. Take the 4 most right bits, 0010 and find the corresponding hexadecimal value
in the above lookup table. The hexadecimal value is '2'.

2. Take the next 4 bits, 1101. Find the corresponding hexadecimal value in the
above lookup table. The hexadecimal value is 'D'.

So, 110100102 = D216

To convert from hexadecimal to binary, write down the binary representation of each
hexadecimal digit. Note that each hexadecimal digit should take up 4 bits.

Example;

Convert 2CF16 to binary

2 =
0010
C =
1100
F =
1111

So, 2CF16 = 0010110011112

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BINARY CODED DECIMAL

The BCD system is a for bit system representing a decimal character for use with digital
display readouts. It can also be used for addressing to make it more convenient for humans to
use.

BCD number 1001 0010 0011 0000

Decimal eqivalent 9 2 3 0

Thus, a BCD number such as 1001001000110000 is 4 sets of 4 bit binary numbers 9, 2, 3

and 0, which, when decoded means decimal 9230

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HEX BIN DEC BCD OCTAL

0 0 0 0000 0000 0
1 1 1 0000 0001 1
2 10 2 0000 0010 2
3 11 3 0000 0011 3
4 100 4 0000 0100 4
5 101 5 0000 0101 5
6 110 6 0000 0110 6
7 111 7 0000 0111 7
8 1000 8 0000 1000 10
9 1001 9 0000 1001 11
A 1010 10 0001 0000 12
B 1011 11 0001 0001 13
C 1100 12 0001 0010 14
D 1101 13 0001 0011 15
E 1110 14 0001 0100 16
F 1111 15 0001 0101 17
10 1 0000 16 0001 0110 20
11 1 0001 17 0001 0111 21
12 1 0010 18 0001 1000 22
13 1 0011 19 0001 1001 23
14 1 0100 20 0010 0000 24
15 1 0101 21 0010 0001 25
16 1 0110 22 0010 0010 26
17 1 0111 23 0010 0011 27
18 1 1000 24 0010 0100 30
19 1 1001 25 0010 0101 31
1A 1 1010 26 0010 0110 32
1B 1 1011 27 0010 0111 33
1C 1 1100 28 0010 1000 34
1D 1 1101 29 0010 1001 35
1E 1 1110 30 0011 0000 36
1F 11111 31 0011 0001 37

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1.3 GEOMETRY
Geometry is the measurement of dimensions, areas, and volumes of geometric shapes, and is
quite useful in aviation maintenance. In fact, it is geometry that allows you to calculate the
displacement of a cylinder, determine the volume of a fuel tank, and calculate the surface
area of a wing. On the other hand, trigonometry allows you to determine unknown lengths
and angles of a triangle. In addition to aiding you when fabricating sheet metal, trigonometry
plays a large part in the theory of alternating current.

1.3.1 COMPUTING AREA

The area of a surface is two dimensional and is expressed in square units. An area that is
square and measures one inch on each side is called a square inch. This same relationship
holds true for other units of measure such as square feet, square yards, square miles, and
square meters. The area of a figure is equal to the number of square units the figure contains.

THE RECTANGLE
As you know, a rectangle is a four-sided plane. It is distinguished by having opposite sides of
equal length, and four angles each equal to 90 degrees. The area (A) of a rectangle is found
by multiplying its length (L) by its width (W), or A = L x W. However, before the
mathematical operation can be carried out, both measurements must reflect the same unit of
measure. For example, given a sheet of aluminum that is 48 inches wide by 12 feet long, you
must convert either the width to feet or the length to inches. By converting the width of 48
inches to feet, the area of the sheet of aluminum is calculated to be 48 square feet (12 ft. x 4
ft. = 48 sq. ft.). If you later find that you need the area in square inches rather than square
feet, multiply 48 square feet by 144 which is the number of square inches in a square foot.
The result is 6,912 square inches.

A=LxW
= 12 ft. x 4 ft.
= 48 sq.ft. W = 48 in.

L = 12 ft.

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THE SQUARE
A square is a symmetrical plane in which all four sides are of equal length. The same formula
used for a rectangle is used to find the area of a square. However, since all sides of a square
are of equal length, the formula is sometimes expressed as the square of the sides or:

THE TRIANGLE

The triangle is a three-sided figure consisting of three angles whose combined measurement
equals 180 degrees. Three basic types of triangles you should be familiar with are: the
scalene triangle, which consists of three unequal angles and sides, the equilateral triangle,
which has equal sides and equal angles, and the isosceles triangle, which has two equal
angles.

Triangles are further classified by the measurement of one angle. For example, a right
triangle is one that has one angle measuring 90 degrees. In an obtuse triangle, one angle is
greater than 90 degrees, while in an acute triangle all angles are less than 90 degrees.
There are several terms associated with triangles. For instance, the base of a triangle is the
side the triangle rests or stands on. Depending on a triangle's orientation, any side may be the
base. The vertex is a common endpoint, or the point where the sides of the triangle meet. The
altitude of a triangle is the height of the vertex above the base.
SCALINE ISOSCELES ACUTE

o o o
30 45 40

h
h h

o o o o
90
o
60
o 90 45 70 70

b b
b

AREA = ½ b X h
o
60

o
h 100

o o
60
o
60
o 40 30

b
b OBTUSE
EQUILATERAL

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The shaded portion of each rectangle is equal in area to this not shaded. The area of a the
triangle with the formula

If a triangle is set in a rectangle and the triangle's base and height are equal to two of the
rectangle's sides, the area of the triangle is exactly one-half that of the rectangle. Therefore,
the formula for calculating the area of a triangle is one-half the base times the height, or
. [Figure 1-4].
Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 inches an 5 inches.

Step 1: Insert given values into the formula.

Step 2: Perform multiplication.

square inches

THE PARALLELOGRAM
The parallelogram, like the rectangle, has opposite sides that are parallel and equal in length.
However, the corner angles of a parallelogram are some measurement other than 90 degrees.
The area of a parallelogram is calculated by multiplying the length by the height (A = 1 x h).
The height is measured perpendicular to the length, similar to the way the altitude of a
triangle is determined.

Area = h

THE TRAPEZOID
A trapezoid is a four-sided figure that has one set of parallel sides. If you lay two trapezoids
side by side so the top and bottom sides form straight lines, a parallelogram is formed with a
base that is equal to the combined length of the trapezoid's parallel sides. As discussed
earlier, the area of a parallelogram is found by multiplying the length, which in this case
equals the sum of the parallel sides, by the height. However, because the area of a single
trapezoid is one-half that of the parallelogram, the trapezoid's area is equal to one-half the
product of the base times the height. This is expressed with the formula:

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THE CIRCLE
A circle is a closed figure bounded by a single curved line. Every point on the line forming a
circle is an equal distance from the center. The distance from the center to the line forming
the circle is called the radius, and the distance around the circle is known as the
circumference. The diameter of a circle is represented by a line that touches two points on
the outside of the circle and passes through the circle's center. The circumference has a
definite relationship with the diameter. This relationship is represented by the Greek letter pi
, and is equal to 3.1416. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is
always pi. Regardless of the size of the circle, pi is a constant.

CIRCUMFERENCE = π D
AREA = π r ²

CIRCUMFERENCE = π D
2
AREA = π r

RADIUS

DIAMETER

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The circumference of a circle is found by multiplying pi times the diameter, and the area is
calculated by multiplying pi times the square of the radius.
For example, if a circle has a diameter of 10 inches, determine the circumference and area.

Example:
Circumference =

inches
Area =

square inches

1.3.2 COMPUTING VOLUME

Solids are objects with three dimensions: length, width, and height. Having the ability to
calculate volume enables you to determine the capacity of a fuel tank or reservoir, figure the
capacity of a cargo area, or calculate the displacement of a cylinder. Volumes are calculated
in cubic units, such as cubic inches, cubic feet, and cubic centimeters. However, volumes are
easily converted to useful terms such as gallons. For example, to convert cubic inches to
gallons, divide the total number of cubic inches by 231. If converting cubic feet to gallons,
remember that 1 cubic foot holds 7.5 gallons.

VOLUME OF A RECTANGLE
The volume of a rectangular solid is found by multiplying the dimensions of length, width,
and height. When calculating volume, it is important that all measurements be in like terms.
The formula

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for determining the volume of a rectangular solid is:

V = L X W X H

Where :
V = volume
L = length
W = width
H = height
W
Example :
L = 24 INCHES H
W = 18 INCHES
H = 12 INCHES
L

VOLUME = L X W X H
V = 24 X 18 X 12
V = 5,184 cubic inch

VOLUME OF A CUBE

A cube is a solid with equal side. Since all dimensions of a cube are identical, its area is
calculated by multiplying one dimension by itself three times.

S = 6 INCHES

cubic inches
S

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VOLUME OF A CYLlNDER

A cylinder is a solid with circular ends and parallel sides. Its volume is found by multiplying
the area of
one end by the cylinder's height. The formula is expressed as:

D = 8 inches
H = 8 inches

H cubic inches

As a technician, you can use this formula to calculate piston displacement. Piston
displacement is defined as the volume of air displaced by a piston as it moves from bottom
center to top center. For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft engine has a bore,
or diameter, of four inches and the piston has a stroke of six inches. Stroke is defined as the
distance the head of a piston travels from bottom center to top center. What is the total
cylinder displacement?

Where:
Bore = 4 inches
Stroke = 6 inches

cubic inches

Once you know the volume of one cylinder, you can calculate the engine's total displacement.
The total piston displacement is defined as the total volume displaced by all the pistons
during one crankshaft revolution. To calculate the displacement of an entire engine, multiply
the volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders on the engine.

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Top Dead Center Bottom Dead Center

VOLUME OF A SPHERE

A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal distance from
the center of the sphere. A sphere has the greatest volume for its surface area, and is used in
aircraft systems for hydraulic accumulators and liquid oxygen converters.

cubic inches

The volume of a sphere is determined by multiplying the cube of the diameter by a factor
which is pi, or 0.5236. If you want to find the volume of a sphere that is 6 inches in
diameter, you must first cube the diameter and multiply the resulting value by 0.5236. For
example, calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 6 inches.

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1.3.3 TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry basically deals with the relationships that exist within a right triangle and is
commonly used in the shop for sheet metal layout. Because trigonometry is a based on the
ratio of the sides of a right triangle to one another, you must be familiar with how these ratios
are derived. Angle C is the right angle (90o). For this explanation, angle A is the angle for
which you are setting up the relationships. Side c is the hypotenuse, which, by definition, is
the side opposite the right angle. Side a is the side opposite angle A, and side b is the side
adjacent, or next to, angle A. Using these labels, examine the three relationships that exist
within this triangle.

TRIGONOMETRIC RELATIONSHIP

c
a

A b C
C = RIGHT ANGLE
c = HYPOTENUSE
A = ANGLE BEING CONSIDERED
a = SIDE OPPOSITE
b = SIDE ADJACENT

Trigonometric relation of a right triangle

Because trigonometric relationships are constant for a given angle, they are often times
presented in a Table of Trigonometric Functions. Trigonometric tables usually only list the
angles to 45 degrees.

By referring back to figure 1-5, you see that the Sine (Sin) of angle A is the ratio of the length
of the side opposite the angle to the length of the hypotenuse. For any degree of angle A, this
ratio is constant, regardless of the size of the triangle. In the trig table, the sine of 30°, which
is written Sin 30°, is 0.500.

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This means that the side opposite a 30º angle is 50%, or one-half the length of the
hypotenuse.
For a 45o angle, the ratio is 0.7071, indicating the side opposite the 45o angle is 0.7071 times
the length of the hypotenuse.

The Cosine (Cos) of an angle is the ratio of the length of the side adjacent to the angle, to the
length of the hypotenuse. Cosine is found on the same table used to find the sine of the angle.
The cosine of 30o is 0.8660 and tells you that the length of the side adjacent to the 30o angle
is 0.8660 times the length of the hypotenuse.

The third ratio appearing on the Trigonometric Function Table is Tangent (Tan). This is the
ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the side adjacent the angle.

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
DEG SIN COS TAN
0 .0 1.000 .0 + 90
1 .0175 .9999 .0175 57.29 89
2 .0349 .9994 .0349 28.64 88
3 .0523 .9986 .0524 19.08 87
4 .0698 .9976 .0699 14.30 86
5 .0872 .9962 .0875 11.43 85
6 .1045 .9945 .1051 9.514 84
7 .1219 .9926 .1228 8.144 83
8 .1392 .9903 .1405 7.115 82
9 .1564 .9877 .1584 6.314 81
10 .1737 .9848 .1763 5.671 80
11 .1908 .9816 .1944 5.145 79
12 .2079 .9782 .2126 4.705 78
13 .2250 .9744 .2309 4.331 77
14 .2419 .9703 .2493 4.011 76
15 .2588 .9659 .2680 3.732 75
16 .2756 .9613 .2868 3.487 74
17 .2924 .9563 .3057 3.271 73
18 .3090 .9511 .3249 3.078 72
19 .3256 .9455 .3443 2.904 71
20 .3420 .9397 .3640 2.747 70
21 .3584 .9336 .3839 2.605 69
22 .3746 .9272 .4040 2.475 68
23 .3907 .9205 .4245 2.356 67
24 .4067 .9136 .4452 2.246 66
25 .4226 .9063 .4663 2.145 65
26 .4384 .8988 .4877 2.050 64
27 .4540 .8910 .5095 1.963 63
28 .4695 .8830 .5317 1.881 62
29 .4848 .8746 .5543 1.804 61
30 .5000 .8660 .5774 1.732 60
31 .5150 .8572 .6009 1.664 59
32 .5299 .8481 .6249 1.600 58
33 .5446 .8387 .6494 1.540 57
34 .5592 .8290 .6745 1.483 56
35 .5736 .9192 .7002 1.428 55
36 .5878 .8090 .7265 1.376 54
37 .6018 .7986 .7536 1.327 53
38 .6157 .7880 .7813 1.280 52
39 .6293 .7772 .8098 1.235 51
40 .6428 .7660 .8391 1.192 50
41 .6561 .7547 .8693 1.150 49
42 .6691 .7431 .9004 1.111 48
43 .6820 .7314 .9325 1.072 47
44 .6947 .7193 .9657 1.036 46
45 .7071 .7071 1.0000 1.000 45
COS SIN TAN DEG
Sine, Cosine and Tangen Table

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THE METRIC SYSTEM

The metric system is the dominant language of measurement in use today. However, in the
United States, the customary units of measurement include the English units of inches, feet,
ounces, and pounds. While these units have proved functional for many years, they are
cumbersome to convert.

The meter as a standard was developed in France and adopted by the National Assembly of
France in the late 18th century. The United States government legalized the use of the metric
system in 1866, but it was not until the Metric Bill of 1975 that its use became common. We
are still in a time of slow conversion to the metric system and in many cases both Metric and
English units appear together on packaging, speedometers, and thermometers.

The metric system is built on decimal units. Each basic unit is divided or multiplied by ten as
many times as necessary to get a convenient size. Each of the multiples has a definite prefix,
symbol, and name. As a technician, you must be familiar with each of them.

Number Prefix Symbol Scientific

1,000,000,000,000 tera t 1 x 1012

1,000,000,000 giga g 1 x 109
1,000,000 mega M 1 x 106
1,000 kilo k 1 x 103
100 hecto h 1 x 102
10 deka dk 1 x 101
0.1 deci d 1 x 10-1
0.01 centi c 1 x 10-2
0.001 milli m 1 x 10-3
0.000,001 micro µ 1 x 10-6
0.000,000,001 nano n 1 x 10-9
0.000,000,000,001 pico p 1 x 10-12
Listed are the common prefixes, symbols, and multiplies
for basic metric quantities

There are six base units in the metric system.

o The unit of length is called the meter, and is approximately 39 inches.

o The metric unit of mass, or weight, is the gram.
o The unit of time is the second.
o The unit of electrical current is the ampere.
o The unit of temperature is the degree Celsius, formerly called degree centigrade.
o The unit of luminous intensity is the candela.

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All other units of measurement in the International System of Units, which is now called
SI, are derived from these six.

Conversion from English to Metric systems is accomplished in a variety of ways. Many

hand-held electronic calculators now have specific function keys for making these
conversions. There are also several charts that supply conversion factors.

MATHEMATICAL HARDWARE
While there is no substitute for a basic understanding of mathematical principles and
proficiency in performing mathematical operations, certain mathematical hardware offers
increases in both calculating speed and accuracy. This hardware often takes the form of
detailed function tables, or the electronic calculator. Either one is easily obtainable, portable,
and easy to use.

MATHEMATICAL TABLES
The Decimal Equivalent chart (Figure 1-9) and the Function of Numbers chart (Figure 1-10)
are presented for the convenience of making common calculations. As you become familiar
with the information presented on these charts you will begin to see the advantages of "ready-
made" computations.

ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS
The advent of the inexpensive hand-held electronic calculator has changed forever the way
mathematical operations are performed. While you still need a basic understanding of
mathematical operations and logic, the calculator typically helps increase speed and reduce
errors.

There is no "right" calculator for the aviation maintenance technician. However, there are calculators
with function keys for many of the operations discussed in the chapter. The selection of a calculator
should be based on its anticipated use

1.3.4 COORDINATE AND GRAPH

An equation involving two variables can be represented by a graph drawn on ‘Coordinates Axes’.
Coordinate axes (illustrated below) consist of a horizontal line (usually referred to as the x axis) and a
vertical line (usually referred to as the y axis). The point of intersection of these two lines is called the
origin (usually denoted by the letter ‘0’).

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Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the same
on both axes). The origin takes the value zero on both axes. The x axis takes positive
values to the right of the origin and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis
takes positive values above the origin and negative values below the origin.

Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two
numbers). The first, the x coordinate, is defined as the horizontal distance of the point
from the y axis; the second, the y coordinate, is defined as the vertical distance of the
point from the x axis.

In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the form (a, b).

Example:
The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as follows:

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF AN EQUATION

An equation involving two variables can be represented, on coordinate axes, by means

of a graph.

For a given range of values of x, the corresponding y values can be calculated from the equation
being considered. The points obtained can then be plotted and joined together to form the graph.

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Before plotting the points on a graph, the axes must be drawn in a way that takes into account
the range of the x-values and the range of the y-values. If graph paper is used (which is
desirable) you should use a scale that involves a sensible number of units per square i.e. you
should use steps of, for example, 1, 2, 5 or 10 etc. units per square depending on the question.
You should avoid using steps along the axes of, for example, 7 or 9 units per square as this can
complicate the graph unnecessarily.

Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 for 0 < x < 5 .

By taking x values of 0, 1, 2, ....... ....... 5, we can calculate the corresponding y values, as
shown
below, by first evaluating the component parts of the equation.

x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
2x 0 2 4 6 8 10
+1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y; 1 3 5 7 9 11

We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its x coordinate and its
corresponding y coordinate. The points are then joined together to form the graph.

In this example the points to be plotted are (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 9), (5, 11).

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Y y = 2x + 1

Example:
Draw a graph of y = x2 - 8x + 12 for 0<x<6

We again take x values covering the given range, and calculate the corresponding y
values from the given equation.

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph. In this
example the points to be plotted are (0, 12), (1, 5), (2, 0), (3, -3), (4, -4), (5, -3), (6,
0).

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Example:

Draw a graph of y = x2 + 1 for -3 ^ x <+ 3

Again, taking x values covering the given range, we first calculate the corresponding y
values from the given equation.

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph.

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EXAMINATION PROBLEM

ARITHMETIC

1. Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions :

2. Convert the following improper fractions to mixed numbers :

3. Multiply and simplify the following

4. Divide and simplify the following

5. Evaulate the following

6. Add the following fractions and mixed numbers

7. Subtract the following

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8. Evaluate the following

9. Calculate the sum of the following

10. Find the product of

11. Convert the following decimals to proper fractions in their simpliest form

a) 0.73 b) 0.02 c) 0.004

12. Calculate
a) 4% of 30 b) 0.8% of 360c) 1.5% of 60
d) 120% of 75 e) 80% of 90

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ALGEBRA

13. When solving algebraic equations, which set of parentheses in the following problem is worked
first? _________________

14. To which set of parentheses does the 4 apply?

a. _______ b. ________ c. ____________

15. When solving an algebraic equation, which of the following is true?

a. Ignore the variable and solve the equation.
b. Isolate the variable to one side of the equation in order to solve.
c. Cancel out fractions from side to side.

16. Put the following operations in the proper algebraic working order.
a. Addition
b. Parentheses
c. Multiplication

17. Solve the following complex equations. Show the steps

a.

b.

c.

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GEOMETRY

18. Find the area of the following plane shapes :

a. Area = ___________ square inches

4.25 inches

6.8 inches

b. Area = ___________ square inches

3.6 inches

3.6 inches

c. Area = ___________ square inches

12.4 inches

12.4 inches

d. Area =_____________ square inches

6.3 inches

9.4 inches

11.5 inches
e. Area =_____________ square
inches

7.5 inches

18.5 inches

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f. Area =_____________ square

inches

9.5 inches

g. Area =_____________ square

inches
4.5 inches

9.5 inches

8.2 inches h. Area =_____________ square

inches

6.3 inches

12.6 inches

i. Area =_____________ square

inches

24.5 inches

30.0 inches

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19. Find the volume of the following solid figures :

a. A rectangular block of steel 4.25 inches x 6.48 inches x 9.32 inches: Volume = ____cubic
inches.

b. A rectangular block of wood 13.5 inches x 20.4 inches x 36.4 inches: Volume = ____cubic
inches.

c. A cube of aluminum 3.26 inches on each side contains ____________ cubic inches.

d. A 14-inch cube of plastic foam contains ____________ cubic inches.

e. A cylinder 6.75 inches across and 14 inches long contains ____________ cubic inches.

f. A cylinder 4.25 inches across and 4.25 inches long contains ____________ cubic inches.

g. A cylinder 9.36 inches across and 18.5 inches long contains ____________ cubic inches.

h. A 16-inch diameter sphere contains ____________ cubic inches.

i. A 4.5-inch diameter sphere contains ____________ cubic inches.

j. A 26.25-inch diameter sphere contains ____________ cubic inches.

20. Convert the following units between the English and metric system. You may use the conversion
table.

a. 1 inch = ____________ centimeter(s).

b. 1 kilogram = ____________ pound(s).
c. 1 meter = ____________ inch(es).
d. 5280 feet = ____________ kilometer(s).
e. 120 feet per second = ____________ centimeter per second.
f. 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit = ____________ degree Celcius.
g. ½ pound = ____________ gram(s).
h. 2 square feet = ____________ square meter(s).

21. Find the answer to the following problem using the trigonometric function table :

a. Angle A = 25o
side c = 16 inches
side a = ____________ inch(es)

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b. Angle A = 60o
side a = 8 inches
side b = ____________ inch(es)

c. Angle A = 39o
angle B = ____________o

d. Side c = 24 inches
side b = 16 inches
angle A = ____________o

e. Angle A = 45o
side b = 10 inches
side a = ____________ inch(es)

f. Angle A = 70o
side b = 4 inches
side a = ____________inch(es)

g. Angle A = 15o
side c = 30 inch(es)
side a = ____________inch(es)

h. Angle A = 24o
angle B = ____________o

i. Angle A = 16o
side b = 30 inches
side c = ____________ inch(es)

j. Side a = 14 inches
side c = 24 inches
angle A = ____________o

22. Solve the equation of x

a. Log10 x = 4
b. Lg x = 5
c. Log3 x = 2
d. Lg x = -2
e. Log8x = - 4/3
f. Ln x = 4

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23. Evaluate the given expression

a. Log10 100
b. Log2 16
c. Log7 343
d. Log 1000
e. Log5 125
f. Log2 1/8
g. Log4 8
h. Log27 3
i. Log10 105
j. Ln e7

24. Simplify the following

a. Log 64 – log 128 + log 32

b. Log 125 + log 25 – log 625

25. Convert the following Binary numbers to Octal:

a. 101010100 b. 011110100000 c. 111101001

26. Convert the following Octal numbers to Binary:

a. 1263 b. 65217 c. 426 d. 5625

27. Convert the followingBinary bits to Hexadecimal code:

a. 11100001
b. 101110001111
c. 11111100

28. Convert the following Hexadecimal codes to Binary bits:

a 4F b 1AC c 67 d 2A8

29. Plot the following points on coordinate axes :

a (1,4) b (5,0) c (-2,4) d (-1,-3) e (3,-3)

30. Draw graphs of the following functions for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5

a. y = 3x – 5
b. y = x2 – 6x + 5
c. y = 3x2 – 21x + 30

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31. Draw graphs of the following functions for -3 ≤ x ≤ 3

a. y = 2x2 + 7
b. y = 3x2 – 12

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ANSWER

9. a. 10.549 b. 228.197 c. 11.02

10. a. 69.69 b. 1.10617 c. - 08989

11. a. 73/100 b. 1/50 c. 1/250

1
12. a. 1 /5 or 1.2 b. 2.88 c. 0.9 d. 90 e. 72

22. a. 10,000
b. 100,000
c. 9
d. 0.01
e. 1/16
f. e4

23. a. 2
b. 4
c. 3
d. 3
e. 3

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f. -3
g. 1½
h. ⅓
i. 5
j. 7

24. a. 4 log 2
b. log 5

25. a. 425 b. 3640 c. 751

26. a. 1010110011
b. 110101010001111
c. 100010110
d. 101110010101

27. a. E1
b. B8F
c. FC

28. a. 1001111
b. 110101100
c. 1100111
d. 1010101000

COORDINATE & GRAPH

29.

y
(-2,4) (1,4)

(5,0)
x

(-1,-3) (-3,3)

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30. a.
y

Y = 3x - 5

y
b.

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c. y

Y = 3x2 – 21x + 30

31. a. y

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b.

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