Chronic Kidney Disease –

Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients

Effective Date:� ����������
September ����
15, ����
2008

Scope

The first part of this guideline provides recommendations for the investigation and evaluation of adult
patients (19+) at risk for chronic kidney disease (CKD). The second part of this guideline focuses on
the management of adult patients with known CKD and includes care objectives and patient self-
management.

Specialized management of established CKD, e.g. erythropoietic agents for anemia, renal replacement
therapy, and treatment of calcium, phosphate, or parathyroid hormone (PTH) abnormalities is beyond
the scope of this guideline.

Diagnostic Code: 585 (chronic renal failure)

Part 1: Identification and Evaluation of Patients at Risk for CKD

This section covers:

I. Prevention and risk factors
II. Investigation
III. Diagnosis and staging of CKD
IV. Determining the cause of CKD
V. Evaluating patients with abnormal screening tests
VI. Flow diagram for evaluating and managing suspected CKD

I. Prevention and risk factors

Identify patients at risk for CKD based upon a directed medical and surgical history including co-
morbidities (e.g. diabetes, cardiovascular disease [CVD]) and dietary, social, demographic and
cultural factors, a review of symptoms, and physical examination. Populations at increased risk
include those with:
• Diabetes
• Hypertension with or without CVD
• A family history of kidney disease
• Specific high-risk ethnic groups: First Nations, Pacific Islanders, African descent and Asians

Note: Age > 60 years is associated with an increased risk of impaired kidney function, but evidence is
insufficient to recommend screening solely on the basis of age.

II. Investigation
It is recommended that physicians screen at-risk populations every 1-2 years depending upon
clinical circumstances (e.g. yearly for persons with diabetes) using serum creatinine and random
urine tests (macroscopic/microscopic urinalysis and ACR). Estimated glomerular filtration rate

BRITISH
COLUMBIA
MEDICAL
ASSOCIATION
 (eGFR) is the best marker for CKD and is computed from the serum creatinine. Most labs in
British Columbia (BC) automatically report eGFR when a serum creatinine is ordered. (See
Appendix B for further information on eGFR calculations.)

Investigational tests

a) Serum testing: eGFR values:

• < 60 mL/min and persistent (present for > 3 months) indicates substantial reduction in kidney
function.
• > 60 mL/min and < 100 mL/min, in the absence of urine abnormalities or structural
abnormalities on imaging studies (e.g. ultrasound), does not indicate kidney disease.
• Age > 75 years: accuracy of eGFR for patients over 75 is questionable and may
underestimate true kidney function. Values of eGFR < 45 should be considered as a likely
indicator of decreased renal function and merit further work-up. Values between
45 and 60 may reflect normal variation in the absence of other conditions, however, caution is
still recommended with respect to medications, dye, and risk of acute kidney injury with severe
illnesses. Correlation with clinical condition is recommended.1
• Age > 85 years: equation for eGFR is problematic and risk of progression of CKD is
not known. In the absence of other metabolic or hematological abnormalities, a conservative
approach is recommended. Values between 45 and 60 may reflect normal variation
in the absence of other conditions. Caution is still recommended with respect to
medications, dye, and risk of acute kidney injury with severe illnesses.
• Estimates based on serum creatinine measurements (eGFR) may be unreliable in patients with
very large or small body habitus, those on specific diets (very high or very low protein), and in
patients receiving medications that interfere with the excretion of creatinine (e.g. trimethoprim
and sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, fenofibrate).
• Exercise, diet and/or hydration status may affect kidney function estimates or the degree
of albuminuria/proteinuria. If baseline tests are abnormal or subsequent tests are significantly
different from baseline, confirmation by repeat testing is warranted.

b) Urine testing: macroscopic/microscopic analysis and albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR) values

• Random urine tests for macroscopic/microscopic urinalysis and ACR:
• Significant abnormalities: persistent white blood cells or red blood cells in the absence
of infection or instrumentation; presence of any cellular casts is always pathological.
• ACR elevation (> 2.0 mg/mmol males; > 2.8 mg/mmol females) on 2 out of 3 serial tests
performed 1 week to 2 months apart indicates micro-vascular disease +/- glomerular
disease.
• Urine test abnormalities, even with persistent eGFR values ≥ 60 ml/min, indicate abnormal
kidney function, either as an isolated condition or as a symptom of a systemic disease.
• 24-hour urine collections are not necessary in most cases.
• ACR is the method that allows one to test for albumin present in quantities above normal
but below the detectable range on standard dipsticks. In the past, the word microalbumin
has been used, but this may lead to a false impression that there is a different molecule
when there is not. Thus, ACR is the preferred method by which to assess abnormal
levels of albumin. Note that this guideline uses the thresholds adopted by the Canadian
Diabetes Association for the detection of microalbuminuria. As methods improve and
further data becomes available, these cutoffs may be revised. Serial ACR tests can normally
be incorporated into the routine visit schedule.


Diagnostic Code: 585 Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients
Acting on test results

• Normal: repeat annually or as clinically indicated and monitor blood pressure.

• Abnormal: confirm and evaluate (Table 1 below).

III. Diagnosis and staging of CKD

CKD is defined as eGFR < 60 mL/min for > 3 months, or evidence of kidney damage (pathologic
abnormalities or markers of damage, including abnormalities in blood or urine tests or imaging
studies). If CKD is present, determine its stage based on eGFR, urinalysis, and ACR. The following
staging system, designed by the US National Kidney Foundation with international input, is
recommended to facilitate assessment and management of CKD.2,3

Table 1. Stages of CKD

Stage Description eGFRa Potential Complications of reduced eGFRa (alphabetically)

1 Kidney damageb with normal or eGFR ≥ 90 • Anemia, including functional iron deficiency
2 Kidney damageb with mild eGFR 60-89 • BP increases
3 Moderate in eGFR 30-59 • Calcium absorption decreases
4 Severe ↓ in eGFR 15-29 • Dyslipidemia/heart failure/volume overload
5 Kidney failure < 15 or • Hyperkalemia
on dialysis • Hyperparathyroidism
• Hyperphosphatemia
• Left ventricular hypertrophy
• Metabolic acidosis
• Malnutrition potential (late)

NOTES:
a
The listed complications are not specific to CKD but tend to occur with increasing frequency and are more directly
attributable to CKD at lower eGFR (e.g. stages 4 and 5). If complications are noted at an early stage of CKD,
investigation of alternative causes is recommended, e.g. profound anemia at eGFR of 55 ml/min is likely not
attributable to low kidney function alone.
b
Kidney damage is defined as pathological abnormalities (kidney biopsy results) or markers of damage including
abnormalities in blood or urine tests (protein/albumin in the urine, red blood cells, white blood cells or casts) or imaging
studies.2

IV. Determining the cause of CKD

Impaired kidney function is often multi-factorial. If possible, determine a primary cause of
kidney disease in all patients. Kidney ultrasound is a useful examination to identify polycystic
kidney disease, cancer, stones, and obstruction. Discrepancy in kidney size may signal clinically
significant renal artery stenosis (the work up for renal artery stenosis is beyond the scope of this
guideline).
Even if a primary cause seems obvious (e.g. hypertension, diabetes), the possibility of a serious
underlying disorder (e.g. vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosis) must be considered in patients
with:
• Abnormal urinalysis, e.g. proteinuria, hematuria, cellular casts, or combinations thereof.
• Rapid sustained decline in kidney function (eGFR > 10-15%/year) despite remedy of
reversible precipitants e.g. volume contraction, febrile illness, medications.
• Consistent impairment of kidney function in the absence of risk factors.
• Constitutional symptoms suggesting systemic illness.
• Sudden or severe onset of symptoms, e.g. edema unrelated to heart or liver disease.


Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients Diagnostic Code: 585
 Refer to an internist or nephrologist for further evaluation if an etiology cannot be determined.
Note that occasionally a screening test will identify a serious systemic disease or early stages
of an acute illness. In patients with active urine sediments (rbc casts or cellular casts ± protein),
constitutional symptoms, or unexplained severity of kidney dysfunction, prompt consultation with a
specialist and/or re-evaluation of tests is indicated.

V. Evaluating patients with abnormal screening tests

Patient management should reflect CKD stage and eGFR, urinalysis and ACR results (see Table 2).

Table 2. ��������������������������������������������������
Evaluating patients with abnormal screening tests a

Stage Other Results Recommendations b

Stage 1 or 2; eGFR Urinalysis normal but • Determine cause of CKD.
≥ 60mL/min ACR equivocal (2-20 • See management advice in Part 2.
plus evidence of male; 2.8-28 female) • Consider kidney U/S.d
kidney damagec on at least 2 out of 3 • Order annual creatinine and urine tests.
occasions • Consider referral to nephrologist/interniste if urine protein is
increasing, eGFR is declining > 10% annually, or serum K+ is
repeatedly > 6.0 mmol/L.
Urinalysis abnormal or • See management advice in Part 2.
ACR abnormal • Consider kidney U/S.
(> 20 male; • Consider referral to nephrologist/internist.
> 28 female) • Consider referral to urologist for isolated microhematuria even
if U/S is normal.
Stage 3; eGFR = Urinalysis normal • See management advice in Part 2.
30-59 mL/min but ACR equivocal • Consider kidney U/S.
(2-20 male; 2.8-28 • Order annual creatinine and urine tests q 6 months.
female) • Consider referral to nephrologist/internist if urine protein
increasing or eGFR declining > 10%/year.
Urinalysis abnormal or • See management advice in Part 2.
ACR abnormal • Order kidney U/S.
(> 20 male; • Consider referral to nephrologist/internist.
> 28 female)
Stage 4; eGFR = Regardless of other • See management advice in Part 2.
15-29 mL/min results • Refer to nephrologist/internist.
Stage 5; eGFR < Regardless of other • See management advice in Part 2.
15-mL/min results • Refer urgently to nephrologist/internist.

KEY: ACR=albumin/creatinine ratio, CKD=chronic kidney disease, CVD=cardiovascular disease, eGFR=estimated glomerular filtration rate,
K=potassium, U/S=ultrasound

NOTES:
a
In the absence of other systemic illness.
b
All CKD patients are at risk for CVD therefore the usual protocols for CVD risk, evaluation, and treatment
should be followed.4
c
Patients with eGFR > 60 ml/min, in the absence of abnormalities of urine or imaging tests, do not have
Stage 1 or 2 CKD. If the patient is in a high-risk population, repeated screening is recommended at regular
intervals.
d
Kidney U/S may be required in those with a family history of polycystic kidney disease or symptoms of
urinary tract obstruction, infection, or stones. It can also quickly identify reversible conditions.
e
Internists are skilled in the initial workup and management of early CKD, and given the usual concomitant
association of CKD and CVD, are also appropriate as the initial referral.


Diagnostic Code: 585 Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients
Figure 1. Flow Diagram for Evaluating and Managing Patients with Suspected CKD

Identify and screen populations at increased risk

• Ascertain the risk factors.
• Perform a systems review and physical exam.
• Order laboratory tests including serum creatinine/eGFR and random urine
for macro/micro urinalysis and ACR (microalbumin).
• Repeat tests within 3 months to confirm any abnormal results
unless constitutional symptoms are present and require more urgent
investigation, management and referral.

Follow-up tests are normal: Follow-up tests are abnormal:

• Monitor annually or as clinically • Determine CKD stage based on
indicated (See Table 3). eGFR, urinalysis, and ACR.
• Determine cause of kidney
disease.
• Arrange ongoing follow-up (See
Table 2).
• See care objectives in Part 2
(See Table 3).

Part 2: Management of Patients with Established CKD

This section covers:

I. Identifying care objectives and targets
II. Practice points for goal setting
III. Supporting patient self-management
IV. Meeting care objectives

I. Identifying care objectives and targets

Physicians will ideally identify care objectives for all patients with CKD (see Table 3). Depending
on the level of kidney function and complexity of therapy required, these care objectives may be
more or less difficult to achieve without help from a specialized team of health care professionals
including a nephrologist. Treatment goals must be tailored to the individual.


Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients Diagnostic Code: 585
Table 3: Care objectives and targets
Care Objective Target
BP Measure and record at diagnosis and at every visit thereafter. See BC guideline: • BP < 130/80.
Hypertension – Detection, Diagnosis and Management at www.BCGuidelines.ca • ACEI/ARB recommended in
addition to other drugs.*
Kidney function Obtain regular measurements of serum creatinine for eGFR (at least q 6 months) Stability of kidney function or
measurements and after any change in medications, medical intervention, or clinical status. < 10-15% decline in eGFR annually.
Urine testing ACR (microalbumin) every 6-12 months or as clinically indicated. • Reduce abnormal values by
50% or more from baseline.
• ACEI/ARBs recommended.*
Monitor serum • Measure after change in medications, medical intervention, or clinical status
electrolytes with particular attention to K+.
• Check serum creatinine and K+ prior to starting ACEIs and ARBs, within 2
weeks of starting, and within 2 weeks after dose increase.
• Serum creatinine rise >20% or eGFR decrease >15% after dose increase
should be followed by further measurements within 2 weeks.
CVD risk • Calculate & record CVD risk. • Reduce risk in those at high
assessment & • Manage in accordance with relevant guidelines. risk.
lipid profiles • Check fasting lipids yearly once target values are achieved & more frequently • Lipid targets (<70 yrs): LDL
in patients on lipid lowering medication. < 2.5; TC/HDL ratio < 4.0.
Diabetes: Blood • Measure A1C q 3 months or as clinically indicated. See Diabetes Care guideline
glucose control at www.BCGuidelines.ca
over time • Long-acting sulfonylureas may be associated with hypoglycemia with unstable
eGFR, especially those below 45. If recurrent hypoglycemia, or unstable eGFR A1C: ≤ 7.0% (0.07).
consider using short-acting sulfonylureas or non-sulfonylureas.
• In those with unstable eGFR or acute changes in clinical condition, metformin
should be held.
Weight & Record weight & BMI on each visit for comparison. Adequate nutrition and BMI near
nutrition ideal (18.5-24.9).†
Smoking Encourage patient to stop smoking, enquire at every visit, support when receptive. Complete smoking cessation.
Assessment of Measure at least yearly (more frequently with advanced CKD): • Hgb within normal range for
conditions • CBC. sex if not on ESA treatment,
associated with • Mineral metabolism (calcium, phosphorus, iPTH). Hgb > 110- 125 g/L if on ESA
CKD • Nutrition profile (albumin). treatment.
• Transferrin saturation > 20%.
• Calcium 2.2-2.5 mmol/L.
• Phosphorus 0.75-1.4 mmol/L.
• iPTH in normal range.5
• Albumin in normal range.
Flu vaccine Immunize annually. Prevention of influenza.
Pneumococcal Immunize every 10 years. Prevention of pneumonia.
vaccine
Awareness of Immunization at a higher level of eGFR more likely to result in seroconversion Seroconversion, prevention of
Hepatitis B risk if patient is being considered for hemodialysis. Screening and vaccination in Hep B (seroconversion rate higher
if immunized early).
6
consultation with nephrology team.
Limit exposure • Reduce risk of acute or chronic deterioration of kidney function. Avoidance of aminoglycosides,
to nephro- • Adjust renally excreted drugs according to kidney function. NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors,
toxins/drug intravenous or intra-arterial
adjustments radiocontrast studies.
Psychosocial • Depression and grief reaction may occur with chronic disease. • Providing support.
health • Identify and address psychosocial problems that affect the illness. • Optimize self-management.
KEY: BP=blood pressure; A1C=glycated hemoglobin (previously HbA1C); ACEI=angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB=angiotensin II receptor blocker;
ACR=albumin/creatinine ratio; BMI, body mass index; COX-2=cyclooxygenase-2; ESA=erythropoiesis-stimulating agent; eGFR=estimated glomerular filtration rate;
HDL=high-density lipoprotein; Hgb=hemoglobin; iPTH=intact parathyroid hormone; LDL=low-density lipoprotein; NSAID, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug;
TC=total cholesterol.
NOTES FOR TABLE 3: * Reduction of proteinuria can be facilitated by the use of ACEI/ARBs. This has been shown to reduce the rate of progression of chronic renal
insufficiency in hypertensive patients with diabetes or chronic glomerulonephritis.7,8
† In severe CKD (eGFR < 15ml/min), weight loss may indicate a catabolic state and a possible need for dialysis.

Diagnostic Code: 585 Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients
II. Practice points for goal setting
When setting goals with your patient, consider the following:
• Exercise, diet, and/or hydration status may affect kidney function estimates or the degree
of albuminuria/proteinuria. If baseline tests are abnormal or subsequent tests are significantly
different from baseline, confirm by repeat testing.
• Rigorous control of BP has been shown to reduce the risk of complications and mortality rates.
In particular, the inhibition of the renin angiotensin system with ACE inhibitors or ARBs has
been shown to be very effective. Diuretics, ß-blockers, and/or calcium channel blockers
may also be required since most patients require more than two medications to reach target
values.9 See BC guideline: Hypertension – Detection, Diagnosis and Management.
• Every adult with kidney disease may be at increased risk of cardiovascular disease.4,10
• Nephrotoxic medications (e.g. NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors, aminoglycosides) should be avoided
or used with caution in patients with even mild kidney impairment (eGFR 60-90 mL/min with
evidence of kidney damage), and kidney function should be monitored if they are used.
• IV or intra-arterial radiocontrast use poses a high risk of acute kidney injury in patients
with Stage 4 or 5 CKD and a moderate risk in patients with Stage 3 disease.11 If imaging is
required, alternate imaging techniques, including MRI angiography, should be considered
for these patients. If no alternative exists and the procedure is medically necessary, the patient
should provide written informed consent and protection with IV hydration and N-acetyl cysteine
may be used according to a published protocol, or in consultation with nephrologists.12
• Patients with CKD are at high risk of further acute kidney injury with volume contraction, e.g.
nausea, vomiting, diarrheal illnesses, or the use of certain bowel preparations.
• Review medication list, identify medications excreted by the kidneys (e.g. metformin, digoxin
and lithium) and adjust dosages as appropriate or use alternate treatment.13 (see Physician’s
Resource section).
• Rapid deterioration in kidney function (a decline of eGFR >10-15% annually) warrants urgent
referral to a nephrologist or internist.
• Preparation for kidney replacement treatment requires a minimum of 12 months, therefore
referral for consideration of kidney replacement should take this into account.
• Many patients with CKD also have diabetes and/or heart disease. Explaining the linkage
between these conditions and how treating one condition benefits others may lessen the
psychological impact of several separate diagnoses.14

III. Supporting patient self-management

People with CKD have better outcomes if they take an active role in the management of their own
condition and they should be encouraged to do so. Denial, often associated with grief reaction,
is common in patients with chronic disease affecting a vital organ. Efforts to introduce preventive
lifestyle and medical therapy may fail until understanding and acceptance have been achieved.
CKD care teams are skilled at dealing with this issue.

To support patient self-management, the physician should:

• Support patients through the process of accepting the diagnosis of a chronic illness.
• Ensure that patients understand the implications of the diagnosis and their role in self-
management.
• Help patients identify a support team.
• Involve patients in defining the best possible goals for care, including lifestyle modifications
such as smoking cessation, healthy diets, weight management, exercise, and social support.
• Encourage patients to monitor their own progress through the use of diaries or logbooks to
track clinical values, and self-monitor BP (and blood glucose where appropriate).
• Reinforce lifestyle modifications at each visit.
• Explain and discuss the results of investigations and consultations.


Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients Diagnostic Code: 585
 • Identify community resources that can provide patients with the information, skills and support
needed to understand and manage their condition, and direct or refer patients to those
resources.
• Patient self-management resources are listed in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Guide for Patients,
are available at www.BCGuidelines.ca

IV. Meeting care objectives

The care of CKD patients is very similar to care of any patient with a chronic illness, thus similar
principles should be applied. Evidence indicates that the care of chronic diseases such as CKD
can be improved by the implementation of regular scheduled reviews of clinical and laboratory
parameters.

Physicians are encouraged to:

• Create a patient register to identify all patients with impaired kidney function in their practice.
• Participate in a community or provincial patient register wherever possible.
• Use a flow sheet for each patient with kidney disease. (See Appendix C for sample flow sheet.)
• Use an organized recall system to ensure that laboratory investigations and subsequent office
reviews are performed at regularly scheduled appropriate intervals.
• Review patient records to ensure care objectives are met.

There is increasing evidence that at lower levels of eGFR, patients benefit from inclusion in
multidisciplinary clinics. It is recommended that primary care physicians seek opportunities within
their communities to ensure these resources are accessed.15,16,17

Rationale

This guideline outlines strategies that may help the primary care practitioner meet the complex
needs of persons with CKD, including accurate and timely diagnosis, exploration of its etiology, and
appropriate management of common factors affecting progression and co-morbid conditions.

CKD is a serious population health problem with a significant impact on individuals, families, society,
and health services. It is often associated with other common chronic diseases such as diabetes,
hypertension, and heart disease. Based on population studies, the estimated prevalence of significant
kidney impairment (eGFR < 60 ml/min) in British Columbia is 145,000 people, approaching the
prevalence of Type II diabetes; however, because many cases are undiagnosed, this is likely a true
significant underestimate.

There is increasing awareness of CKD in all practices.18 CKD increases the risk of cardiac morbidity
and mortality to levels ten times that of population mean risk in addition to placing persons at
risk of end stage renal disease requiring dialysis.19,20 Recent studies have demonstrated that the
presence of impaired kidney function worsens prognosis for length of hospital stay, morbidity, and
mortality.4,10,21,22,23 Thus, while not all people with kidney disease will require dialysis, they are all at
higher risk for poor outcomes, adverse reactions to medications and interventions, and episodes of
acute kidney failure.4,21,24,25

The outcome of patients who go on to dialysis remains poor with ten per cent annual mortality; the
overall five-year survival rate is worse than that of all cancers except cancer of the lung.26 Evidence
clearly indicates that efforts to control hypertension and proteinuria (and hyperglycemia in persons
with diabetes) can prevent or postpone the development of progressive kidney function decline.7,8,
27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34
However, levels of care for milder stages of CKD remain suboptimal and practitioners
often do not provide screening and management in accordance with published guidelines.35,36, 37


Diagnostic Code: 585 Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients
The efficacy of statins in a population with CKD is currently under evaluation in the SHARP trial.38 Until
the results are reported, basic risk reduction approaches are recommended as provided in the BC
clinical practice guideline, Cardiovascular Disease - Primary Prevention.39 For people without heart
disease, a Framingham risk-based approach to treatment with statins is suggested for people with
a ten-year coronary heart disease (CHD) risk of 20% or more. Treatment of the high risk population
should be to an LDL target of 2.5 mmol LDL/L or a ratio of TC/HDL of < 4.

The BC clinical practice guideline, Diabetes Care, recommends a risk-based approach for lipid
management with treatment to an LDL target of 2.5 mmol/L for high-risk patients (> 20 % CHD risk
using the UKPDS calculator).40 This approach is consistent with the recent ASPEN trial which showed
no benefit using statins for people with low to moderate risk of CHD (low risk, 12% smokers)41 and the
CARDS trial, which showed a benefit for population at higher-risk (23% smokers).42 For elderly patients
(70+ years), the PROSPER trial found that statins did not reduce CHD and stroke events in men and
women without CHD.43

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30. Bakris GL. Lower blood pressure goals for patients with diabetes: the National Kidney Foundation
consensus report. J Clin Hypertension 2000;369-71.
31. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on
cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study
and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Lancet 2000;335(9200):253-9.
32. RENAAL Study Investigators. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with
type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001;345(12):851-60.
33. Duncan L, Heathcote J, Djurdjev O, et al. Screening for renal disease using serum creatinine: who are
we missing? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16(5):1042-6.
34. ACE Inhibitors in Diabetic Nephropathy Trialist Group. Should all patients with type I diabetes mellitus
receive angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors? A meta-analysis of individual patient data. Ann Intern
Med 2001;134(5):370-9.
35. Valderrabáno F, Golper T, Muirhead N et al. Chronic kidney disease: why is current management
uncoordinated and suboptimal? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16 Suppl 7:61-4.
36. Powe NR. Early referral in chronic kidney disease: An enormous opportunity for prevention. Am J
Kidney Dis 2003;41(2):505-7.
37. Stigant C, Stevens L, Levin A. Nephrology: 4. Strategies for the care of adults with chronic kidney
disease. CMAJ 2003;168(12):1553-60.
38. SHARP Study of Heart and Renal Protection. Clinical trial information available at www.sharpinfo.org
Accessed August 14, 2008.
39. Guidelines and Protocols Advisory Committee. Cardiovascular Disease – Primary Prevention. [Clinical
Practice Guideline]. Available at www.BCGuidelines.ca. Accessed August 14, 2008.

10
Diagnostic Code: 585 Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients
40. Guidelines and Protocols Advisory Committee. Diabetes Care. [Clinical Practice Guideline]. Available at
www.BCGuidelines.ca. Accessed August 14, 2008.
41. Knopp RH, d’Emden M, Smilde JG, et al. Efficacy and safety of atorvastatin in the prevention of
cardiovascular end points in subjects with type 2 diabetes: the Atorvastatin Study for Prevention of
Coronary Heart Disease Endpoints in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (ASPEN). Diabetes Care
2006;29(7):1478-85.
42. Colhoun H, Betteridge DT, Durrington PN, et al. 2004. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease
with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS):
multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004;364(9435):685-96.
43. Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease
(PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002;360(9346):1623-30.

This guideline is based on scientific evidence current as of the Effective Date.

This guideline was developed by the Guidelines and Protocols Advisory Committee, approved by the
British Columbia Medical Association, and adopted by the Medical Services Commission.

Contact Information
Guidelines and Protocols Advisory Committee
PO Box 9642 STN PROV GOVT
Victoria BC V8W 9P1
Telephone: 250 952-1347 E-mail: hlth.guidelines@gov.bc.ca
Fax: 250 952-1417 Web site: www.BCGuidelines.ca

The principles of the Guidelines and Protocols Advisory Committee are to:
• encourage appropriate responses to common medical situations
• recommend actions that are sufficient and efficient, neither excessive nor deficient
• permit exceptions when justified by clinical circumstances.

Appendices
Appendix A – Physician Resources
Appendix B – Calculating eGFR: Conversion Table
Appendix C – Chronic Kidney Disease Flow Sheet
Appendix D – Chronic Kidney Disease – A Guide for Patients

Associated Documents
The following documents accompany this guideline:
• Summary

Disclaimer
The Clinical Practice Guidelines (the “Guidelines”) have been developed by the Guidelines and Protocols Advisory
Committee on behalf of the Medical Services Commission. The Guidelines are intended to give an understanding
of a clinical problem, and outline one or more preferred approaches to the investigation and management of the
problem. The Guidelines are not intended as a substitute for the advice or professional judgment of a health care
professional, nor are they intended to be the only approach to the management of clinical problems.

11
Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients Diagnostic Code: 585
 Chronic Kidney Disease
Physician Resources
Effective Date:� ����������
September ����
15, ����
2008

Location Hospital Clinic Name Phone Number

Abbotsford Fraser Health Kidney Care Clinic...................................... 604 851-3074

Kamloops RIH Kidney Clinic.............................................. 250 314-2849
Kelowna KGH Renal Health Clinic.......................250 862-4300 ext 3386
Surrey SMH Kidney Care Centre.................................... 604 587-7630
Penticton PRH Renal Health Clinic (Pre-dialysis)............... 250 770-5507
Prince George PGRH Outpatient Renal Clinic.............................. 250 565-2747
Trail Kiro Wellness Centre Kidney Care Clinic...................................... 250 364-3450
Vancouver St. Paul’s Kidney Function Clinic............................... 604 806-9025
Vancouver VGH Hemodialysis Unit...................................... 604 875-4181
Victoria RJH Kidney Care Clinic........1 888 370-8224 or 250 370-8224

BC Provincial Renal Agency (BCPRA)
PHSA, Suite 700-1380 Burrard Street, Vancouver, BC, V6Z 2H3
Phone: 604 875-7340; Fax: 604 875-7366; www.bcrenalagency.ca

The BC Provincial Renal Agency is a collaborative of renal health professionals who coordinates the care
of patients with kidney disease in BC.

Kidney Foundation of Canada (BC Branch)

604 736-9775 (Vancouver area) 1 800 567-8112 (elsewhere in BC); Fax: 604 736-9703
www.kidney.bc.ca; e-mail: info@kidney.bc.ca

The Kidney Foundation provides educational materials related to various aspects of kidney disease and
treatment and offers a number of patient services. The Foundation has facilitated educational sessions on
chronic kidney disease for family physicians. For more information please refer to the Web site or contact
the BC Branch.

National Kidney Foundation (USA)

The National Kidney Foundation Web site, www.kidney.org, includes a section for health care
professionals as well as on-line access to the K/DOQI guidelines.

Further information on nephrotoxic drugs

Kappel J, Calissi P. Nephrology: 3. Safe drug prescribing for patients with renal insufficiency. CMAJ
2002;166(4):473-477
www.fpnotebook.com/Renal/Pharm/NphrtxcDrgs.htm

BRITISH
COLUMBIA
MEDICAL B C R e n a l A g e n c y
ASSOCIATION An Agency of the Provincial Health Services Authority
Appendix B to Chronic Kidney Disease – Identification, Evaluation and Management of Patients

Calculating eGFR: Conversion Table

The MDRD and Cockcroft-Gault calculators used to calculate eGFR are available at www.kidney.org.
S-Creatinine to eGFR Conversion Table
For those physicians whose laboratories are not yet able to calculate eGFR, the following tables
provide approximate eGFR values by gender. Values have been calculated using the MDRD calculation
for use with standardized creatinine assays (Levey AS, et al. Ann Intern Med 2006;145(4):247-54) and
should be considered approximate only. Note that ‘normal’ eGFR = 100-120ml/min/1.73 m2. The use
of the calculators or table below, does not require a 24-hour urine sample collection.

Stage 1 = > 90 ml/min with abnormalities on UA or US

Stage 2 = 60 – 89 ml/min with abnormalities on UA or US
Stage 3 = 30 – 59 ml/min
Stage 4 = 15 – 29 ml/min
Stage 5 = <15 ml/min

Women Age (years)

S-Creatinine 20-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 ≥80

40 – 49 142 131 125 121 118 115

50 – 59 113 104 100 96 93 91
60 – 69 93 85 82 79 77 75
70 – 79 79 72 70 67 65 64
80 – 89 68 63 60 58 57 55
90 – 99 60 55 53 51 50 48
100 – 109 53 49 47 46 44 43
110 – 119 48 44 42 41 40 39
120 – 129 44 40 39 37 36 35
130 – 139 40 37 35 34 33 32
140 – 149 37 34 33 31 31 30
150 – 159 34 31 30 29 28 28
160 – 169 32 29 28 27 26 26
170 – 179 30 27 26 25 25 24
180 – 189 28 26 25 24 23 22
190 – 199 26 24 23 22 22 21
200 – 209 25 23 22 21 20 20
210 – 219 23 21 21 20 19 19
220 – 229 22 20 20 19 18 18
230 – 239 21 19 19 18 17 17
240 – 249 20 18 18 17 17 16
250 – 259 19 18 17 16 16 16
260 – 269 18 17 16 16 15 15
270 – 279 18 16 16 15 15 14
280 – 289 17 16 15 14 14 14
290 – 299 16 15 14 14 13 13
 Stage 1 > 90 ml/min with abnormalities on UA or US
Stage 2 = 60 – 89 ml/min with abnormalities on UA or US
Stage 3 = 30 – 59 ml/min
Stage 4 = 15 – 29 ml/min

Men Age (years)

S-Creatinine 20-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 ≥80

40 – 49 191 176 169 163 159 155

50 – 59 152 140 134 130 126 123
60 – 69 125 115 111 107 104 101
70 – 79 106 98 94 91 88 86
80 – 89 92 85 81 78 76 74
90 – 99 81 74 71 69 67 65
100 – 109 72 66 64 61 60 58
110 – 119 65 60 57 55 54 52
120 – 129 59 54 52 50 49 48
130 – 139 54 50 48 46 45 44
140 – 149 50 46 44 42 41 40
150 – 159 46 42 41 39 38 37
160 – 169 43 39 38 36 35 35
170 – 179 40 37 35 34 33 32
180 – 189 37 34 33 32 31 30
190 – 199 35 32 31 30 29 29
200 – 209 33 31 29 28 28 27
210 – 219 31 29 28 27 26 25
220 – 229 30 27 26 26 25 24
230 – 239 28 26 25 24 24 23
240 – 249 27 25 24 23 22 22
250 – 259 26 24 23 22 21 21
260 – 269 25 23 22 21 21 20
270 – 279 24 22 21 20 20 19
280 – 289 23 21 20 19 19 18
290 – 299 22 20 19 19 18 18
 Guidelines & CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE FLOW SHEET
BRITISH Protocols
COLUMBIA
MEDICAL Advisory This Flow Sheet is based on the Guideline, Chronic Kidney Disease
ASSOCIATION
Committee Web site: http://www.bcguidelines.ca

NAME OF PATIENT SEX AGE AT DIAGNOSIS DATE OF BIRTH

M F

CARE OBJECTIVES SELF MANAGEMENT (Discuss with patient)

DIAGNOSIS RENAL U/S
(IF INDICATED) DATE: Explain diagnosis and implications of CKD
TYPE OF CKD: HTN POLYCYSTIC KD DM
Self monitor with flow sheet
OTHER: RESULT:
Review medication list (see reverse)

RISK FACTORS AND CO-MORBID CONDITIONS

Discuss CVD risk assessment & management strategies
Kidney-specific education
Smoker Diabetes Atrial fibrilation Asthma
Identify support team and resources
Alcohol/Substance abuse HTN Other arrhythmia COPD
Smoking cessation: Quit Now 1 877 455-2233
Obesity (target BMI < 25) CAD Valvular HD Liver disease
Weight, exercise and nutrition status
Other: Cardiomyopathy PVD Depression
Promote psychosocial health
CHF Lipid abnormality

VISITS
BP WEIGHT LABS (most recent)
NOTES: CLINICAL STATUS, CARE OBJECTIVES AND FOLLOW-UP ISSUES
Lbs Kg A1C ACR Cr/eGFR
(DM only)
every visit every visit q3m q6-12m q6m BASELINE REVIEW
≥ 50% 
< 130/80 BMI < 25 ≤ 7% from Stable*
DATE baseline

REMINDERS: 1) ESTABLISH REGULAR VISIT AND LAB WORK SCHEDULE 2) REFER TO NEPHROLOGY TEAM 3) * ∆eGFR < 10-15% annual decline
ANNUALLY OR AS CLINICALLY INDICATED
LAB WORK (at least annually) VACCINATIONS

Annual Flu: Pneumovax (q10y):

LIPIDS ANEMIA MINERAL METABOLISM
DATE DATE DATE
LDL Ratio Hgb TSAT Ca Phos PTH Albumin
< 2.5 high- WNR/110- >20% 2.2 - 2.5 0.75 - 1.4 WNR WNR
DATE risk (<70 yrs) <4.0 125 on tx

Hepatitis B (series completed):

DATE

HLTH/BCMA 6005 (REV. 02/08)

 MEDICATION
NAME OF DRUG DOSE /FREQUENCY NOTES AND START/STOP DATES PRESCRIBED BY
 Chronic Kidney Disease
A Guide for Patients Effective Date:� ����������
September ����
15, ����
2008

What is chronic kidney disease (CKD)?

Kidneys are as important to your health as your heart or your lungs. Shaped like kidney beans and about the size of
your fist, your kidneys are located on either side of your spine under the lower ribs. Their main task is to remove waste
products from your blood. Your kidneys also produce important hormones that regulate some of your body’s functions
and help balance water and minerals in your body.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) refers to a medical condition where your kidneys’ ability to filter wastes from your body
is impaired. CKD usually starts slowly and progresses over a number of years. If diagnosed and treated early, CKD may
be slowed down or stopped. However, if it keeps getting worse, CKD may lead to kidney failure, also called End-Stage
Renal Disease (ESRD). If you have ESRD, treatment options include dialysis or a kidney transplant. These treatments
can help you stay healthy and continue your daily activities.

There is no cure for CKD – the goal of treatment is to keep the kidneys functioning as long as possible by detecting
and treating the disease at its early stages. Sometimes, if treated early, all that may be needed is a change in your diet,
control of your blood pressure and/or some specific medication.

What are the symptoms of kidney disease?

CKD is a silent disease. Most people do not have any symptoms in the early stages. Symptoms begin when most
of your kidney function is lost. Symptoms that may show up as your kidney function deteriorates include frequent
headaches, fatigue, and itching all over the body.

As kidney disease worsens, the body is unable to get rid of waste products and excess water. This condition is called
uremia. In addition to earlier symptoms, you may experience:

• Frequent urination or passing less urine • Shortness of breath

• Swelling in legs, ankles, feet, face, and/or hands • Feeling cold
• Metallic or bad taste in mouth • Trouble concentrating, dizziness
• Nausea and vomiting • Leg pain/muscle cramps
• Loss of appetite

Who is at risk of developing CKD?

The leading causes of kidney failure are diabetes and high blood pressure. ����������������������������������������������
These conditions interfere with the filtering
ability of the kidneys and can lead to kidney failure.�����������������������������
Early diagnosis and careful management
�����������������������������������
of these conditions can
delay and even prevent the onset of kidney failure. Talk
�������������
to your doctor
������� if
������������������������
you have diabetes or hypertension.
��������������������
Other
factors that increase a person’s risk of developing CKD include:
• Family history of kidney disease (e.g. polycystic kidney disease)
• Certain ethnic groups (First Nations, Pacific Islanders)
• Overuse of anti-inflammatory drugs and pain-killers
• Infection or injury to the kidneys (e.g. glomerulonephritis)

How can I prevent or control CKD?

There is no cure for CKD, but by learning more about your illness and taking an active part in managing your health
you may be able to keep your kidneys functioning longer. Consider using the Chronic Kidney Disease Flow Sheet to
monitor your progress. You can take this flow sheet with you when you visit your doctor. Other important things you
can do include:
• Control diabetes
If you have diabetes, keep your blood glucose levels as close to normal as possible. Along with taking your
medications as prescribed, keep your weight under control and exercise regularly. Your doctor should routinely test
whether your kidneys are functioning properly.

BRITISH
COLUMBIA
MEDICAL
ASSOCIATION B C R e n a l A g e n c y
An Agency of the Provincial Health Services Authority
• Control high blood pressure (hypertension)
High blood pressure causes kidney damage and will also cause kidney function to deteriorate more quickly. Control
your high blood pressure to 130/80. Work with your doctor to find the anti-hypertension medications that work best
for you. Keep your weight under control, exercise regularly, and reduce your salt intake to help keep your blood
pressure at a healthy level.

• Lead a smoke free life

To help prevent kidney disease, stop smoking and avoid exposure to second hand smoke.

• Eat well
If you have CKD, it is important to have a diet that meets your nutritional needs. Learn how proper food choices
can help you. Talk to a nutritionist or dietitian about a food plan that is right for you. Be aware that certain foods can
cause kidney function to deteriorate more quickly. A diet that is too high in protein can cause problems.

• Exercise and control your weight

Exercising regularly is one of the best things you can do to improve your overall health. Exercise helps you to lower
your blood sugar and blood pressure, achieve a healthy weight, improve your heart and lung health, and improve
your physical, mental and emotional well being.

• Do not overuse over-the-counter drugs

Prolonged and frequent use of anti-inflammatory and anti-pain medications can damage your kidneys. Talk to your
doctor or pharmacist to find out how to use non-prescription medication that won’t damage your kidneys.

• Reduce stress
Recognize that it may take time to adjust to CKD – so be patient and set realistic goals. Keep involved in the
pleasures, activities and responsibilities of daily life and share your feelings with family and close friends. Consider
joining a support group.

Resources for People with Chronic Kidney Disease

Kidney Foundation of Canada (BC Branch) The Living with Kidney Disease patient manual
Tel: 604 736-9775 (Vancouver area) produced by The Kidney Foundation of Canada is an
important educational reference for people living with
1 800 567-8112 (elsewhere in BC)
kidney disease. The manual is available in English &
Fax: 604 736-9703 French on the Kidney Foundation web site:
Email: info@kidney.bc.ca
www.kidney.ca/publications-eng.htm
The Kidney Foundation has patient support groups in
It is also available in English, French, Chinese, Italian,
many areas of BC as well as educational material and
Portuguese & Punjabi from the BC Branch.
offers short term financial assistance for those in need.

BC Provincial Renal Agency (BCPRA)

Tel: 604 875-7340
Email: bcpra@bcpra.ubc.ca

The BC Provincial Renal Agency is a collaborative of renal health professionals who coordinate the care
of patients with kidney disease in BC.

BC Health Guide
Information on kidney disease can be found in the BC HealthGuide Online at www.bchealthguide.org or
in the BC HealthGuide Handbook provided free to households throughout the province. The 24-Hour BC
HealthGuide NurseLine puts you in touch with a Registered Nurse any time day or night just by calling one of
the following numbers:

Local calling within Greater Vancouver: 604 215-4700

Toll-free elsewhere within BC: 1 866 215-4700
Deaf and hearing-impaired toll-free province wide: 1 866 TTY-4700