Levy1981 PDF
Levy1981 PDF
LEVY
INTEPRETING CONSUMER
MYTHOLOGY: A STRUCTURAL
APPROACH TO CONSUMER
BEHAVIOR
Q UALITATIVE research in current marketing (Levy 1978) especially stimulated the attempt to
study usually involves focus group interviews, use the Levi-Strauss structuralist approach by lik-
sometimes depth interviews, and projective tech- ening consumers' household anecdotes to the myths
niques (Bellenger et al. 1976). There is a resurgence that he has mined so richly.
of interest in the analysis of expressive verbal In open-ended interviewing about the consump-
materials elicited by such data-gathering methods, tion of products, respondents are often asked to
but little contemporary marketing literature exists describe the product features the family members
about such analysis. The goal of this paper is to prefer, to characterize family consumption patterns,
explore and illustrate the idea that verbal materials to tell about recent instances of using the product,
elicited from people in the marketplace are a form and to explain how and why given products are
of storytelling that can be analyzed as projective. used. The results of such interviews are commonly
The responses of a consumer telling about the reported in a somewhat literal manner, in tabulations
purchase and use of products may be approached of use frequencies, in lists of features cited, in
from varied viewpoints. Here, the remarks (the verbal summaries that most people said this or that,
protocol) are taken as a literary production we might or even in lists of verbatim comments without
interpret in ways comparable to those of clinical additional comments by the researchers. Ordinarily,
psychologists, social anthropologists, and literary the goals are to learn facts of usage and reasons
critics. A recent view of anthropological concepts given for and against the product.
Such handling of the data often seems barren
and frustrating because it is not sufficiently pene-
trating, does not tell enough about the meaning of
Sidney J. Levy is Professor of Behavioral Science in the product in relation to the lives of the users,
Management and Chairman, Department of Marketing, and its place among other products. The approach
at Northwestern University.
suggested here is to avoid accepting the responses
Journal of Marketing
Vol. 45 (Summer 1981), 49-61. A Structural Approach to Consumer Behavior / 49
as if they are scientific observations to be tabulated By extension, the lives of authors are of interest
as measures. Rather, the assumption is that the to their readers. Even people who have not read
products are used symbolically, and that the telling the writer's work can enjoy reading about the writer
about their uses is a way of symbolizing the life as a person (to have more knowledge, to feel like
and nature of the family; thus it requires a theory an insider, to reduce the stature of great figures,
of interpretation that determines how the data are to be reassured or titillated by their humanity, their
to be related and understood. Sanche de Gramont ordinariness, or their bizarre genius). Other analysts
(1970, p. 7) illustrates the point: want to find clues to illuminate the writings, to
I like to imagine these Three Wise Men of the understand better the meaning of Finnegan's Wake
Occident bent in contemplation over a South or Alice in Wonderland. And others want to explore
American Indian myth about a boy who steals a the nature and processes of creativity as they go
pet pig from his father and roasts it in the forest.
Freud would conclude that the boy is symbolically on in creators or as they are manifest in their
killing his father becausae he desires his mother. productions.
Marx would say that this youthful member of the Thus, the search for meanings expressed in a
proletariat is seizing control of the methods of story goes on at various levels: (1) The experiencing
production in the class struggle against the landed
gentry. Levi-Strauss would find that, in cooking and direct interpretation by the reader is fundamen-
the pig, the primitive Indian boy had achieved the tal. (2) That experience is abstracted, generalized,
passage from nature to culture and shown that his and explained by a scholar for the insight it provides
thought processes are no different from Einstein's.
into human nature. (3) The work (product) is inter-
A conventional marketing approach would probably preted for the means by which it achieves its effects.
accept the boy's explanation at face value and (4) The teller of the story is studied as a unique
conclude that he was hungry, that the pig was source of inspiration or an example of a type. Where
convenient, cheap, and tasted good. the authorship is anonymous, as in folk tales, myths,
The question is raised: If consumer responses and many fairy tales, or has its roots recognized
are stories (or parts thereof) that tell about the in ancient chronicles, the source may be interpreted
family, how shall the stories be interpreted? Some as part of some national or ethnic character. (5)
guidance may come from observing how various The author is studied to develop and illuminate the
kinds of stories are studied, as their analysts search meaning of the work. (6) Relationships between
for meanings in such as fairy tales, plays, novels, the author and the work are studied and interpreted
psychological test responses, and myths, en route as examples of general processes of expression,
to studying consumer research protocols. whether the focus is on how the author's personality
In reading fairy tales, as a first example, the is visible in the writing or on the means by which
reader (consumer) reacts directly with ideas and self-expression was concealed or transformed. In
feelings. Bruno Bettelheim explains in detail the the same ways, a protocol in which a consumer
sources of the consumer satisfaction, showing how tells the story of how the product is consumed can
fairy tales enrich psychological development and be examined for how the consumer interprets the
assist in solving fundamental human problems. He consumption experience, what it tells about people
points out the message the fairy tales get across in general, to see how the product features are
to the child in manifold form: ". . . that a struggle related to consumption, to learn what the protocol
against severe difficulties in life is unavoidable, is says about the segment it represents, to observe
an intrinsic part of human existence-that if one how the individual consumer's character, personal-
does not shy away, but steadfastly meets unexpect- ity, and life-style help explain the nature of the
ed and often unjust hardships, one masters all product, and what the instance explains about the
obstacles and at the end emerges victorious" (Bet- general nature of that kind of consuming.
telheim 1977, p. 8). Having suggested the problem in a general way,
As people mature, the literature of plays and this paper will examine the nature of interpretation
novels remains endlessly absorbing, as is the story- of self-expression, lay groundwork for application
telling on radio, in the movies, and on television. to the study of consumer behavior, and give an
The audience is insatiably curious to know what example of such application.
the characters did, what happened next, and how
did it come out? Underlying is the belief that the
fictions are significantly related to real events, that Modes of Analysis
experiencing the simulated version in this vicarious There is intuitive recognition that authors of stories
way is intellectually and emotionally beneficial must express their personalities in the story. Projec-
and/ or destructive. tive techniques as research and clinical tools explore
FIGURE 1
Structural Relations in Greek Mythology
GODS
Eagles
Poseidon
(sea)
• Individuals vary in being physiologically vul- is so large. The food products and artifacts come
nerable, perhaps prone to weight gain or from the whole globe and reflect a mixing of
peculiarly sensitive to certain substances. traditions from many societies. The possibilities for
Illness, skin eruptions, respiratory distress, different patterns become useful in expressing cul-
etc., may be explained as simply idiosyncratic tural pride, intergenerational and assimilational
reactions or as allergies rooted in either conflicts, and individual peculiarities. New little
psychological or social factors, or injust that myths about microwave ovens, kiwi fruit, alfalfa
kind of body. sprouts, and pouch cooking need to be gathered
• Taste preferences are explained at all to learn the fundamental meanings they will have
levels-as due to some sheer physiology of in the American cuisine. However, the present
the taste buds, as inherited in the genes, as interviews, interpreted against a background of
socialized by ethnic context and by family numerous studies of food products and attitudes,
practices, and as due to novel patterns of suggest how individual and familial variations draw
individual experiences, beliefs, and habitua- upon the general vocabulary.
tions. Sex and age grading. The roles of sex and age
grading are pronounced in distinguishing between
the varied suitabilities of foods and methods of
Structural Relations preparation. We can distinguish between babies and
Food preparation, service, manners, and consump- teenagers, boys and girls, and also observe some
tion are all used in symbolic ways. As Levi-Strauss of the dimensions at work that affect different food
notes in The Origin of Table Manners, "Thus we suitabilities. Babies need milk and soft, mushy,
can hope to discover how, in any particular society, undifferentiated foods. Ideas of nurturance, com-
cooking is a language through which that society fort, and easily digested nutrition go in this direction,
unconsciously reveals its structure" (Levi-Strauss so that similar foods are regarded as suited to the
1978,p. 495). The participants communicate through elderly and the sick. The organisms are weak and
their food behaviors, using the underlying structure should not have strong stimulation in spiciness nor
both consciously and unconsciously. in being too hot or cold. Boys are stereotypically
The American situation is difficult to interpret expected to prefer chunky peanut butter, girls the
in a clearcut way because the available vocabulary smooth, and gradually, the preference for homo-
genous dishes yields to mixtures and combinations. weakness, social class distinctions are pervasive.
With some maturity the hamburger comes into its These are interwoven, thus, there is a tendency
own as a youth food, especially appealing to teen- to equate higher social position with strength, ma-
agers. A lamb chop or salad is perhaps just right turity, and food professionalism, and lower status
for a woman and a roast or steak for a man. Figure preferences with softness, greasiness, and sweet-
2 illustrates some typical relationships of age, sex, ness. Going up the scale, conventionality of
foods, and their attributes. preparation yields increasingly to elaboration of
Social status. Along with age and sex dimen- methods, greater use of herbs and spices, and usage
sions with their varying degrees of strength and of unusual foods and ingredients. These qualities
are not reserved to the upper classes, of course, tication and skill may be achieved through special
but form part of the aspirations of lower status study or left in the hands of professional chefs,
groups as well, and are emulated on special occa- and enjoyed while eating out. Figure 3 indicates
sions. The ability to cook with appropriate sophis- a status hierarchy and some of its attributes.
PLACES
ATTRIBUTES
SPECIAL
Eating out(side). The in-or-out locus is a struc- adults at work away from home (truck stops, execu-
tural element that speaks of conventionality and tive business lunches). At the heights, haute cuisine
festivity, family unity and separation (Figure 4). with its subtle sauces and other exotic efforts
The conventional core is the meal at home, maternal, symbolizes an elite use of leisure, an extreme degree
comfortable, familiar, dependent, and routine. To of refinement of the palate, and attendant sybaritic
eat away from home carries more exciting meanings. sensibilities. People eat dishes they never have at
Outdoor, backyard, park, beach, imply freedom home and go beyond ordinary meats to expensive
from conventions, return to nature, primitive meth- cuts and seafoods.
ods of cooking and eating (with fingers), no manners, Beyond the cooked. Cooking is aimed at nu-
and lively physical and social activity. merous objectives-making substances more chew-
Going out to eat at another home implies some able, more digestible, safer, warm and comforting,
formality, dress-up, a step up in the elaboration and more interesting to the taste. It is a process
of preparation or distinctiveness of the dishes. of culture, as opposed to the natural, and its degrees
The idea of going out to eat at a restaurant of status tend to be equated with distancing from
interacts with the meanings of the various types the primitive and animal eating of raw food. As
of establishments to fit the sex and age grading, indicated above, these degrees of status are ex-
and family status dimensions. The choices range pressed in complexity, subtlety, particular foods,
from lower class, greasy spoons and forthright methods of preparation, and settings. Basic qualities
EATS cafes, through miscellaneous youthful fast range from an infantile, homogeneous, mushy,
food and family style restaurants, to elegant, boiled grossness to a highly differentiated awareness
cosmopolitan dining rooms. Moving the family unit of textures, ingredients, seasonings, and nuances
from the home to the restaurant tends to express of preparation.
a festive attitude and the relaxation of parental Little myths are dynamic and change as new
responsibility; this attitude becomes even more experiences become available. Recently added in
pronounced for children and adds elements of the raw-to-cooked dimension is a new myth of high
separation and liberation when they go to fast food status consumption that might be termed tran-
restaurants on their own. Lower class cafes and scendental or self-conscious rawness. Like a kind
fancy restaurants are adult in meaning, places for of conspicuous underconsumption or like the French
court dressing as Watteau shepherds and shepher- and exclaiming over their daring in eating raw
desses, one finds elegantly dressed partygoers eating hamburger (steak tartar) or raw fish (sushi). With
various raw vegetables with their fingers (crudites), a heightened physicality (exercising, jogging), the
REFERENCES
Abelson, Robert P. (1976), "Script Processing in Attitude (1976), Qualitative Research in Marketing, Chicago:
Formation and Decision Making," in Cognition and Social American Marketing Association.
Behavior, J. Carroll and J. Payne, eds., Hillsdale, NJ: Bettelheim, Bruno (1977), The Uses of Enchantment, New
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. York: Vintage Books.
Bellenger, D., KennethL. Bernhardt, andJac L. Goldstucker de Gramont, Sanche (1970), "There Are No Superior Socie-
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