Autonomy in Motion

(https://charlestytler.com/)
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Modeling Vehicle Dynamics – Quadcopter
Equations of Motion
JUN
CHARLIE (HTTPS://CHARLESTYTLER.COM/AUTHOR/ADMIN/)
7

In this post we will see how we can describe motion of the quadcopter – or any
vehicle – as a set of differential equations.

This post is the 2nd in a series on modeling and simulation of a quadcopter’s

vehicle dynamics. The full series will include all of the following posts:
1. Modeling Vehicle Dynamics – Euler Angles
(http://charlestytler.com/modeling-vehicle-dynamics-euler-angles/)
2. Modeling Vehicle Dynamics – Quadcopter Equations of Motion
3. Modeling Vehicle Dynamics – 6DOF Nonlinear Simulation
(http://charlestytler.com/modeling-vehicle-dynamics-6dof-nonlinear-
simulation/)

The contents of this post will build on the concepts of multiple reference frames
and Euler angles. If you aren’t familiar with those, you may want to read the first
post in this series.
Describing Motion
Before going into any details about equations of motion, we should identify what
we are trying to describe. There are two questions we should answer:

What variables are necessary to describe motion?

In the first post (http://charlestytler.com/modeling-vehicle-dynamics-euler-angles/)

we already discussed the concept of 6 Degrees of Freedom (6DOF), where we want
to know 3-D position in addition to 3-D orientation of the vehicle. But to describe
the motion of a body what we really want to know is how these change over time.

Therefore we will need variables which represent both the linear and angular
velocity of the vehicle. The linear velocity in the body-frame of the vehicle is
defined as:

The angular velocity of the rotating body-fixed reference frame is defined as:

We also need to know the forces which influence motion of the vehicle. Again we
define this for both linear translation force and angular moment:

Finally, some influences may be in the inertial frame (such as gravity) while some
may be attached to the body (such as the vehicle’s propulsion). Therefore, the
Euler angles must also be tracked in order to convert between the inertial and
body frames.
What additional variables are useful?

The above variables are sufficient to describe all of the dynamics of the quadcopter
vehicle, however they do not specify the actual position in space of the vehicle. This
is because the dynamics in one location should be the same as any other location
(things that change with location such as aerodynamics and gravity we will
consider constant, and only enter the equations through the force and moment
variables).

This is desirable since we expect the quadcopter to behave the same no matter
where it starts from. But given a starting point, the equations of motion will allow
us to propagate that starting location forward in time to a new position if we know
all of the “state” variables defined above.

With that being said, sometimes it is useful to include additional state variables to
observe. For navigation or motion planning, it is generally necessary to track the
inertial position as well as it changes over time. Therefore we will define three
more variables for position in the inertial reference frame:

I will treat these navigation coordinates as in a Flat-Earth model, where the

coordinates are assumed to represent a rectilinear grid. However, one could
extend these equations to a spherical coordinate frame in order to express
position in latitude and longitude, and even account for rotation of the Earth.

Sign Conventions
All dynamics equations will use right-handed coordinate frames. In flight controls it
is standard for the X component to be aligned with the forward direction of the
vehicle. And the forward direction is assumed to be at a heading of 0 degrees
when it is aligned with North in the inertial frame. This results in the somewhat
odd convention of [X, Y, Z] being a [North, East, Down] reference frame, in order
to maintain right-handedness.
However, for navigation it makes sense to define height as positive in the up
direction. Therefore, our navigation frame, which we will refer to with (E) for Earth,
in relation to the inertial (n) frame will have the convention:

Reference Frames and Rotation

One thing that must be kept in mind while developing these expressions is what
reference frame are the variables expressed in, and with respect to what reference
frame are they changing? See Reference [2] for a more thorough explanation if
desired.

Inertial motion expressed in body frame

components
The motion we want to classify for translation as well as rotation is all with respect
to the inertial frame (e.g. the ground). In fact, we assume a rigid body which means
there can be no motion with respect to the body frame. The body frame is fixed to
the vehicle, and any motion of the vehicle with respect to that origin would imply
flexible bending or movement of the vehicle components.

The body frame is useful though, because our vehicle sensors are attached to it, as
well as our propulsion (the propellers). Therefore, the equations of motion we
derive will be inertial motion (change in position and orientation with respect to
the ground), but expressed within the coordinate system of our body axes
.
You should notice once we derive the final set of equations however, that inertial
position is not necessary for these equations of dynamics. The equations of motion
only represent the change in these values from the vehicle’s point of view. In that
sense, they are very useful as they may be applied to solve for the future motion of
a vehicle from any inertial starting point.

Simultaneous Translation and Rotation – The

Chain Rule
Now that we have established we want to represent inertial motion in the vehicle
coordinate frame, we must understand what that means mathematically. In our
derivation of the equations of motion we will want to take the derivative of vectors
which are expressed in the body frame. Using the rules of calculus, we must use
the chain rule of derivation to account for both the change due to the time
derivative of the vector within the coordinate frame, as well as the time derivative
of the coordinate frame’s rotation. Let me show this with a scalar expression of
the time differentiation of the body-fixed velocity vector:
The components in the first set of parentheses represent the change in inertial
velocity within the body frame coordinate system. The components in the second
set of parentheses represent perceived velocity change due to the rotation of the
coordinate frame. We can rewrite this equation as Coriolis’ Theorem, where the
frame rotation is represented by the angular velocity crossed with the velocity
vector:

The cross-product can be rewritten as the skew-symmetric cross-product

matrix, , premultiplying the velocity vector.

We will return to this formula when we look at acceleration.

[For more discussion on Coriolis’ Theorem click here]

(http://charlestytler.com/vehicle-dynamics-coriolis-theorem-and-the-cross-product-
matrix/)

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

We will begin with Newton’s 2nd Law which is commonly summarized as force
equals change in momentum , or for systems with constant mass, force equals
mass times acceleration — the derivative of velocity :

This equation defines the change in linear momentum, however we can also
express the rotational analogue. Crossing both sides of the equation with a
position vector from some origin we get the rotational law of motion about
the origin . We can simplify the equation to moment equals the change in
angular momentum , or for systems with constant mass distribution, moment
equals moment of inertia times angular acceleration — the derivative of
angular velocity .
We will use both the linear and rotational forms of this law to derive the total
vehicle equations of motion. But first, a note on what reference frame we will be
working in.

Force, Mass, and Acceleration

We will be deriving the equations for translation and rotation separately, but
viewing the equations side by side can help illustrate the similarities between the
two.

Translation Rotation

Inertial velocity in the body-fixed Angular velocity from inertial ( ) to

coordinate system will be expressed body-fixed ( ) frame will be expressed
as: as:

Using the chain rule for a rotating body Using the chain rule for a rotating body
frame, the law of motion becomes: frame, the rotational law of motion
becomes:

External Forces and Moments

To start formulating the equations of motion, the left hand side of Newton’s 2nd
Law requires all forces which act on the body. For the quadcopter this comes down
to our propulsion (thrust created by the propellers) and gravity.

Propeller Thrust
For this post we will not go into propeller dynamics, but simply assume each of the
four quadcopter propellers provides a thrust force perpendicular to the propeller
and a torque about the center of gravity of the vehicle.

The thrust force is represented for each of the 4 propellers as . And

all are aligned parallel with the vertical axis of the quadcopter, .
The force vector within the body frame coordinate system can then be represented
by:

Note that since our body frame convention has positive in the down direction,
thrust from the propellers is negative.

The moments are represented with components L, M, N for rotations about the
axes, respectively. As a moment is measured by force times distance, we’ll
need the motor distances from the center of gravity, as shown in the image above.
For pitch and roll, half the motors provide positive moment, and the other half
provide a negative moment, depending on which side of the axis they are located.

For yaw, the quadcopter takes advantage of its four rotating propellers. Half of the
propellers are installed to rotate clockwise (#3 and #4) and the other half counter-
clockwise (#1 and #2). Each propeller as it pushes against the air will also apply a
torque about the cg of the quadcopter in the direction of its rotation as a function
of its thrust, propeller radius, and distance from the cg. We will define this torque
as a function , and can express the yaw moment of the vehicle as:
Gravity Force in Body Coordinates
Gravity always acts towards the center of the Earth, and is expressed in the inertial
frame as:

Where g = 9.81 m/s2, the gravitational constant. Remember that our z-inertial
coordinate is in the Down direction, so gravity is a positive acceleration.

But all of our other forces are defined within the body frame of the vehicle. To
include gravity in our equations of motion we must convert it into body frame
components as well. Using our Euler angle transformation matrix
(http://charlestytler.com/modeling-vehicle-dynamics-euler-angles/) from inertial to
body frame, , this is easy:

Mass and Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia is the rotational analogue of mass, or “angular mass.” An
object’s mass will inform you about how much force it will take to accelerate a still
object, or stop a moving one (the property of inertia). The moment of inertia will
similarly describe how large of a moment is required to turn a still object, or stop
rotation of one about an axis. Because the rotational inertia depends on the axis it
is rotating about, this property is represented with a matrix for our 3-dimensional
world.

The moment of inertia is defined in physics for scalars as:

The Moment of Inertia Matrix (I)
A more general representation where the mass is integrated over the entire body
of the object is:

To represent this in matrix form, we will assume is some coordinate with

components in relation to the reference frame origin. Then using the cross-
product matrix form of we can evaluate:

Let’s try to understand the physical meaning of these mathematical expressions.

The diagonal terms of this matrix are referred to as the moments of
inertia. The off-diagonal terms are referred to as the products of
inertia.

If instead of a continuous body of mass, we represent the body as a collection of

point-masses, then we can rewrite as a summation of all mass points :

This means that every point of mass in the body is multiplied by the square of its
distance from the x-axis — just as in the scalar form I = mr2. So the further the
mass is away from the axis, the greater the angular inertia is about that axis.
Symmetry
The products of inertia can be thought of as the cross-coupling of different axes’
inertias on each other. But, if the vehicle is symmetric about an axis, then we will
see that some of the products of inertia will equal zero, and make our equations
easier!

If we again think of them in the discrete form, the product of inertia is the sum
of all mass points :

With the moments of inertia the distance from the axis is squared, and therefore
always results in a positive value. However here we can have both positive and
negative values, since the distances and are from the center of the vehicle.

If the vehicle is symmetric across an axis, that would mean all the mass one side is
equal to the other side and all at the same distance. For example, if the vehicle’s
mass distribution is symmetric about the x-axis, then the sum of mass points in
the negative direction equals the sum of mass points in the positive direction, and
the positive and negative x distances all cancel out.

If the quadcopter is built so it is symmetric about both the x and y axes, then the
inertia matrix would become:

Acceleration
The final component we must express to complete our equations of motion is the
acceleration. As acceleration is the time derivative of velocity, we will represent
acceleration as the derivative of our defined inertial velocity terms for linear and
rotational motion.
Linear Acceleration
We have already learned that we must use Coriolis’ Theorem to represent the
inertial velocity derivative in the rotating body frame. And we came up with the
formula:

If we plug in our nomenclature for and , we get:

Translational Motion
We have now derived representations for all components of our system’s force,
mass, and acceleration in translation. Plugging these into Newton’s formula
provides us with our first set of equations of motion.

Angular Acceleration and Rotational Motion

We follow a similar procedure to solve for the angular acceleration and rotational
law of motion. Using Coriolis’ Theorem again for the time derivative of angular
velocity, we can evaluate the rotational motion formula as follows:

But if we assume our quadcopter is symmetric about both the x and y axes of the
body frame, then the products of inertia all go to zero and this becomes:
Additional Coordinate Frame
Transformations
Angular Velocity vs. Euler Angle Rates
We now have an equation for how the angular velocity changes over time.
These are the values which a gyroscope sensor would measure on-board a
quadcopter. One caveat though, is that the angular velocity about the body-fixed
frame is not the same as the rate of change of the Euler angles
(http://charlestytler.com/modeling-vehicle-dynamics-euler-angles/) .

This is because the Euler angles represent a sequence of rotations each in their
own intermediate frame of reference, whereas the angular velocity is the
instantaneous angular rate about each of the body-fixed axes. We can use
coordinate transformations to express the angular velocity as a function of the
Euler angle derivatives by transforming them all into the body frame.

To help make this clear I’ve labeled the intermediate reference frames in the
sequence of Euler rotations below as b” and b’. So if we want to know how
would be represented in the body frame (b), we must transform it from its
intermediate frame. Here we see is the rotation rate about unit vector in the
b” frame, so we will refer to it as . However in the final body-fixed frame, b, that
unit vector has been rotated by the second and third Euler angles in the sequence.

Therefore, the rotation rates measured in the body-fixed frame due to the
rate of change of the first Euler angle will equal the rotation transformed by the
and rotations. (Since its rotation angle is also parallel with the inertial axis ,
you could get the same answer by multiplying it by all three Euler angle rotations
with the inertial-to-body coordinate transformation derived in Modeling Vehicle
Dynamics – Euler Angles (http://charlestytler.com/modeling-vehicle-dynamics-
euler-angles/)).
The second Euler rotation, is treated similarly, and needs no rotation as the
unit vector it rotates around, , is a unit vector in the body frame, b.

Sequence of Euler Angle Rotations (Body 3-2-1) from inertial to body-fixed reference frames, with
intermediate reference frames b” and b’

The relationship between measured gyro rates and Euler angle rates can be
expressed in scalar form multiplied by unit vectors as:

If we express it in matrix form however, we can take advantage of our rotation

matrices to handle the disparate reference frames:

To make things a little easier to read and fit on the page, I’m going to use a
shorthand for the trigonometric functions: and . The above
expression can be simplified by multiplying the matrices.

So finally we arrive at the set of equations:

These equations can also be rewritten for the Euler angle derivatives:

The Navigation Coordinates

To determine the motion of the vehicle within our navigation coordinate frame, we
simply transform our body frame velocity states with our Euler angle
transformation matrix. Also we define our height variable, h, as the negative of our
North-East-Down inertial frame to get a North-East-Up navigation frame. So below
I’ve made the substitution .

The Quadcopter Equations of Motion

Finally we have collected all the pieces to fully describe the motion of the
quadcopter. Collecting all of the equations into one set and rearranging them we
arrive at:
where

and is positive in the up direction.

Up next
The above set of equations describes the motion of the quadcopter as a set of
nonlinear differential equations. Still needed are models for the propeller force
and torque functions and values plugged in for the mass and moment of inertia
variables. But simple estimates and approximations would be good enough to start
simulating vehicle dynamics.

In the next post (http://charlestytler.com/modeling-vehicle-dynamics-6dof-

nonlinear-simulation/) we will look at how we can program a simulation which can
solve for a time history of this motion by numerically integrating these equations
over time from a given initial condition.

Additional References:
[1] Nelson, Robert, “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”
(https://books.google.com/books?
id=Uzs8PgAACAAJ&dq=robert+nelson+dynamics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjL
gqi2167UAhUF7mMKHVUZDzgQ6AEIJDAA)
A good starting point with straight-forward text on deriving the basic rigid body
equations of motion for an airplane. Books by Etkin and Roskam are also common
resources for this.

[2] Schmidt, David K., “Modern Flight Dynamics”

(https://books.google.com/books?
id=lP1KAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=modern+flight+dynamics+schmid
t&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwimiMmM167UAhVU0GMKHX0tDa8Q6AEIKDAA)

This is a good reference for a thorough description of the fundamentals in deriving

these equations within the multiple frames of reference. It also provides in other
chapters derivations of the equations of motion for elastic bodies as well as for the
general linearized equations of motion. The mathematical notation may take a little
getting used to in comparison to some of the more classic texts, as all equations
are described as the integration of all point masses over the volume of the vehicle.
However, the text descriptions are easy to understand.

[3] Stengel, Robert F., “Flight Dynamics”

(https://books.google.com/books/about/Flight_Dynamics.html?
id=-OjZBQAAQBAJ)

This author provides very clear formulations of the equations and also provides
useful information on the numerical integration of them. Also includes model
dynamics for various lift and thrust sources, including propellers through actuator
disk theory.

[4] Lewis, Frank L., and Stevens, Brian L., “Aircraft Control and Simulation”
(https://books.google.com/books?
id=XIabCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:1118870999&hl=en&sa=X&ve
d=0ahUKEwiRjbvP167UAhVK82MKHXQGAZwQ6AEIKDAA)

This book is a great resource for practical examples of the equations in use for
simulation of vehicles.

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13 thoughts on “Modeling Vehicle Dynamics –
Quadcopter Equations of Motion”
Lenard (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- October 29, 2019

motion/#comment-27)
Nice work :). I’ve spotted a small error though, in the rotation matrix from the
inertial- to the body reference frame.
The term in the second row of the first column should be: -cos(phi) * sin(psi) +
sin(phi)*sin(theta)*cos(psi)
This mistake is repeated in the rotation matrix from body to inertial in the
x_dot, y_dot, z_dot (navigation coordinates) step, but then it occurs in the first
row of the second column (due to the transpose operation).

Also, I have a question regarding the u, v, w values in your work. You state these
are the velocities as seen from the Inertial frame, in body-frame coordinates.
However, in the calculation of v_dot you actually throw away part of (vdot)
_inertial by subtracting the cross-product of omega and v, which leaves you with
vdot as seen from the body-frame and not the inertial frame, so (vdot)_body.
This means that the [u,v,w] vector, which is simply the integral of vdot, is
actually a non-inertial velocity. You subsequently express the [u,v,w] vector in
inertial reference frame coordinates to obtain your navigation coordinates [x, y,
z]. I would argue these navigation coordinates should be obtained by
integrating the velocities w.r.t. the inertial frame (vdot)_inertial, and not
integrating velocity w.r.t. the body frame (vdot)_body, as is happening now.
What are your thoughts on this?

Kind regards,
Lenard

Reply

khaled (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- October 17, 2019

motion/#comment-26)
hi , it is a great explanation I ever seeing in web
if introduce a nonlinar control , that will be great job

Reply
Dominic (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- October 12, 2019

motion/#comment-25)
Hi Charlie!
Is there anyway you could help me modify the code in order to implement its
own control?
(i.e. make a pre-determined trajectory and give it control law to follow the
trajectory?)

Any help with this would be immensely helpful.

My contact is dmachatsch@gmail.com (mailto:dmachatsch@gmail.com)

Thank you!!

Reply

Hoonil Park (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- October 2, 2019

motion/#comment-24)
I think sign of L and M (Rolling moment and pitching moment) should be
changed.

F1 and F4 generates roll left moment (-), and F2 and F3 generates roll right
moment (+).
and F1 and F3 generates pitch up moment (+), and F2 and F4 generates pirch
down moment (-).
but in this article, sign of L and M is opposite to my opinion.

Can you check the sign of L and M?

or please explainn what am I thinking wrong

Reply

Siddhant Panigrahi (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter- September 2, 2019

equations-motion/#comment-23)
I have a doubt as why you transformed forces in inertial frame where F= ma is
valid for inertial frame . Here x, xdot , xdouble dot are defined wrt to inertial
frame then shouldn’t the forced be transformed to the inertial frame.

Reply
Metehan (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- August 25, 2019

motion/#comment-21)
Nicely summarized. I really enjoyed while reading and I have one or two
questions if you don’t mind. In Yaw moment calculation you said, ” Each
propeller as it pushes against the air will also apply a torque about the cg of the
quadcopter in the direction of its rotation as a function of its thrust, propeller
radius, and distance from the cg” but for yaw motion, propeller of quadrotor
uses Counter angular momentum that will try to change the quadrotor’s
attitude in the opposite direction of propeller rotation. Am I wrong?

For Moment Calculations, why did you represent the L and M like this

L= F1d1y-F2d2y-F3d3y+F4d4y
M=-F1d1x+F2d2x-F3d3x+F4d4x , is it because of the forces in z direction taken
as minus ? Otherwise It would have been like this when we consider the BFF
and Right Hand Rule
L= -F1d1y+F2d2y+F3d3y-F4d4y
M=+F1d1x-F2d2x+F3d3x-F4d4x

Final Question
Which Body Fixed Frame representation is correct ? The one you showed here
or here: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Inertial-and-body-fixed-frame-of-
quadrotor_fig1_270163654 (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Inertial-and-
body-fixed-frame-of-quadrotor_fig1_270163654)
Because Moment equations will change when you apply second BFF
coordination.

I will be appriciated ,if you reply

Thanks

Reply

Simon D. Levy (http://home.wlu.edu/~levys)

(https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- March 18, 2019

motion/#comment-13)
Outstanding work! The combination of skillful, patient description and runnable
Python code are going to make these pages the standard reference for teaching
and research with quadcopters and other multiotor vehicles. Kudos, and thanks.

Reply

Alex Blain (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- February 20, 2019

motion/#comment-11)
Hi there! Is there a small mistake just above the list of equations of motion in
the “Navigation Coordinates” section? The matrix should be time derivatives of
x_e, y_e, -z_e

on the left-hand-side shouldn’t they?

And if so shouldn’t that mean that the time derivative of h_e in the equations of
motion list be negated?

Really great post though!

Thanks 🙂

Reply

Charlie (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter- February 21, 2019

equations-motion/#comment-12)
Alex, you’re right! Thanks for pointing out the error, I’ve
updated the content with the correction in both the
Navigation Coordinates and Quadcopter Equations of Motion
sections.
As a sanity check, for a scenario where the vehicle is pitched
up (sine of theta will be positive) and there is positive
x-direction velocity with respect to the body (u is positive),
then this will contribute to an increase of altitude (h-dot
receives a positive contribution) in the inertial/Earth frame,
which can now be seen in the final EOM.
Reply
faheem (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- August 11, 2018

motion/#comment-4)
Really wonderfull article sir. It inspired tremendously and made easy for me to
understand core concepts. Please broadcast series of videos on Youtube about
quadrotors.

Reply

Michael Joseph Timmons (http://www.mtwallets.com)

(https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- July 1, 2018

motion/#comment-3)
Thanks Charlie! I like your blog. I just started a blog along these lines: flexing the
old, analytical muscles by studying and (eventually) building a quadrotor. My
blog is here http://www.mtwallets.com (http://www.mtwallets.com). If you look
at the “quadcopter” posts you’ll see I got into the motor-propeller dynamics,
“lift” concepts, and now I’m working on (but haven’t posted) my platform
dynamic model. I have some good papers on the topic and I’m wrestling to
derive the equations of motion using the Lagrangian…it feels close but I’m still
not getting to the “final” equations I see in some of the papers. I’m going to
study yours a bit and see if I can get, “unstuck”. Thanks again!

Reply

Brandon Pierce (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter-equations- June 25, 2018

motion/#comment-2)
The Moment of Inertia Matrix term (3,2) should be -I_yz not -Ixz.

Reply

Charlie (https://charlestytler.com/quadcopter- September 9, 2018

equations-motion/#comment-5)
Thanks for spotting that Brandon, I’ve corrected the mistake.
Reply
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