EGYPT: An Introduction

Misr is the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt is said to be of Semitic
origin, which means “the two straits” (which basically pertains to the dynastic separation
of Upper and Lower Egypt). The word connotes “metropolis,” or “civilization.”

The ancient Egyptian name of this nation is Kemet which means “black land,”
referring to the fertile black soils of the Nile plains.

Geography

The 3oth largest country in the world, Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west,
Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza strip and Israel to the east. It has a land area of 1,
001, 450 square kilometres which is twice the size of Spain and four times the size of
the United Kingdom. The Nile River and the Suez Canal, which joins the Red Sea and
the Mediterranean Sea, and also separates Egypt proper from Sinai are among the
most important geological features of Egypt. The highest peak t is Mount Catherine in
the Sinai, at 8,743 feet (2,665 meters).

Egypt is the gift of the Nile. Rainfall is not adequate to sustain agriculture or a
settled population, and water instead comes from the Nile. The Nile rises far to the
south of Egypt, in Ethiopia and in the drainage basin of Lake Victoria. In the twentieth
century, people have improved their control of the river. This culminated in the building
of the Aswān High Dam, completed in 1971.

Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East with a
population of over 81 million people in 2011. . The greatest centres are found in Cairo,
Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.

Language

The official language of the Republic is the Modern Standard Arabic. The historic
languages include the Egyptian languages (Copto-Egyptian) consisting of ancient
Egyptian and Coptic.

History in Brief

The life span of ancient Egypt extended from about 5000 BC to 525 BC. During
the period the Egyptian pattern of life evolved from a rather primitive Neolithic culture to
a flourishing civilization in which pharaohs rules with absolute sway, agriculture and
commerce throve, a noble art flourished and mighty temples and monuments were
constructed.

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 The once proud land of the pharaohs passed under the rule of the Persians,
Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Turks and the British.

Egyptian history before 3100 BC is called the Pre-Dynastic period. The era after
this date is known as the Dynastic period, which is marked by the rule of the pharaohs.
The Dynastic Period includes three periods of greatness and two interludes of
retrogression: the Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC) followed by the transitional Feudal or
First Intermediate Age (2200-2050 B.C.); followed by the Middle Kingdom (2050-1800
B.C.), ended by the foreign Hyksos domination known as the Second Intermediate
Period (1800-1570 B.C.); and the Empire (1570-525 BC).

Periods in Egyptian History

Pre-Dynastic Period. During the long pre-Dynastic Period, largely because of

the necessity for cooperation in building canals and irrigation works, the small political
until gradually merged into larger ones, until finally two kingdoms, Upper Egypt in the
south and the Lower Egypt in the north were created. Progress was made in writing and
in the invention of papyrus and ink. The creation of the first calendar is said to have
occurred during this long period.

The Dynastic Period. Menes, the leader in the Upper Egypt united the two
kingdoms and established his capital at Memphis.

The Old Kingdom. Also known as the Age of Metals. In this period,
mining expedition, boat constructions, papyrus-making and pottery-making were
practiced by the early Egyptians. A manifestation of the advance civilization of this
period is its pyramids. The Step Pyramid constructed by the architect Imhotep for a
pharaoh of the Third Dynasty was constructed is a tomb and is regarded as the oldest
existing building of stone masonry.

It is to be noted that during the existence of the Sixth Dynasty of pharaohs of the
Old Kngdom, provincial governors of the kingdom rose against the pharaohs and
undermined their authority causing their power to collapse.

The Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom flourished under law and
order and economic prosperity with Amenemhet. This period is noted for its excellence
in literature and the arts. But this period of greatness was followed by decline after the
alien people known as Hyksos invaded Egypt. But with Aahmes of Thebes,
independence was restored once again to the Kingdom.

The Period of the Empire. The greatest pharaoh of the period was
Thutmosis III (1490-1436) who is often called the Napoleon of Egypt. Syria,
Phoenicia, Palestine, Nubia and northern Sudan were made part of the great

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 Egyptian Empire. Other notable and well-known pharaohs include Hatsheptut,
Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamen and Rameses II.

During the time of Amenhotep III (1441-1377), the empire reached a magnificent
height. Thebes became the imperial capital. Ikhnaton succeeded his father Amenhotep
but the empire weakened during his reign because of unpopular religious innovations
and presence of enemies around him. Ramses III (1301-1234 B.C.) tried to bring back
the glory of the empire but to no avail. His reign was regarded as Egypt’s last show of
national unity and vigour.

The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty which eventually fell prey
to the Persians in 343 BC after King Nectanebo II, considered as the last native
Egyptian pharaoh, was vanquished in the battle.

The last ruler from the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Cleopatra VI, committed suicide with
her lover Mark Anthony after Cesar Augustus captured them, which led to the decline of
the kingdom and its subsequent annexation to Rome.

After the Empire declined, Egypt was ruled by a long line of conquerors from
Cambyses, the Persian emperor in the 6 th century B.C, to Lord Cromer, the British ruler
of Egypt in the late 9th century.

In early 2011, Egypt was under a revolution which culminated with the ousting of
President Hosni Mubarak who reigned for almost 30 years.

Egyptian Beliefs

Egypt has two major religious institutions, the Coptic Orthodox Church of
Alexandria established by Saint Mark the Evangelist, and the Al-Azhar University
established as the first Islamic University in the world sometime around 970 CE.

Around 90% of the people in contemporary Egypt are Muslims. It is

predominantly a Sunni Muslim country with Islam as its state religion. Christians make
up 5% to 10% of the population.

The early Egyptians, like most polytheistic societies in the world worshipped many gods.
The following are among the major gods in Egyptian religion:

Amun-Ra - the Supreme God

Ra - the sun deity

Osiris - the god of water

Isis - the Great Mother

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 Horus -the falcon God; son of Osiris

Religion is of paramount importance among the Egyptians and it is intricate in

character. Immortality was regarded as the reward for a just and good life. Egyptians in
the ancient time regarded murder, stealing, lying, deceit, adultery and trespass against
the gods or the dead as sins.

Egyptian Customs and Traditions

The system of government in Egypt during the Old Kingdom was an extreme
absolutism. All power resided in the ruler, the pharaoh, which literally means “Great
House.” Being an absolute ruler, the pharaohs owned all the land, controlled the
irrigation system and exacted a share of the crops produced by the semi-servile
labourers who toiled on the huge royal estates. Egyptian government during this period
was theocratic, meaning the pharaoh exercises both religious and political functions. He
is regarded as an earthly king, the chief priest of the land and the spiritual ruler of the
nation.

The great bulk of people in the days of the Empire were semi-slaves as they are
subjected to forced labor. But when civilizations came, the society emerged to observe
certain gradations. Society is divided into: (1) court nobility, priests and landed
aristocracy; (2) middle class composed of merchants and craftsmen; and (3) servile
laborers. People can, however elevate themselves into higher social ranks.

It is interesting to note that during this time, women are treated almost the equal
of men. They dominated many aspects of the society. Sons could inherit from their
mother. Women have the chance to rule like men as some of them even actually ruled
as queen of the land.

Do you know that the Greeks consider the Egyptians the most religious of all
men, the reason being almost every aspect of life of the Egyptians is influenced by
religion. The pharaohs were regarded as gods; the pyramids were an act and
manifestation of faith; its science is centered in the temple; and its literature was a
conveyor of different religious symbolisms. The great obsessions of all people is to
attain the immortality of the soul and this was aptly shown in the act of mummification
after death as obtaining full funeral rites is the key to secure immortality.

Egyptian Culture and Famous Egyptians

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 Egyptian culture has six thousand years of recorded history. It is a co-mixture of
Pharaohnic, Hellenistic, Islamic and Christian interactions, including that of modern
Western culture.

Cairo, Africa’s largest city, is renowned in history as the center of learning and
commerce. Cairo is likewise considered as the “Hollywood of the Middle East,” as it is
the venue of the Cairo Annual Festival which is rated as one of the 11 festivals with top
class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film producers.

Egypt is considered to have the greatest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa

and the Arab world. In 1999, Zewail became the third Egyptian to receive the Nobel
Prize (in chemistry), following Anwar Sadat (1978 in Peace) and Naguib Mahfouz (1988
in Literature). In 1999, he was awarded Egypt's highest state honour, the Grand Collar
of the Nile.

Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the

IAEA are very well-known Egyptian politicians who occupied significant positions in
international organizations.

The ancient Egyptians used ideographs (using symbols to represent ideas). To

write out their ideas, they make use of papyrus, the forerunner of paper. It was made by
splitting the papyrus reed into strips and pasting these strips together to make long rolls
of durable writing surface.

Being more practical than speculative, early Egyptians are not inclined much on
philosophical musings as do the Greeks. Their mathematical learnings are intended to
assist them in practical living. They devised a lunar calendar to fix the dates of holy
days and ascertain the time for planting crops. They develop primitive decimal system
and computed the area of a circle by giving the pie value of 3.16. Alexandria, being the
center of the Hellenistic world, was the hub of a number of great mathematicians,
astronomers and scientists, to name a few, Ctesibius, Pappus and Diophantus.

Ptolemy is one of the most celebrated astronomers and geographers from

Egypt, famed for his work in Alexandria. Born Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος
Πτολεμαίος; c. 85 – c. 165) in Upper Egypt, he was a geographer, astronomer, and
astrologer. Ptolemy wrote two important scientific treatises. One is the astronomical
treatise that is now known as the Almagest (in Greek Η μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great
Treatise"). In this work, one of the most significant books of antiquity, Ptolemy
consolidated the astronomical knowledge of the ancient Greek and Babylonian world.
Ptolemy's other main work is his Geography.

The Egyptians are considered as the greatest builders in history. Being advanced
engineers as such, they were able to build in stone. The pyramids which were mostly
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built during the Old Kingdom are the greatest living proof of such advanced engineering
dexterity. After four thousand years, these monuments still remain, scattered along the
Nile south from delta for a distance of fifty miles. The great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops)
at Giza near Cairo was built by a pharaoh during the Fourth Dynasty. It was built by a
labor force of 100, 000 men and required 2, 300, 000 blocks of limestone, each
averaging two and a half tons, from quarries forty miles away and then floated across
the Nile on barges. The Temple of Karnak is an Egyptian expression of profound
mystery of their religion. It contains huge colonnaded or hypostyle hall, the largest ever
built.

Imhotep is considered to be the first engineer, architect and physician in history

known by name. He designed the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in
Egypt around 2630-2611 BC, and may have been responsible for the first known use of
columns in architecture. The Egyptian historian Manetho attributed to him the invention
of stone-dressed building. Imhotep is also believed to have founded Egyptian medicine,
being the author of the world's earliest known medical document, the Edwin Smith
Papyrus.

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World,
designed by Sostratus of Cnidus and built during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter, served
as the city's landmark, and later, lighthouse.

The discovery of the Rosetta Stone, a tablet written in ancient Greek, Egyptian
Demotic script, and Egyptian hieroglyphs, has partially been credited for the recent stir
in the study of Ancient Egypt, known as Egyptology.

Another well-known Egyptian that represents Egyptian beauty and glamour is

Cleopatra, the famous queen of ancient Egypt and is regarded as the last member of
the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty and the probably the last Greek ruler of Egypt. All
her predecessors have already been forgotten but her name remains to be known all
throughout the world irrespective of time and place.

Egyptian Literature

The Pyramid Texts of Egypt are regarded as the oldest chapter of human
thought. Found of the walls and tombs of the pyramids built in the Fifth and Sixth
Dynasties, they are chiefly religious in contents and is intended to assist the deceased
to attain immortality through the use of magical incantations, hymns and myths. In time,
the Pyramid Texts became Coffin Texts (perhaps after the end of the Old Kingdom), and
finally the mortuary literature produced its masterpiece, the Book of the Dead, during
the New Kingdom.

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 Literature reached its zenith during the Middle Kingdom, the golden age of
Egyptian literature. Some remarkable literary outputs include the Tale of Neferty, the
Instructions of Amenemhat I, the Tale of Sinuhe, the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor
and the Story of the Eloquent Peasant. Instructions became a famous literary genre of
the New Kingdom, taking the form of advice on proper behavior. The Story of Wenamun
and the Instruction of Any are popular examples from this period.

During the Middle Kingdom, more particularly during the Twelfth Dynasty,
literature became much richer, more varied, and more secular. The period of Twelfth
Dynasty is called the Classical Age of Egyptian literature. Some of the narratives include
the Tale of the Two Brothers which is similar to the story of Joseph the Dreamer in the
Bible; the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant; and A Dialogue Between a Man Weary of Life
and His Soul. The last is a poem which is philosophical in nature and expresses
profound ancient Egyptian thought.

The first modern Egyptian novel is Zaynab written by Muhammad Husayn Haykal
and was published in 1913. Naguib Mahfouz, a prolific Egyptian author, was the first
Arab writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Famous women writers include Nawal El
Saadawi and Alifa Rifaat, both of whom have feminist tendencies in their writings.

Pre – Reading Activity

What is a myth? Why do ancient Egyptians resort to myth in explaining natural

occurrences? Do we have a counterpart of the story of Osiris and Isis? Try to bring with
you a picture of mythical figures that aptly represent Osiris and Isis.

Vocabulary:

Smolder-to burn sluggishly, without flame, and often with much

smoke

Conceive- to become pregnant with

Reeds- any of various tall perennial grasses, especially of the

genera Phragmites or Arundo, having hollow stems, broad leaves,
and large plumelike terminal panicles.

Flutter- to fly by a quick light flapping of the wings

Jackal-- any of several doglike mammals of the genus Canis

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 of Africa and southern Asia that are mainly foragers feeding on
plants, small animals, and occasionally carrion.

EGYPTIAN MYTH

Ancient Egyptians, just like any other ancient civilizations have developed some
form of explanations regarding creations, existence, forces of nature, life and death and
other phenomena which they observed in the cosmos. They believed in many gods and
myths that were made to explain the world and its wonders. You are most probably
acquainted with the tragedy of Osiris and its symbolic significance in the rise and fall of
the Nile River. The following selection recounts the story of Osiris and Isis.

The Myth of Osiris and Isis

Geb and Nut are the son and daughter of Shu and Tefnut. Geb was the Earth
and Nut was the sky. It was believed that every night Nut swallowed the sun. Then in
the morning, Nut would give birth to it like a child.

Geb and Nut had two daughters and two sons: Isis and Nephthys were their
daughters; and Set and Osiris were their sons. When they grew up, Nephthys married
Set and Isis married Osiris.

Osiris became the god of the underworld, being the first to have lived after death.
Osiris was often shown as a bull or looking somewhat like a mummy. Set was given the
desert and sands and take the form of a crocodile, an ass, or a hippopotamus.

Nephthys and Isis were very close. They were so close they were like the same
person. Nephthys liked the darkness and the dark moon, whilst Isis liked the light and
the full and new moon. Isis could be a cow, star or tree. She controlled the dew, rain,
and moisture. Nephthys was the goddess of the underworld. She was also the mother
of Anubis with Set or Osiris, depending on the version of the story. Isis was the mother
of Horus with Osiris. Anubis is often shown as a jackal, and Horus is shown as a hawk.

Set was very jealous of Osiris because he plays more important role than him.
He planned to kill Osiris by throwing a party. At the party, Set placed a beautiful chest
and told the guests that whoever fit into the chest perfectly would receive it as a gift.
Nobody knew that he intended the chest to be of perfect size for Osiris. All the
attendees tried it but would not fit. When Osiris tried it, Set immediately have it closed
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and nailed it shut. He threw it into the Nile to be carried away by the Nile River. Isis was
inconsolable and immediately went away to find him.

After some time, the casket found its way onto shore. A tree had grown around it,
surrounding it in its trunk. Then the tree had been mangled down and was used as a
columnar support for the palace of King Byblos. Isis learned of this and came there in
cover. Byblos spotted her and pleaded her to minister to his child. Isis grew quite fond of
the child and decided to make him immortal. So every night she would fling him onto
magical fires to smolder away all that was mortal about him. Then Isis would turn herself
into a swallow and take wing around the pillar lamenting for her spouse.

Suddenly one day Byblos returned home and saw his child in the fires and blew
them out. Isis became angry and told him that now his son could never become
immortal. He expressed regret and asked what he could do to make it up to her. Isis
asked for the pillar and he let her have it. She got the casket and moaned upon it. Then
she brought it home and when no one was looking, she opened it up. She transformed
into a bird called a kite and fluttered her mighty wings. During this time, she conceived
her son Horus from him. Then she covered the casket among long reeds. She went
away to secretly give birth to her son.

Unluckily, one night Set was hunting and recognized the familiar chest. He was
fuming with rage and tore up the body into fourteen pieces. Then he dispersed the
pieces all over Egypt so no one could restore them.

Isis was grief-stricken. She instantly began looking for the pieces in hopes of
putting them back together. Nephthys also helped her. Nephthys felt sorry for her and
enraged with Set for doing such an appalling thing. Anubis, Nephthys's son, also gave
aid. He was like a jackal and was good at finding things. Eventually, they found all the
parts but one, which they made a model of. They assembled all the parts together and
Osiris looked as he had before.

Isis then performed rituals and, with the help of Anubis, she brought him back to
life. Osiris was sent to rule the underworld, being the only person to live after death. He
ruled it as he had once ruled the Earth. The sun, Ra, would wake him up every night
after everyone had gone asleep.

Isis then went back to raise her son. He grew up in secrecy hidden in the reeds.
Then, when he was old enough, Horus often took the form of a hawk. Horus decided to
take revenge on Set for the murder of his father.

He fought him for three days and three nights until Thoth came between them.
They listened to Horus's side of the story. Then they listened to Set's side of the story
but no one believed him. Then the judgment was given. Set was guilty and sentenced to
carrying the boat that held the sun across the sky. He had to overcome the serpent of
darkness that tried to eat the sun. Then Horus got the privilege of taking his father's

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place ruling the Earth as Osiris had once done. (Jules Cashfor, The Myth of Osiris and
Isis, 1993)

After Reading

Discussion and Analysis

1. Describe Osiris as depicted in Egyptian myths. Elaborate.

2. What particular animals aptly describe Anubis? Horus?

3. What is the significance of Osiris’ death in the rise and fall of the Nile River?

4. What Egyptian customs, traditions and beliefs were portrayed in the myth?

Beyond Reading

Values and Appreciation: Literature in Action

Do you know that Osiris is regarded as the fist mummy? Why the Egyptians have
an all-pervading belief can be attributed to the god Osiris. It has been said that the rise
and fall, the ebb and flow of the Nile River can be explained by the existence of a myth
regarding Osiris. It was told that Osiris’ death and resurrection represent the rise and fall
of the Nile River. This belief is explained by the myth that Osiris was murdered by Seth,
his evil brother who mangled the former’s body and dispersed them over the land. Isis,
the wife of Osiris, collected all the remnants of the corpse and were put together. Osiris
was said to be resurrected and became immortal. At the end, Horus, the son of Osiris,
avenged his father’s death against Seth.

Stage a brief play portraying the death and resurrection of Osiris as depicted in
Egyptian mythology.

Pre – Reading Activity

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 Think of some characters in tales, myths or stories which you have read in the
past which best exemplified trust, loyalty and fidelity. Be able to present them briefly in
class. If you were Bata, would you do the same as the character did in the story?

Vocabulary:

Imbued- inspired or influenced directly

Byre-a barn for cows

Oxen-domesticated bovine animals as a group regardless of

sex or age; "so many head of cattle"

Tarry-To delay or be late in going, coming, or doing

Quivered- shaken by fear or apprehension

EGYPTIAN TALE

In some literary translations, this story bears the title “The Tale of Two Brothers."
This folk tale relates the story of a young man who was accused of proposal of adultery
of his elder brother’s wife and how he was able to come through the ordeal. You may
notice as you go along the story that the central theme shares striking resemblance with
the story of Joseph and Potiphar's wife. The two main characters are brothers named
Anubis and Bata. The original text papyrus can now be found in the British Museum.

The Peasant Who Became King

THERE were once two brothers, and they were sons of the same father and of the
same mother. Anpu was the name of the elder, and the younger was called Bata. Now
Anpu had a house of his own, and he had a wife. His brother lived with him as if he
were his son, and made garments for him. It was Bata who drove the oxen to the field, it
was he who ploughed the land, and it was he who harvested the grain. He laboured
continually upon his brother's farm, and his equal was not to be found in the land of
Egypt; he was imbued with the spirit of a god.

In this manner the brothers lived together, and many days went past. Each morning the
younger brother went forth with the oxen, and when evening came on he drove them
again to the byre, carrying upon his back a heavy burden of fodder which he gave to the
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animals to eat, and he brought with him also milk and herbs for Anpu and his wife. While
these two ate and drank together in the house, Bata rested in the byre with the cattle
and he slept beside them.

When day dawned, and the land grew bright again, the younger brother was first to rise
up, and he baked bread for Anpu and carried his own portion to the field and ate it there.
As he followed the oxen he heard and he understood their speech. They would say:
"Yonder is sweet herbage", and he would drive them to the place of their choice,
whereat they were well pleased. They were indeed noble animals, and they increased
greatly.

The time of ploughing came on, and Anpu spake unto Bata, saying: "Now get ready the
team of oxen, for the Nile flood is past and the land may be broken up. We shall begin
to plough on the morrow; so carry seed to the field that we may sow it."

As Anpu desired, so did Bata do. When the next day dawned, and the land grew bright,
the two brothers laboured in the field together, and they were well pleased with the work
which they accomplished. Several days went past in this manner, and it chanced that on
an afternoon the seed was finished ere they had completed their day's task.

Anpu thereupon spake to his younger brother saying: "Hasten to the granary and
procure more seed."

Bata ran towards the house, and entered it. He beheld his brother's wife sitting upon a
mat, languidly pleating her hair.

"Arise," he said, "and procure corn for me, so that I may hasten back to the field with it.
Delay me not."

The woman sat still and said: "Go thou thyself and open the storeroom. Take
whatsoever thou dost desire. If I were to rise for thee, my hair would fall in disorder."

Bata opened the storeroom and went within. He took a large basket and poured into it a
great quantity of seed. Then he came forth carrying the, basket through the house.

The woman looked up and said: "What is the weight of that great burden of thine?"

Bata answered: "There are two measures of barley and three of wheat. I carry in all
upon my shoulders five measures of seed."

"Great indeed is thy strength," sighed the woman. "Ah, thee do I contemplate and
admire each day!"

Her heart was moved towards him, and she stood up saying: "Tarry here with me. I will
clothe thee in fine raiment."

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The lad was made angry as the panther, and said: "I regard thee as a mother, and my
brother is like a father unto me. Thou hast spoken evil words and I desire not to hear
them again, nor will I repeat unto any man what thou hast just spoken."

He departed abruptly with his burden and hastened to the field, where he resumed his
labour.

At eventide Anpu returned home and Bata prepared to follow after him. The elder
brother entered his house and found his wife lying there, and it seemed as if she had
suffered violence from an evildoer. She did not give him water to wash his hands, as
was her custom. Nor did she light the lamp. The house was in darkness. She moaned
where she lay, as if she were in sickness, and her garment was beside her.

"Who hath been here?" asked Anpu, her husband.

The woman answered him: "No one came nigh me save thy younger brother. He spoke
evil words unto me, and I said: 'Am I not as a mother, and is not thine elder brother as a
father unto thee?' Then was he angry, and he struck me until I promised that I would not
inform thee. . . . Oh I if thou wilt allow him to live now, I shall surely die."

The elder brother became like an angry panther. He sharpened his dagger and went out
and stood behind the door of the byre with purpose to slay young Bata when he came
nigh.

The sun had gone down when the lad drove the oxen into the byre, carrying on his back
fodder and herbs, and in one hand a vessel of milk, as was his custom each evening.

The first ox entered the byre, and then it spoke to Bata, saying: "Beware I for thine elder
brother is standing behind the door. In his hand is a dagger, and he desires to slay thee.
Draw not nigh unto him."

The lad heard with understanding what the animal had said. Then the second ox
entered and went to its stall, and spake likewise words of warning, saying: "Take speedy
flight."

Bata peered below the byre door, and he saw the legs of his brother, who stood there
with a dagger in his hand. He at once threw down his burden and made hurried escape.
Anpu rushed after him furiously with the sharp dagger.

In his sore distress the younger brother cried unto the sun god Ra-Harmachis, saying:
"O blessed lord! thou art he who distinguisheth between falsehood and truth."

The god heard his cry with compassion, and turned round. He caused a wide stream to
flow between the two brothers, and, behold! it was full of crocodiles. Then it came that
Anpu and Bata stood confronting one another, one upon the right bank and the other

13
upon the left. The elder brother twice smote his hands with anguish because that he
could not slay the youth.

Bata called out to Anpu, saying: "Tarry where thou art until the earth is made bright once
again. Lo! When Ra, the sun god, riseth up, I shall reveal in his presence all that I know,
and he shall judge between us, discerning what is false and what is true. . . . Know thou
that I may not dwell with thee any longer, for I must depart unto the fair region of the
flowering acacia."

When day dawned, and the sun god Ra appeared in his glory, the two brothers stood
gazing one upon the other across the stream of crocodiles. Then the lad spake to his
elder brother, saying: "Why didst thou come against me, desiring to slay me with
treachery ere yet I had spoken for myself? Am I not thy younger brother, and hast thou
not been as a father and thy wife as a mother unto me? Hear and know now that when I
hastened to procure seed thy wife spoke, saying: 'Tarry thou with me.' But this
happening hath been related unto thee in another manner."

So spake Bata, and he told his brother what was true regarding the woman. Then he
called to witness the sun god, and said: "Great was thy wickedness in desiring to
murder me by treachery." As he spoke he cut off a piece of his flesh and flung it into the
stream, where it was devoured by a fish. He sank fainting upon the bank.

Anpu was stricken with anguish; tears ran from his eyes. He desired greatly to be
beside his brother on the opposite bank of the stream of crocodiles.

Bata spake again, saying: "Verily, thou didst desire an evil thing, but if thy desire now is
to do good, I shall instruct thee what thou shouldst do. Return unto thy home and tend
thine oxen, for know now that I may not dwell with thee any longer, but must depart unto
the fair region of the flowering acacia. What thou shalt do is to come to seek for me
when I need thine aid, for my soul shall leave my body and have its dwelling in the
highest blossom of the acacia. When the tree is cut down, my soul will fall upon the
ground. There thou mayest seek it, even if thy quest be for seven years, for, verily, thou
shalt find it if such is thy desire. Thou must then place it in a vessel of water, and I shall
come to life again and reveal all that hath befallen and what shall happen thereafter.
When the hour cometh to set forth on the quest, behold! the beer given to thee will
bubble, and the wine will have a foul smell. These shall be as signs unto thee."

Then Bata took his departure, and he went into the valley of the flowering acacia, which
was across the ocean. His elder brother returned home. He lamented, throwing dust
upon his head. He slew his wife and cast her to the dogs, and abandoned himself to
mourning for his younger brother.

Many days went past, and Bata reached at length the valley of the flowering acacia. He
dwelt there alone and hunted wild beasts. At eventide he lay down to rest below the
acacia, in whose highest blossom his soul was concealed. In time he built a dwelling
place and he filled it with everything that he desired.
14
Now it chanced that on a day when he went forth he met the nine gods, who were
surveying the whole land. They spoke one to another and then asked of Bata why he
had forsaken his home because of his brother's wife, for she had since been slain.
"Return again," they said, "for thou didst reveal unto thine elder brother the truth of what
happened unto thee."

They took pity on the youth, and Ra spoke, saying: "Fashion now a bride for Bata, so
that he may not be alone."

Then the god Khnumu fashioned a wife whose body was more beautiful than any other
woman's in the land, because that she was imbued with divinity.

Then came the seven Hathors and gazed upon her. In one voice they spoke, saying:
"She shall surely die a speedy death."

Bata loved her dearly. Each day she remained in his house while he hunted wild beasts,
and he carried them home and laid them at her feet. He warned her each day, saying:
"Walk not outside, lest the sea may come up and carry thee away. I could not rescue
thee from the sea spirit, against whom I am as weak as thou art, because my soul is
concealed in the highest blossom of the flowering acacia. If another should find my soul
I must needs fight for it."

Thus he opened unto her his whole heart and revealed its secrets.

Many days went past. Then on a morning when Bata had gone forth to hunt, as was his
custom, his girl wife went out to walk below the acacia) which was nigh to the house.

Lo! the sea spirit beheld her in all her beauty and caused his billows to pursue her.
Hastily she fled away and returned to the house, whereat the sea spirit sang to the
acacia: "Oh, would she were mine!"

The acacia heard and cast to the sea spirit a lock of the girl wife's hair. The sea bore it
away towards the land of Egypt and unto the place where the washers of the king
cleansed the royal garments.

Sweet was the fragrance of the lock of hair, and it perfumed the linen of the king. There
were disputes among the washers because that the royal garments smelt of ointment,
nor could anyone discover the secret thereof. The king rebuked them.

Then was the heart of the chief washer in sore distress, because of the words which
were spoken daily to him regarding this matter. He went down to the seashore; he stood
at the place which was opposite the floating lock of hair, and he beheld it at length and
caused it to be carried unto him. Sweet was its fragrance, and he hastened with it to the
king.

15
Then the king summoned before him his scribes, and they spake, saying: "Lo! this is a
lock from the hair of the divine daughter of Ra, and it is gifted unto thee from a distant
land. Command now that messengers be sent abroad to seek for her. Let many men go
with the one who is sent to the valley of the flowering acacia so that they may bring the
woman unto thee".

The king answered and said: "Wise are your words, and they are pleasant unto me."

So messengers were sent abroad unto all lands. But those who journeyed to the valley
of the flowering acacia returned not, because that Bata slew them all; the king had no
knowledge of what befell them.

Then the king sent forth more messengers and many soldiers also, so that the girl might
be brought unto him. He sent also a woman, and she was laden with rare
ornaments . . . and the wife of Bata came back with her.

Then was there great rejoicing in the land of Egypt. Dearly did the king love the divine
girl, and he exalted her because of her beauty. He prevailed upon her to reveal the
secrets of her husband, and the king then said: "Let the acacia be cut down and
splintered in pieces."

Workmen and warriors were sent abroad, and they reached the acacia. They severed
from it the highest blossom, in which the soul of Bata was concealed. The petals were
scattered, and Bata dropped down dead.

A new day dawned, and the land grew bright. The acacia was then cut down.

Meanwhile Anpu, the elder brother of Bata., went into his house, and he sat down and
washed his hands. He was given beer to drink, and it bubbled, and the wine had a foul
smell.

He seized his staff, put on his shoes and his garment, and armed himself for his journey,
and departed unto the valley of the flowering acacia.

When he reached the house of Bata he found the young man lying dead upon a mat.
Bitterly he wept because of that. But he went out to search for the soul of his brother at
the place where, below the flowering acacia) Bata was wont to lie down to rest at
eventide. For three years he continued his search, and when the fourth year came his
heart yearned greatly to return to the land of Egypt. At length he said: "I shall depart at
dawn to-morrow."

A new day came, and the land grew bright. He looked over the ground again at the
place of the acacia for his brother's soul. The time was spent thus. In the evening he
continued his quest also, and he found a seed, which he carried to the house, and, lo!
the soul of his brother was in it. He dropped the seed into a vessel filled with cold water,
and sat down as was his custom at evening.
16
Night came on, and then the soul absorbed the water.

The limbs of Bata quivered and his eyes opened and gazed upon his elder brother, but
his heart was without feeling. Then Anpu raised the vessel which contained the soul to
the lips of Bata, and he drank the water. Thus did his soul return to its place, and Bata
was as he had been before.

The brothers embraced and spoke one to the other. Bata said: "Now I must become a
mighty bull with every sacred mark. None will know my secret. Ride thou upon my back,
and when the day breaks I shall be at the place where my wife is. Unto her must I
speak. Lead me before the king, and thou shalt find favour in his eyes. The people will
wonder when they behold me, and shout welcome. But thou must return unto thine own
home."

A new day dawned, and the land grew bright. Bata was a bull, and Anpu sat upon his
back and they drew nigh to the royal dwelling. The king was made glad, and he said:
"This is indeed a miracle." There was much rejoicing throughout the land. Silver and
gold were given to the elder brother, and he went away to his own home and waited
there.

In time the sacred bull stood in a holy place, and the beautiful girl wife was there. Bata
spoke unto her, saying: "Look thou upon me where I stand, for, lo! I am still alive."

Then said the woman: "And who art thou?"

The bull made answer: "Verily, I am Bata. It was thou who didst cause the acacia to be
cut down; it was thou who didst reveal unto Pharaoh that my soul had dwelling in the
highest blossom, so that it might be destroyed and I might cease to be. But, lo! I live on,
and I am become a sacred bull."

The woman trembled; fear possessed her heart when

Bata spoke unto her in this manner. She at once went out of the holy place.

It chanced that the king sat by her side at the feast, and made merry, for he loved her
dearly. She spoke, saying: "Promise before the god that thou wilt do what I ask of thee."

His Majesty took a vow to grant her the wish of her heart, and she said: "It is my desire
to eat of the liver of the sacred bull, for he is naught to thee."

Sorrowful was the king then, and his heart was troubled, because of the words which
she spoke. . . .

A new day dawned, and the land grew bright. Then the king commanded that the bull
should be offered in sacrifice.

17
One of the king's chief servants went out, and when the bull was held high upon the
shoulders of the people he smote its neck and it cast two drops of blood 2 towards the
gate of the palace, and one drop fell upon the right side and one upon the left. There
grew up in the night two stately Persea trees from where the drops of blood fell down.

This great miracle was told unto the king, and the people rejoiced and made offerings of
water and fruit to the sacred trees.

A day came when his majesty rode forth in his golden chariot. He wore his collar of lapis
lazuli, and round his neck was a garland of flowers. The girl wife was with him, and he
caused her to stand below one of the trees, and it whispered unto her:

"Thou false woman, I am still alive. Lo! I am even Bata, whom thou didst wrong. It was
thou who didst cause the acacia to be cut down. It was thou who didst cause the sacred
bull to be slain, so that I might cease to be."

Many days went past, and the woman sat with the king at the feast, and he loved her
dearly. She spake, saying: "Promise now before the god that thou wilt do what I ask of
thee."

His Majesty made a vow of promise, and she said: "It is my desire that the Persea trees
be cut down so that two fair seats may be made of them."

As she desired, so was it done. The king commanded that the trees should be cut down
by skilled workmen, and the fair woman went out to watch them. As she stood there, a
small chip of wood entered her mouth, and she swallowed it.

After many days a son was born to her, and he was brought before the king, and one
said: "Unto thee a son is given."

A nurse and servants were appointed to watch over the babe.

There was great rejoicing throughout the land when the time came to name the girl
wife's son. The king made merry, and from that hour he loved the child, and he
appointed him Prince of Ethiopia.

Many days went past, and then the king chose him to be heir to the kingdom.

In time His Majesty fulfilled his years, and he died, and his soul flew to the heavens.

The new king (Bata) then said: "Summon before me the great men of my Court, so that I
may now reveal unto them all that hath befallen me and the truth concerning the
queen."

His wife was then brought before him. He revealed himself unto her, and she was
judged before the great men, and they confirmed the sentence.
18
Then Anpu was summoned before His Majesty, and he was chosen to be the royal heir.

When Bata had reigned for thirty years, he came to his death, and on the day of his
burial his elder brother stood in his place (Egyptian Myth and Legend, 1907).

After Reading

Discussion and Analysis

1. Describe the character of Bata in the tale?
2. What Egyptian virtues or characters were exemplified by Bata in the tale?
3. Compare the tale with the story of Joseph in the Bible. What striking similarities
do they share?
4. What Egyptian customs or traditions are best illustrated in the tale?

Beyond Reading

Related Research Works

Get another sample of Egyptian tale from other sources and try to present
similarities in the story of Anubis and Bata. Present them briefly in class.

Pre – Reading Activity

What does dove symbolize in common parlance? Why is jealousy considered

figuratively as the “green eyed monster”? The love song entitled “The Garden of Love”
exemplifies what type of figure of speech? Explain. How would you compare a love
song to a sonnet?

Vocabulary:

Anoint- to apply oil, ointment, or a similar substance to.

Aglow- softly bright or radiant; "a house aglow with lights";

"glowing embers"; "lambent tongues of flame"; "the lucent moon";

19
 "a sky luminous with stars"

Beauteous- beautiful, especially to the sight.

Wither- to dry up or shrivel from or as if from loss of

moisture.

Infidelity- an act or instance of disloyalty

EGYPTIAN LOVE SONGS

Presented here are samples of Egyptian love songs which are said to have been
gathered by ancient scribes and scholars over 3000 years ago. The Egyptians laid
these love songs in tombs of dead Egyptians so that they might be sung by departed
souls in Paradise, believing that death is just a journey to the other unknown world.

The Wine of Love

Oh! when my lady cometh,

And I with love behold her,
I take her to my beating heart
And in mine arms enfold her;
My heart is filled with joy divine
For I am hers and she is mine.

Oh! when her soft embraces

Do give my love completeness,
The perfumes of Arabia
Anoint me with their sweetness;
And when her lips are pressed to mine
I am made drunk and need not wine.

The Dove Song

I hear thy voice, O turtle dove--

The dawn is all aglow--

20
Weary am I with love, with love,
Oh, whither shall I go?

Not so, O beauteous bird above,

Is joy to me denied. . . .
For I have found my dear, my love,
And I am by his side.

We wander forth, and hand in hand

Through flow'ry ways we go--
I am the fairest in the land,
For he hath called me so.

Jealousy

My face towards the door I'll keep

Till I my love behold,
With watching eyes and list'ning ears
I wait . . . and I turn cold,
I sigh and sigh;
He comes not nigh.

My sole possession is his love

All sweet and dear to me;
And ever may my lips confess
My heart, nor silent be.
I sigh and sigh;
He comes not nigh.

But now . . . a messenger in haste

My watching eyes behold . . .
He went as swiftly as he came.
"I am delayed", he told.
I sigh and sigh;
He comes not nigh.

Alas! confess that thou hast found

One fairer far than me.
O thou so false, why break my heart
With infidelity?
I sigh and sigh;
He'll ne'er come nigh.

The Garden of Love

21
 Oh! fair are the flowers, my beloved,
And fairest of any I wait.
A garden art thou, all fragrant and dear,
Thy heart, O mine own, is the gate.

The canal of my love I have fashioned,

And through thee, my garden, it flows--
Dip in its waters refreshing and sweet,
When cool from the north the wind blows.

In our beauteous haunt we will linger,

Thy strong hand reposing in mine--
Then deep be my thoughts and deeper my joy,
Because, O my love, I am thine.

Oh! thy voice is bewitching, beloved,

This wound of my heart it makes whole--
Ah! when thou art coming, and thee I behold,
Thou'rt bread and thou'rt wine to my soul.

After Reading

Discussion and Analysis

1. What does the love song “Wine of Love” discuss?

2. What emotional mood is expressed in these lines from “Dove Song”: “Not so, O
beauteous bird above,/ Is joy to me denied. . . ./For I have found my dear, my
love/ And I am by his side.”
3. What is the central theme of the love song “Jealousy”?
4. What figures of speech is exemplified in the following lines from “The Garden of
Love”: The canal of my love I have fashioned,/ And through thee, my garden, it
flows.”?
5. The universality of thematic content of the love songs previously presented are
also reflective of Egyptian customs and traditions. Discuss them in details.

Beyond Reading

Literary Analysis and Appreciation

Select some interesting lines from the love songs previously discussed. Expound
on the meaning of these lines both in the literal and figurative level.

22
 Pre – Reading Activity

What does happiness mean to you? How is happiness measured? Write a brief essay regarding
the true meaning of happiness.

Vocabulary:

Habitual- established by long use; usual

Assailed- attacked verbally, as with ridicule or censure.

Dragged-pulled along with difficulty or effort; haul

Brimming- overflowing

Rival- one who attempts to equal or surpass another, or who pursues

the same object as another; a competitor

EGYPTIAN SHORT STORY

The short story entitled “The Happy Man,” was written by Naguib Mahfouz (1911-
2006), Egyptian writer who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1988, and was
the first Arabic writer to receive such honor. He wrote some 40 novels and short story
collections, 30 screenplays, and many plays.

The Happy Man tells the story of a person who elusively finds happiness until
one morning he wakes up and finds himself “inconceivably happy”. Without a clue how
and why this happened, he finds himself talking to people he normally does not talk to
such as his servant “Uncle” Bashir and his worst enemy whom he has frequent conflicts
with. Why such happiness? We learn from the rest of the story that his wife and son
died causing him to lose his mind. He then consults doctors and specialists, the last of
whom advised him to have two sessions a week which cause him to burst out in tears
and ends the story.

The following is an excerpt from the story:

The Happy Man

When he woke up, he found himself happy. That was most strange compared
with his habitual state of mind in the early morning. For he usually got up with a terrible
headache from working late hours in his office at the newspaper, or with a hangover
23
from too much eating and drinking at some wild party. The worries of the day before and
the problems of the present day usually assailed him then, so that he dragged himself
out of bed with great difficulty, trying to muster all his energy and face the troubles of
life. But today he was unquestionably happy, overflowing with happiness. The feeling
was so clear and intense that it imposed itself on his mind and senses. Yes, he was
happy. If this was not happiness, what was it then? He felt all his organs were
functioning in perfect harmony with each other and with the whole world around him.
Inside him there was infinite energy and a tremendous capacity to achieve anything with
great skill and confidence. And his heart was brimming with love for people, animals and
things, with an overwhelming feeling of optimism, as if he had finally defeated fear,
anxiety, sickness and death. Above all, there was that incomprehensible sensation
which penetrated his body and soul, playing a delightful tune of joy, contentment and
peace.

Intoxicated with this ecstasy, he savored it slowly and with a deep sense of
wonder about its mysterious source. There was nothing in his past to explain it or in his
future to justify it. How did it come? How long would it last? Oh no, this must be just a
fleeting mood which could never be permanent. For if it lasted forever, man would
become an angel and reach the world beyond. Let him enjoy it now, live with it, treasure
it, before it became a vague memory in the distant horizon.

He ate his breakfast with great appetite, looking from time to time with a bright,
smiling face at Am Beshir who was serving the food. The old man became increasingly
surprised and anxious, because his master did not normally look in his direction except
to give orders or ask questions. Then he said to him:

"Tell me, Am Beshir, am I a happy man?"

The man was embarrassed, since the master was for the first time addressing
him as a companion or friend. After moments of uneasy silence, he replied:

"My master is happy with God's gifts and blessings."

"Do you mean that I must be happy with my excellent position, beautiful
apartment and good health? Is this what you mean? But do you really think I am a
happy man?"

"My master exerts himself beyond human endurance and often gets angry in
heated discussions with other people."

He interrupted him with a loud laugh and asked:

"What about you? Don't you have any worries?"

24
 "Of course. Nobody lives without worries."

"Do you mean that perfect happiness is impossible?"

"Well, this is the nature of life." How could Beshir, or anybody else, imagine his
wonderful state of happiness? It was something strange and unique, as if it were his
own private secret of all people on Earth.

In the conference room at the newspaper, he saw his greatest rival in this world
turning the pages of a magazine. The man heard his footsteps but did not raise his
eyes. No doubt he somehow glanced quickly but tried to ignore him for his own peace of
mind. In regular meetings they often disagreed violently and exchanged the harshest
words until they were on the verge of fighting. And only last week he was shamefully
defeated by his rival in the union elections, which was a terrible blow to his pride that
filled him with bitterness and darkened his vision. But here he was now approaching his
enemy with a pure and carefree heart, intoxicated with that wonderful happiness,
overflowing with tolerance and forgiveness, as if he were another man who conveyed
the promise of a new friendship. And without feeling awkward, he smilingly greeted him.
Taken by surprise, the man raised his eyes in wonder and for moments remained silent
until he could collect himself and answer the greeting briefly, as if he did not believe his
eyes and ears. He sat close to him, saying:

"The weather is gorgeous today."

"Oh yes."

"It's the kind of weather that fills the heart with deep happiness." The man looked
at him cautiously and intently, then mumbled:

"I am glad that you're happy."

He said laughingly:

"It's happiness beyond comprehension."

The other replied hesitantly:

"I hope that I will not spoil your mood at the meeting of the editorial board today."

"Oh, never. My opinion is well known to everybody. But I don't mind if the
members accept your view."

"You have changed considerably overnight."

"In fact, I am happy beyond comprehension."

25
 "I bet your son has changed his mind about staying in Canada for good."

He chuckled and said:

"No, my friend, he has not changed his decision."

"But that was your greatest source of grief."

After Reading

Discussion and Analysis

1. Why is the primary character described as “inconceivably happy” in the story?

2. Can there be an ironic form of happiness as illustrated in the story?
3. Are Egyptians considered a happy bunch of people? Why?
4. What Egyptian customs and traditions are illustrated in the short story?

Beyond Reading

Further Research Work

Make a survey of your classmates’ perceptions as to what happiness means to

them. Analyze whether or not these responses fall under practical or idealistic definition.
Present them in class.

26
 Chapter Test

A. Unlocking of Difficulties

Directions: The underlined words in each sentence were used in the text in this
chapter, be able to identify the meaning of the underlined word as they are used
in the literary texts:

1. Isis grew quite fond of the child and decided to make him immortal. So every night
she would fling him onto magical fires to smolder away all that was mortal about him.

a. wash b. keep c. burn d. splash

2. Nephthys felt sorry for her and enraged with Set for doing such an appalling thing.

a. joyful b. beauteous c. terrible d. invincible

3. When day dawned, and the sun god Ra appeared in his glory, the two brothers stood
gazing one upon the other across the stream of crocodiles.

27
 a. the sun rises

b. the sky rains

c. the sun eclipses

d. the sun sets

4. Anpu was stricken with anguish; tears ran from his eyes.

a. happiness b. ecstasy c. pain d. warmth

5. And his heart was brimming with love for people, animals and things, with an
overwhelming feeling of optimism, as if he had finally defeated fear, anxiety, sickness
and death.

a. desolate b. stricken c. overflowing d. splashing

6. Intoxicated with this ecstasy, he savored it slowly and with a deep sense of wonder
about its mysterious source.

a. drunk b. calm c. appalled d. terrified

7. The old man became increasingly surprised and anxious, because his master did not
normally look in his direction except to give orders or ask questions.

a. worried b. alerted c. shocked d. warned

8. In the conference room at the newspaper, he saw his greatest rival in this world
turning the pages of a magazine.

a. pal b. buddy c. foe d. friend

9. O thou so false, why break my heart

With infidelity?

a. loyalty b. trustworthiness c. honesty d. disloyalty

10. Oh! thy voice is bewitching, beloved,

This wound of my heart it makes whole--

a. terrifying b. frightening c. enthralling d. bemoaning

B. Comprehension Questions

Directions: Give a concise but substantial discussion on the following questions:

28
1. Why did the Egyptian make mummies? Do all Egyptians in the ancient time capable
of undergoing mummification?

2. What flaws in the character of Seth did you notice in the story of Osiris and Isis?

3. What is the symbolic significance of the death and resurrection of Osiris in the lives of
the Egyptians?

4. What particular virtues worth emulating were manifested by the main characters in
the “Peasant Who Became King”?

5. Explain the thematic content expressed in the Egyptian love songs “Jealousy” and
the “Garden of Love”?

6. Point out the irony used in the short story “The Happy Man.” Elaborate.

7. In the story “The Happy Man,” why do you think the main character burst into tears at
the end of the story?

8. What culture, traditions and beliefs are portrayed in the following?

a. Myth of Osiris and Isis

b. Egyptian love songs

c. Peasant Who Became King

d. The Happy Man

29