Communication Skills

TEAM UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
LECTURE MATERIAL
DIPLOMA OF EDUCATION (PRIMARY

CODE: DCC 5211
@TU
4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 1

COURSE TITLE: COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COURSE CODE: UCC 1201
COURSE DESCRIPTION
In the words of Stephen Covey, ” Communication is the most important skill in life, we spend
most of our waking hours commuicating”. This course helps to highlight the nature, dynamics,
processes and technological influences of communication in the field of business. It involves the
practical steps to become more effective in communicating.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course unit students should be able to;
1) Discuss the conceptual framework of communication.

2) Explain the importance of effective communication
3) Acquire practical communication skills
4) Explain better communicators through independent exploration
GENERAL LEARNING OUT COMES
1) Design, deliver, and evaluate learning and teaching on a continuum of instructional

approaches.
2) Create positive and engaging environments that promote respect for the diversity of
learners.
3) Use instructional strategies and educational technologies appropriately to support and
enhance teaching and learning.
4) Communicate effectively and work collaboratively in the workplace and in the
community.
5) Act in an ethical and professional manner when working in an adult setting.
6) Develop professionally in response to trends and issues in the field of teaching and
instruction
7) Become a reflective teacher practitioner.

COURSE CONTENT
UNIT 1: Introduction to Communication 8 hours
 Definition
 Importance of Communication skill
 Importance of effective communication
 The influence of technology on communication
 The communication process
 Barriers to effective communication
 Overcoming effective communication barriers
UNIT 2: Types and forms of communication 8 hours
 Forms of communication
 Types of communication
 Communication networks
 Nature of Communications in Organization
 Face-to-face Communication
 Electronic Communication
 Written Communication
 Nonverbal Communication
UNIT 3: Planning for communication 6 hours
 The basic writing principles

 Planning before communication
UNIT 4: Written Communication (Self or Group Study) 7 hours
 Business Letters
 Business Reports
 Memos

UNIT 5: Verbal Communication 8 hours
 Pubic speaking or Presentations

 Meetings or Interviews
 Meeting the Public
 Listening skills
UNIT 6: Nonverbal Communication 8 hours
MODE OF DELIVERY
 Lectures
 Reading assignments
 Practical assignments
 Field trips
 Documentaries
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND / OR EQUIPMENT
 Whiteboard and Markers

 Flip Charts
 LCD Projectors
 CDs, DVDs and Tapes
COURSE ASSESSMENT
 Continuous assessment tests 20%

 Group and individual project (course work) 20%
 End-of-Semester Examination 60%
Total 100%
READING MATERIALS OR LIST
Sue C. Camp & Marilyn L. Satterwhite, College Communication
Courtland Bovee & John V. Thill, Effective Communication
Shirley Taylor, Communication for Business
Asha Kaul, Effective Business Communication
L.A. Woolcott & W. R. Unwin, Mastering Business Communication

Internet and any other source
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Introduction to communication
Communication refers to a process of giving, receiving or exchanging (sharing) information,

opinions (views, thoughts) or ideas (facts about something) by writing, specking or acting so that
the message (physical form, expressible) communicated is understood by the recipient/ audience
(2 or more people).
Successful communication means that the transmitted message must be appropriately understood
to achieve a common objective
It can be defined as the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or
more people usually with intention to influence behavior.
It is the transfer of information in form of understandable messages through a channel to others.
Everyday people are communicating whether it is talking on telephone, face-to-face, writing

letters, e-mails etc. It is therefore essential that communication skills are enhanced.
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION.
 Aids decision making

 Promotes relationships among people
 Basis to analyze performance of organizations
 In solving problems-negotiation
 Motivate others
 Liaise with external stakeholders
 Team performance
 Organize human and other resources in the most effective way.
 Develop plans for the organization
 To inform members of changes in the Organization
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

When communicating there are several methods that can be used. Special care must be taken
when deciding on which method to use. This is because once a wrong method is used it may
have a disastrous effects. These methods may include verbal (oral), written communication,
visual and non-verbal.
However, the main methods of communication are verbal, written communication and non
verbal
1) VERBAL OR ORAL COMMUNICATION
This includes speaking to another person or communication by the word of mouth. It requires
carefully selecting appropriate words as words denotes (dictionary/ actual meaning) and
connotes (implied/ intended meaning) meaning.
Forms of verbal communication
Over the telephone, face to face discussions, debates, interviews, presentations, meetings (formal
or informal), teleconferencing, video conferencing etc.
The success of verbal communication depends on one’s ability to listen carefully.
Characteristics
Interactive, restricted audience, any time any place, immediate feedback,
Advantages
Feedback is spontaneous
People can ask questions and clarifications
Disadvantages
No records for future reference
Depends on the ability of the speaker to speak
etc

WHY WOULD ONE CHOOSE ORAL COMMUNICATION?
 It makes possible speedy interchange with immediate feedback and spontaneous thinking.
 People can ask questions and clarify points i.e. in case any thing is not clear to the
audience, explanation can always be made.
 It is direct, simple, time saving and least expensive.
 It conveys personal warmth and friendliness because of personalized contacts.
 Any misunderstandings can be cleared immediately.
 It serves as evidence of events and proceedings.
DISADVANTAGES
 Spontaneous responses may not be carefully thought about and this means that a wrong
feed back may be transmitted.
 Different meaning may be conveyed by manner of speaking, tone of voice and facial
expression.
 The spirit of authority cannot be transmitted effectively in verbal communication.
 Lengthy and distant communication can’t be effectively conveyed verbally.
 Meetings can be costly in terms of time and organizational money.
 There are high chances of distorting the meaning of the message if hierarchy is to be
followed.
2) WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
This is when a message being sent is displayed in writing. Written communication takes time and
skill since such a small portion of our communication is contained in the words themselves. For
business purposes, managers must deliver their message clearly, succinctly and effectively if
they want to be successful. Poorly written messages create confusion or fail to achieve their
intended purpose. Its success depends on somebody’s ability to read.
Forms E-mails, letters, fax, notices, reports, memos, questionnaires, newsletter, employee hand
books, magazines, brochures, minutes etc.
Advantages
More detailed, records, formal, complex issues,
Disadvantages
Non interaction, restrictive in use, no immediate feedback.
Advantages of written communication

 It’s speedy i.e. saves time when many persons have to be contacted at the same time.
 Checked for accuracy which may not always be possible with verbal communication.
 Message usually or can be recorded i.e. can be used as a record for future reference.
 It’s suitable for both simple and complex messages i.e. useful when explaining complex
matters which would be difficult for the recipient to understand immediately.
 Useful for contracts especially letters and reports i.e. used as source of evidence.
 Reliable to transmit lengthy statistical date e.g. calculations and graphs.
 Useful when dealing with any matters where it‘s important that a written record is kept
e.g. answering queries or making agreements.
Disadvantages of written communication
 Usually takes sometime for the message to arrive.

 Gives room for a slow feedback and sometimes none.
 Often costly to arrange in both time and money i.e. time needed to plan, write and type
such messages, more stationery required and it’s expensive to buy computers.
 There may be leakage of the material before time causing disruption in its effectiveness.
E.g. apprehension order may be leaked giving time to the culprit to escape.
3) Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving

wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or
posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or
even architecture, or symbol.. It can be used together with verbal and written methods and or
alone.
Forms
It’s divided into 3, Environment, social and physical.
Environment (Time, Lay out (arrangement) and design, Territory, Colour, equipments etc)
Social non verbal communication (distance; public, social personal and intimate, status and
symbols)
Physical and kinetic (facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, postures, appearance, touch and
smell)
Social ie space, status and symbol

Visual communication –wh en information is displayed in various ways e.g. tables, graphs,
charts. It supplements both oral and written communication.
Characteristics
Widely used, unconscious communication, miss interpretation, security purposes,
Advantages
It is sent more frequently than verbal
Clarify verbal messages
Helps in reading situations
Disadvantages
It is subject to misinterpretation
It is subject to culture
Importance of Non – Verbal Communication
 Non – verbal messages are stronger than verbal messages e.g. there is a saying that
actions speak louder than words.
 Non – verbal clarifies verbal messages e.g. saying thank you with a smile makes the
message more meaningful.
 Non – verbal messages are sent more frequently than verbal messages.
 It’s reliable i.e. people can deceive through words but not their bodies.
 Non – verbal communication has no universal meaning. E.g. one tapping on a table may
be understood as anger to some people that may not be the case i.e. one act may have
many meanings.
Problems Associated With Non -verbal communication
o Differences in interpretation. Each person may interpret it according to

background, knowledge and experience.
o Can’t be stored.
o No consistency in meaning i.e. unique from society to society. E.g. nodding
means yes to a Ugandan but no to Japanese.
o May not be complete for effectiveness.
o May contradict the verbal communication e.g. I’m happy to receive, yet the
attitude or body language is not friendly.
o It’s applicable when there is along distance between the communicators.
o Highly influenced by the personality of the communicator and receiver in
question.

FACTORS TO CONSINDER WHILE CHOOSING A METHOD OF
COMMUNICATION.
The method chosen when communicating is very crucial. Therefore, one needs to put into
consideration several factors;
 Recipient/ audience-who is receiving the message (status), appropriate language, the

situation at hand, relationship between the sender and the receiver.
 Distance-is it within or far away.
 Time –when communicating overseas.
 Urgency/ speed-is it so urgent that you need feedback immediately.
 Cost-affordability, how much will the communications cost.
 Confidentiality-e-mail or fax may not be appropriate; a telephone call could be overheard.
 Safety and security
 Availability of means
 Nature of the mesg (size)
 Knowledge of the sender
 Influence
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is a heart or lifeblood of any organization. Therefore, Organizations can hardly

survive without communication. In any Organization, whether small or big the role of
communication is very crucial. No Organizational activity can take place without it hence
making it paramount for all Organizations to embrace effective communication.
Its purpose in Organizations can be manifested in the following ways;
 Co-coordinating activities
 Making decisions (planning)
 Organizing resources
 Motivational tool (staffing)
 Teamwork effectiveness (leadership)
 Conflict resolution
 Controlling (Me asure of performance through financial statements).

CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
1. Formal vs. informal communication.
Formal communication refers to communications routed through official channels.
In larger organizations, communication becomes more formal because of the complex nature of
such organizations. E.g a written memo from a managing director to his/her departmental heads
to call a meeting.
Informal communication-information is passed on by word of mouth among interested

colleagues who have received it from various sources e.g. visits. This is more evident in smaller
organizations with fewer employees.
2. Internal and external are other classifications of communication in organizations.
Internal communication-there are various methods of internal communication which can be used
within Organization. These include notices, fax, letters, telephone, memos, e-mails, face to face
etc.
The purpose or objectives of internal communication are;
 To pass on instructions
 To inform staff on new policies, arrangements, developments, processes etc
 To provide feedback after analyzing situations
 To motivate staff
 To provide confirmations, responses
 To pass on ideas, suggestions
External communication; External communication covers how a organisation interacts with those
outside their own organization. This may be with the public, employers, community
organizations, local authorities, job centers, careers offices, funding bodies, specialist agencies
and other training providers. E.g. letters, annual reports, newsletters, advertisements, fax etc.
The purpose or objectives of external communication are;
 To provide information to consumers about products and services to do with the

Organization.
 Promote the organization
 Handle enquiries about the organization and its products and services.
 Advertise the organization

THE FLOW OF INFORMATION IN ORGANIZATIONS./communication systems
Depending on which kind of information to be communicated and the level of the person sending
or receiving the information, there are always clear lines of communication. This is more evident
in larger Organizations where communications seems to be more complicated than in small
Organizations of just a few people and few communication problems are likely to arise.
Organizations usually draw an Organization chart, which makes these lines of communication
quite clear and easier. The chart also shows the directions through which information can flow
depending on where it is originating and who is receiving it.
These lines or channels of communication include:
 Vertical communication: This encompasses both upward and downward flow of

information. Here information moves between individuals at different levels in an
organization. Sometimes messages are sent from the CEO to all employees or from
departmental head to all employees in his/her department only. It follows a chain of
command (reporting lines) displayed on the Organizational chart. In the same way,
subordinates also send messages to their superiors upwards. However we can suffice it to
say that it is a principal channel for routing directions, instructions and policies from top
decision makers down through the Organization to the people who at various levels will
implement them.
 Horizontal communication: Occurs between people at the same level or status. E.g. a
meeting of only departmental heads. The senders and the receivers can be in the same
departmental heads or in different units. The common link is their need to cooperate and
share. Such communications are necessary to accomplish routine tasks. The information
can be communicated during face to face discussions, telephone etc.
 Diagonal communication: Here there is no obvious line of authority since it takes place
between people who work in different departments and at different levels within the
Organization. More often than not tasks arise that involve more than one department and
people no matter their level or status. It involves committees, teams or task forces that are
created to solve problems or complete special projects. Its success depends largely on
cooperation, goodwill and respect between the parties concerned.
 The grape vine: It is an informal communication system, which results from failure to
use the proper lines of communication. It is an unofficial communication system, which
is ever changing. It is a vehicle for distortion of the truth, rumors and gossip. An active
grapevine can cause much damage to an organization by spreading incomplete, false or
exaggerated information. It can result into low morale, fear and settled workforce.

Although the grapevine has diverse effects, it cannot completely be eradicated. Therefore
management should ensure that better ways through which information is communicated
do exist so as to reduce its influence especially in times of uncertainty. The confidence of
an Organization’s employees is vital hence adequate and accurate information should
always be made available to the people concerned at the earliest possible opportunity
through correct channels.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The Communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is

through the communication that sharing of a common meaning between the sender and
the receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the
opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession.
The communication process is made up of four key components. These include encoding,
medium of transmission, decoding and feedback.
There are also two other factors in the process; sender and the receiver. The
communication process begins with the sender and ends with the receiver. It is as shown
below:

The sender/ Source
This is the person who conceives an idea and wants to share it. To communicate it, he must first
think along these lines;
 What exactly do I want to say.

 What am I trying to achieve.
 What kind of person am I saying it to.
Encoding
• This is a process of transforming the idea/ thought into a message that the receiver will
understand.
• The sender has to decide the specific outcomes he wants from communication. This will
help him decide on the appropriate form of language and tone.
Channel/ Medium
• This is a means by which a message is sent.

• It’s the physical transmission of the message to the receiver.
• Select a channel i.e. verbal, NV or written and a medium i.e. report, letter, telephone, or
face to face exchange etc.
• The channel and medium you use will depend on the message, location of audience, the
time available etc.
Decoding
• This is where the receiver converts the message into thought.

• The receiver must understand the language of the sender and he also makes sure that he
uncovers the hidden meaning, feelings or attitudes which the sender has conveyed in the
message.
• The decoded message is stored in the receiver’s mind.
Receiver
• This is the person for whom the message is meant. He responsible for decoding and
interpreting the message sent.
Feedback
• The communication process cannot be successful without appropriate feedback

• The receiver reacts to the sender by giving a feedback.
• Feedback is the receiver’s response to the message of the sender and the final link in the
communication process.
• It’s the stage at which the sender evaluates the effectiveness of the communication
process.
• Then the communication is repeated.
Communication can best be summarized as the transmission of a message from a sender to a

receiver in an understandable manner. The importance of effective communication is
immeasurable in the world of business and in personal life. From a business perspective,
effective communication is an absolute must, because it commonly accounts for the difference
between success and failure or profit and loss. It has become clear that effective business
communication is critical to the successful operation of modern enterprise. Every business
person needs to understand the fundamentals of effective communication.
The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is through
the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between the sender and the
receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the
opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession. Effective
communication leads to understanding.
The communication process is made up of four key components. Those components include
encoding, medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two other factors in

the process, and those two factors are present in the form of the sender and the receiver. The
communication process begins with the sender and ends with the receiver.
The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication. This source
is initially responsible for the success of the message. The sender's experiences, attitudes,
knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture influence the message. "The written words, spoken
words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the
message as intended by the sender" (Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All communication begins with
the sender.
The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to convey
meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a message in
the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process translates the ideas or
concepts into the coded message that will be communicated. The symbols can take on numerous
forms such as, languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into
messages that others can understand.
When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to transmit.
This decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the receivers’ knowledge and
assumptions, along with what additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. It is
important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for
the sender to improve encoding their message, is to mentally visualize the communication from
the receiver's point of view.
To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also called a medium).
The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels are either oral or written,
but currently visual channels are becoming more common as technology expands. Common
channels include the telephone and a variety of written forms such as memos, letters, and reports.
The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the characteristics of the
communication. For example, when immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication
channels are more effective because any uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a
situation where the message must be delivered to more than a small group of people, written
channels are often more effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written channels should
be used because one supplements the other.
If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not reach the
right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind that selecting the appropriate channel
will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's understanding. The sender's decision to
utilize either an oral or a written channel for communicating a message is influenced by several
factors. The sender should ask him or herself different questions, so that they can select the
appropriate channel. Is the message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or
a permanent record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is the
message going to someone inside or outside the organization? What oral and written
communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender has answered all of these
questions, they will be able to choose an effective channel.
After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the decoding stage of
the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the message is

received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to assign some
type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes decoding. The receiver begins to
interpret the symbols sent by the sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences
in order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place when the
receiver correctly interprets the sender's message.
The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The extent to
which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of factors, which include
the following: how much the individual or individuals know about the topic, their receptivity to
the message, and the relationship and trust that exists between sender and receiver. All
interpretations by the receiver are influenced by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills,
perceptions, and culture. It is similar to the sender's relationship with encoding.
Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving a message,
the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take
the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a smile, or some other action.
"Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without
feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly.
Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the sender to
evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides an opportunity for the
sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood message. "Feedback plays an
important role by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in background,
different interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992).
The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective communication.
When followed properly, the process can usually assure that the sender's message will be
understood by the receiver. Although the communication process seems simple, it in essence is
not. Certain barriers present themselves throughout the process. Those barriers are factors that
have a negative impact on the communication process. Some common barriers include the use of
an inappropriate medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory words, words that conflict
with body language, and technical jargon.
Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can occur during any stage of the process. Noise
essentially is anything that distorts a message by interfering with the communication process.
Noise can take many forms, including a radio playing in the background, another person trying
to enter your conversation, and any other distractions that prevent the receiver from paying
attention.
Successful and effective communication within an organization stems from the implementation
of the communication process. All members within an organization will improve their
communication skills if they follow the communication process, and stay away from the different
barriers. It has been proven that individuals that understand the communication process will
blossom into more effective communicators, and effective communicators have a greater
opportunity for becoming a success.

IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK:
Information obtained from feedback can be used in decision making.
Completes the communication cycle.
Confirmation that the message was received.
Used as a tool to assess whether the communication was successful.
A measure of performance.
Feedback can be used as a motivation tool etc.
N.B :Students to come up with more points.
PLANNING FOR COMMUNICATION
In planning for communication one is trying to identify the what, where, how, when and why to
communicate.
What answers the question of which message is to be sent (content).
Where considers the issues of the receivers of the message, it can be the audience / the occasion.
How is the channel or media through which the message will be received. It also considers the
means and ways of communication. How, can also be the media i.e. print media, TVs, letters,
radios, telephone lines, meetings etc.
When this looks at the time. The time of communication is important. For example if it is a
meeting, the sender needs to know the best time of the day when people are psychologically and
mentally strong.
Why; this is the purpose. Every communication must have a purpose for which it is being made.
Purpose
Every communication must have a reason why it is being made. The message should have a
purpose so that it does not affect the process.
Messages come with different purposes.
1. To prepare an organization for change.

2. To call for action that is giving instructions.
3. To provide job satisfaction, motivation and change workers’ attitudes.
4. To encourage staff to develop and supply ideas and suggestions more frequently e.g. during
the meeting.
5. To develop information and understanding among workers.
6. To eliminate the grapevine and ambiguity e.g. developing procedures in organizations.
7. To influence others.
8. To create relationships/ links with other people.
Audience
For communication to be complete there must be a sender and the receiver of the message as
seen in the process. Both verbal and non-verbal communications require audience although more
attention is put on speech (oral communication).
The challenge to the speaker is to be audience centered and has to ensure that;
a) The needs of the audience are identified (values and interests). E.g. in a political rally, people
expect the plans of the candidate in regard to position, in class students expect examples
relating to a certain topic etc.
b) Audience attitudes, to communicate effectively one ought to know the feelings and opinions
that the audience has about him/ her or the topic in question. Calmness or hostility of the
audience should be identified to know people’s emotions.
c) Audience analysis; there are two approaches of audience analysis.

i) Getting information about the audience in terms of sex, age, numbers, marital status and
experience will help create relationship with the audience by providing special attention to
each individual’s need. Here you get to know what the audience share in common, what they
know already about the subject etc.
ii) Inquiring from some one who has met the same audience before e.g. a colleague, friend
etc. This helps to know the expectations of the audience and its characteristics.
Structure of the communication
Words alone are insufficient to express the meaning intended by the sender. The manner in
which you arrange the words should give consistency to the idea. Do away with unnecessary
words. The structure also helps to delete redundancies.

Style
This is the way one designs the communication that is the tone (sympathetic, harsh), paragraphs
(short, long). It is the manner of writing. It constitutes the collective characteristics of writing or
way of presenting things. To create impact, the style should be simple, informal,considerate and
focused i.e. having proper words in proper places. Different occasions necessitate a different
style of writing that is formal or informal depending on the relationship between the sender and
the receiver.
The message
This is the physical form of the thought, which is experienced and understood by some or all of
the receiver’s senses. It can be seeing, hearing, reading and tasting. It can further be a spoken /
written / observed piece of information that can be sent to another person from the sender to the
receiver. How do you convey (communicate) good and bad news messages? E.g. promoting,
demoting or firing a person. Consider the attitude (friendly, relaxed), facial expression (smile,
frown) and the tone of voice.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. Noise
This is the physical sound or mental disturbance that disrupts the flow of communication on
either the sender or receiver’s sides. It can be physical noise that is sound coming from the
surrounding environment or psychological noise (mental disturbance) e.g. preoccupation,
tiredness, anxiety, stress etc. Physical noise can be done away with by use soundproof
gadgets and communicating in a noise free area. Psychological noise you have to free your
mind before you communicate or receive communication.
2. Prejudices
This is bias and prejudging the receiver conditioned by what we already know and our
background knowledge and experience. Sometimes people under look one another because of
status, origin etc (we often want to hear what we want to hear or what we think we have
heard instead of what has actually been said.
3. Inattentive listening
Listening is a skill and careful concentration is demanded if communication is to be
understood. Success at gaining attention depends on the words used, the way the
communication is expressed, our interest in the speaker, in the communication and other
factors. Many times the listener is not interested or has other things to concentrate on thus
blocking the message from the communication.
4. Language barrier
In effective communication, the choice of words is very vital. Many words or gestures have
different meanings. Foreign language, dialects, regional accents and the use of technical or

specialist language should be considered. The language used should be appropriately familiar
to the receiver i.e. consider the people you are talking to.
5. Emotional responses
Communication cannot succeed if a person is highly emotional about the topic concerned.
Problems may arise from insecurity, resentment, anger, fear etc, this makes a person
preoccupied with emotions to receive and send the intended message. If emotions are high on
the part of the sender or the receiver/recipient, it is better to wait for a while before trying to
put the message across.
6. Information overload and under load

If you receive a message with too much or too little information you may tend to put up a
barrier because the amount of information is coming so fast or so slow that you may have
difficulty in interpreting the information. Excess information may confuse the receiver as he
has to figure out the exact importance of the message and scanty information would make
him grope for the actual intent of the message.
7. Differing perceptions
Our minds organize this stream of sensation into a mental map that represents our
perception or reality. In no case is the perception of a certain person the same as the world
itself and no two maps are identical. Because your perceptions are unique, the ideas you want
to express differ from other people. As senders, we choose the details that seem important
and focus our attention on the most relevant and general that is selective perception. As
receivers, we try to fit new details in our existing pattern thus distorting the information.
8. Differing backgrounds
Age, education, gender, social status, economic position, religion, political beliefs
e.t.c can all separate one person from another and make understanding difficult.
9. Poor planning (inappropriate choices).
10. Lack of feedback rendering the communication process incomplete
11. Technical failure e.g. network problems.
E.t.c
OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
1. Language barrier
-Use the most specific and accurate words possible.
-Use language that describes rather than evaluates.

2. Poor listening
-Listen without interrupting.
-Try to view the situation through the eyes of other speakers and resist jumping to
conclusions.
3. Emotional responses
-Be aware of the feelings that arise in yourself and in others as you communicate and attempt
to control them.
-Be alert.
4. Differing backgrounds
-Clarify your own and understand the background of others.
-Do not assume that certain behaviors mean the same thing to everyone.
N.B. Students to discuss more on the barriers and solutions.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication is used every day in organizations inform of letters, memoranda, reports,
notices, electronic mail e.t.c. The secret of good writing is to use plain language as if you are
having a conversation.
Advantages of written communication
 It’s speedy i.e. saves time when many persons have to be contacted at the same time.
 Can be checked for accuracy which may not always be possible with verbal
communication.
 Message usually or can be recorded i.e. can be used as a record for future reference.
 It’s suitable for both simple and complex messages i.e. useful when explaining complex
matters which would be difficult for the recipient to understand immediately.
 Useful for contracts especially letters and reports i.e. used as source of evidence.
 Reliable to transmit lengthy statistical date e.g. calculations and graphs.
 Useful when dealing with any matters where it‘s important that a written record is kept
e.g. answering queries or making agreements.
Disadvantages of written communication
 Usually takes sometime for the message to arrive.

 Gives room for a slow feedback and sometimes none.

 Often costly to arrange in both time and money i.e. time needed to plan, write and type
such messages, more stationery required and it’s expensive to buy computers.
 There may be leakage of the material before time causing disruption in its effectiveness.
E.g. apprehension order may be leaked giving time to the culprit to escape.
THE BASIC WRITING PRINCIPLES (7CS)
1. Completeness – A message is said to be complete when they contain all the facts, ideas the
receiver needs in order to give appropriate feedback e.g. on a business letter ordering for a
car, all information should be disclosed such as the model type, colour and extended features
or else you get what may not serve your purpose.
Importance of completeness:
 Gives desired results without additional expenses.

 Helps in building good will between the organization and its customers.
 Helps to avoid law suits if important information is missing.
Therefore in a bid to obtain completeness, make sure you answer all questions asked, give
something extra when desirable, check for the 5 Ws and any other essentials i.e. what, when,
where, who and why.
2. Conciseness – It involves saying what you want to say in the fewest possible words. It is
important to be brief in your communication, use simple and carefully selected words.
Importance
 Creates a good image about the sender.

 Eliminates unnecessary expressions and words.
 Saves money and time.
Therefore one should omit all the unnecessary words or expressions e.g. instead of saying at
this juncture, use now, in due course – soon, in accordance to your request – as you
requested.
3. Consideration – Put your target audience in mind when communicating. Have empathy so
as to understand their information needs. Try to visualize your receiver with their problems,
desires/needs.
4. Concreteness – This means being vivid, specific and definite rather than being vague and
general. Take time and organise your points and determine your subject for discussion.
Therefore one should use specific facts, statistical figures e.g. the lifespan of the car is 20

years, put actions on your verbs rather than being passive e.g. Mr. John repaired the
computer rather than the computer was repaired by Mr. John.
5. Clarity – This involves getting the message across so as for the receiver to understand what
you are trying to say. The message should be clear to the receiver so that it is interpreted the
way the sender wanted. In order to achieve clarity, one should choose short familiar words
and construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
6. Courtesy – It involves being genuinely thoughtful and interested in other people. One should
not be rude but communicate in a polite manner, politeness costs nothing yet it means a lot.
Therefore one should be sincere and thoughtful about other people’s feelings, answer
people’s messages promptly and omit expressions that irritate of offend others.
7. Correctness – Use proper grammar, punctuation, spelling and language.
BUSINESS LETTERS
A letter is a written document or printed communication addressed to a person or any other

organization by a person or an organization. A business letter on the other hand is the basic
means of communication two companies or between companies and their stakeholders
(Suppliers, employees, customers, government, creditors’ e.t.c.). Common types of business
letters include; appreciation, complaint, job application, apology, resignation, comfirmation,
request, appointment, recommendation, retirement invitation e.t.c.
Importance of business letters
 Appear formal and authoritative for action. I.e. written to persuade others to take action.
 Function as advertisements. They are written on headed paper with the company’s log
often the same as a trade mark which advertises the company to the recipients.
 Create and maintain the good image / reputation of a firm. A business letter on a good
quality headed paper which is attractive and well – balanced enhances the prestige of an
organization.
 Ensure that all the persons and organizations understand the message sent by appearing to
be reasonable and fair to both the recipient and sender.
 Help to identify the company i.e. they are a representation of a company’s business.
 Business letters help to create relations with the outside world. A well presented may lead
to an important business contract.
Standard and Optional parts of a Business Letter
E- Mail may be the quick and convenient way to relay daily business messages, but the printed
business letter is still the preferred way to convey important information. A carefully crafted
letter presented on an attractive letter head can be a powerful communication tool. To make sure

you are writing the most professional and effective letter possible, follow these basic business –
letter writing guidelines.
 Select a professional letter head design for your business. This contains the company’s
logo, name, address, telephone numbers, fax numbers, email address, website and
physical address.
 A business letter is a representation of a company, so it must look distinctive and
immediately communicate high quality. Good quality letter headed paper is used for
business letters.
Specific parts of a business letter
Standard parts
1. Heading: This contains the return address (sender’s address), and the date on the first line.
a) Sender’s address; sometimes it may be necessary to include a line after the address for a
phone number, fax number and e –mail address. Don’t include this information if it’s
already incorporated into the letter headed design. Always skip a line between the
address and date. This is done especially if the heading is next to the left margin.
b) Date; Use month, day and year format. E.g. March 3, 2007 or 3rd, March 2007. The date
should come before the return address.
2. Inside address: This is the address you are sending the letter to. Make it as complete as
possible. Include titles and name if you know them. I.e. name of addressee that person’s title or
office / position, name of the company or institution and the full address. Include a person’s
personal title (Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms, Prof, Dr e.t.c.).If not sure of a woman’s preference use Ms.
Always skip a line after the heading before the inside address and another line after the inside
address before the greeting / salutation.
3. Greeting / Salutation: The greeting in a business letter is always formal .It normally begins
with the word “Dear” and always includes a person’s last name (surname). It normally has a
personal title. Use a first name only if the title is unclear. E.g. you’re writing to some one named
Grace Mugisha but not sure whether the person is male or female. The greeting in a business
letter always ends in a colon (:), not a comma as in personal letters. You know you are in trouble
if you get a letter from a boy friend or girl friend and the greeting ends in a colon, it’s not going
to be friendly.
4. Body: The body is written as text. A business letter is never hand written. State why you are
writing i.e. explain the situation and make request for response. Make sure it’s done through a
straight forward and concise manner. Skip a line between paragraphs, another between the
greeting and the body and also one between the body and close.

5. Complementary close / Closing: The complimentary close is inserted one line below the last
line of the body. This short polite closing ends with a comma. It begins at the same column the
heading does. The most common formulas used are; yours sincerely, yours faithfully. Use
sincerely where a name has been used in the salutation / greeting and faithfully where sir /
madam has used in the salutation / greeting.
6. Signature block / Signature line: Sign your letter in blue or blank ink
7. Your Typed Name: In all business letters, there must be the sender’s typed name after the
signature. Women may indicate how they wish to be addressed by placing a personal title in
brackets after the name. If any the designation / department or position of the sender may be
indicated below the name.
Optional parts
9. Special Notation: This appears lowest on the page and includes common notations if any to
indicate Courtesy Copies (CC) and enclosed documents (ENCs).Enclosed documents came
before CC incase they are to appear at the same time in a letter. Use ENCs if they are many
documents and ENC if it’s one. CC indicates other any one else receiving the letter.
10. Refernce
11. Subject heading
12. Attention
NOTE: Some organizations may have formats that vary slightly.
STYLES AND FORMATS OF BUSINESS LETTERS
Business readers expect to receive letters that adhere to an existing format standard. There are
several acceptable business letter styles available for use in the professional world but the three
commonly used business letter styles include; Block style, Modified block style and semi – block
style.
1. Block Style: The fully – blocked layout is becoming more widely used method of display for
business letters .This is because there is no indenting to bother within the whole letter. When
using this business letter format, the entire is left justified and single – spaced except for double
space between paragraphs. Example;
July 1, 2002
GP ASSOCIATES
P.O Box, 2653
Kampala

gparker@gpaccounting.com
www.gpaccounting.com
MR. Ernie Embata
P.O Box, 1234
Mbarara
Dear Mr. Embata:
I understand from our mutual acquaintance, Lucy Letter that you are looking for an accounting
firm to assist in the sell of your business. I would welcome the opportunity to show you how GP
Associates was able to help Chad successfully sell his business earlier this year.
Should you be thinking of purchasing another business, please note that we also offer business
acquisition services.
To set up an appointment to discuss your specific needs, please contact me at the above address.
Sincerely,
GREEN PANKI
MARKETING MANAGER
ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of successful clients.
CC: Managing Director, GP Associates.

2. Modified Block Style: With this business letter format, the body of the letter is left justified
and single – spaced. The heading and closing however are aligned in the center of the page.
Example;
July 1, 2002
GP ASSOCIATES
P.O Box, 2653
Kampala
MR. Ernie Embata
P.O Box, 1234
Mbarara
Dear Mr. Embata:
I understand from our mutual acquaintance, Lucy Letter that you are looking for an accounting
firm to assist in the sell of your business. I would welcome the opportunity to show you how GP
Associates was able to help Chad successfully sell his business earlier this year.
Should you be thinking of purchasing another business, please note that we also offer business
acquisition services.
To set up an appointment to discuss your specific needs, please contact me at the above address.
Sincerely,

GREEN PANKI
MARKETING MANAGER
ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of
successful clients.
3. Semi – Block Style: This similar to the modified block business letter style except that each
paragraph is indented instead of being left justified. Example;
July 1, 2002
GP ASSOCIATES
P.O Box, 2653
Kampala

MR. Ernie Embata
P.O Box, 1234
Mbarara
Dear Mr. Embata:
I understand from our mutual acquaintance, Lucy Letter that you are looking for an
accounting firm to assist in the sell of your business. I would welcome the opportunity to show
you how GP Associates was able to help Chad successfully sell his business earlier this year.
Should you be thinking of purchasing another business, please note that we also offer
business acquisition services.
To set up an appointment to discuss your specific needs, please contact me at the above
address.
Sincerely,
GREEN PANKI
MARKETING MANAGER
ENC: Documents indicating our activities and names of
our successful clients.

COVER LETTERS
Your application letter is one of your most important job search documents. An effective letter
can get you a phone call for an interview, but a poorly written application letter usually spells
continued unemployment. The difference can be how to handle a few key points.
The purpose of the cover letter is to:
 Introduce yourself to the employer.

 Indicate which position you’re applying for.
 Explain why you are interested in that specific job.
 Direct the attention of employers toward information on your resume that is of particular
relevance to the position being applied for.
.
SAMPLE APPLICATION LETTERS
7, MARCH 1999
Patrick Sabula
P.O Box, 60045
Kasese
psabs@yahoo.com
Ms Christine Buda
Personnel Manager
Kiwanis Furniture Works Ltd
P.O Box, 223
Mubende

Dear Ms Buda:
I was excited to see your advertisement looking for someone with excellent communications
skills, organisational experience and leadership background to train for management position. I
believe that my enclosed resume will demonstrate that I have the characteristics and experience
you seek. In addition, l would like to mention how my experience last semester makes me a
particularly strong candidate for the position.
As a promoter for Nina interiors at the 1997 U.M.A trade show, l discussed Nina’s products with
marketers and sales personnel from around the world. I also researched and wrote reports on new
products development and compiled information on furniture industry trends. The knowledge of
the furniture industry I gained from this position would help me analyse how Kiwanis products
can meet the needs of regular and prospective clients, and valuable experience gained in
promotion, sales and marketing would help me use that information effectively.
I would welcome the opportunity to discuss these and other qualifications with you.
If you are interested, please contact me at (+256) 782924632 any morning before 11:00pm, or
feel free to leave a message. I look forward to meeting with you to discuss the ways my skills
may best serve Kiwanis Furniture Works Ltd.
Sincerely yours,
PATRICK SABULA
Enclosure: Resume
June 6, 1998
Emily Mubbi

P.O Box, 445
Kampala
emibs@yahoo.com
Mr. Moore Katemba
Human Resource Manager
Side Mirror House of Plastics
P.O Box, 223
Kawempe
Dear Mr. Katemba:
Dr Saul Wilder, a consultant to your firm and my organisational management professor, has
informed me that Side Mirror House Plastics is looking for a management intern. An internship
with your company would be a perfect opportunity to develop my skills as Marketing major at
Makerere University Business School.
My professional capabilities would make me an asset to your company. For example my

experience as a promoter at the 1998 U.M.A trade show, adequately prepares me to handle the
position.
I would greatly benefit from working with acknowledgeable professionals in my field of study
and working for Side Mirror House of Plastics would provide me such an opportunity.
I would love to be part of your team. Iam available to meet with you at your earliest
convenience. You can contact me at the address and phone number above.
Thank you for consideration

Sincerely,
EMILY MUBBI
Resume included
CURRICULUM VITAE
AMANDA SAMURA
P.O BOX 102, KAMPALA
PHONE: +256782524668
EMAIL:sams@yahoo.com
PROFILE
Human Resources graduate with internship experience in training and compensation benefits.
Strong analytical skills, trustworthy, highly motivated and hard working person with a high sense
of duty and loyalty both professionally and privately. Extremly flexible and can easily adapt to
the surroundings without compromising with any of my principles and responsibilities.
EDUCATION
2003 – 2006 Team Business Institute of Business Management Kampala
Bachelors Degree in Business Administration
2001 – 2002 Trinity College Nabbingo Wakiso

Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education
1997 – 2000 Gayaza High School Kampala

Uganda Certificate of Education
1990 – 1996 Nakasero Primary School Mbarara

Primary Leaving Examination
EXPERIENCE
November 2006 – to date MULAGO HOSPITAL COMPLEX
Compensation Intern
Responsibilities and achievements

 Analyzed compensation figures for the mid – wife division, benchmarking each position
with salary survey statistics and industry research.
 Created and advanced database in Microsoft Access to track compensation figures for a
newly created Mwana Mugimu (infants) division, comparing planned salaries with
industry salary surveys.
 Produced and checked all the hospital salary increase letters following the performance
review cycle, resulting in 100% accuracy and on – time delivery of letters while
maintaining complete data confidentiality.
October 2005 - November 2006 PHENIX LOGISTICS LIMITED
Human Resource Intern
Responsibilities and achievements
 Performed complete review of HR policy manual with culminating in a report to senior
management with recommendations on outdated policies and those affected by the new
laws.
 Created 20 – question employee opinion survey on company vacation policies and
collated results in graphical format for review and use by Director of HR.
2002 – 2004 NANDOS
Waitress and Hostess
Responsibilities & Achievements.
 Served an average of fifty customers a day, two times a week, delivering orders while
maintaining strong customer service and quick table turnover to increase business
revenue.
 Managed daily cash receipts of an average of ushs 6 million and determining appropriate
share levels with other staff members.
SKILLS
 Communication skills – Can demonstrate oral and written communication skills
at workplace and business management.
 Teamwork – Can make effective contributions as both a team member and team
leader in different projects. Have been active member and leader of our discussion
and course work team at the University.
 Peer Counseling – Attended a three-day peer counseling training and have been
helping peers cope up with University challenges.
 Technology – Microsoft word, Excel, Power Point and Access
EXTRA – CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

 Treasurer, BAD Club 2005/2006
TIBM
 Chairman BAD Club 2004/2005
TIBM
 Head Disciplinary Committee 2001/2002
Trinity College Nabbingo
 Health Perfect 2000
Gayaza High School
INTERESTS
 Reading any moral material
 Watching movies and soccer

 Playing indoor games like Ludo, Scrabble and Snakes and Ladders
.
LANGUAGES
 English spoken & written
 Runyankore spoken & written
 Luganda spoken
PERSONAL DETAILS
Date of Birth 13th September 1984
Marital Status Single
REFEREES
1. MR RANA SEMPAGAMA
Lecturer
TIBM
P.O BOX ……, KAMPALA
TEL: 010012
2. MRS CATHY ASINGA

PRINCIPAL PERSONNEL OFFICER
MULAGO HOSPITAL
TEL: 0782437892
MEMO
When you think of a memo, what do you think of?
Is it a little piece of paper with a cute letterhead that says something like:
"From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..." The message itself may be very
simple--something like:
"Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom, we're out of fudge pops."
 A memo is a document typically used for communication within a company. Memos

can be as formal as a business letter and used to present a report.
 However, the heading and overall tone make a memo different from a business letter.
Because you generally send memos to co-workers and colleagues, you do not have to
include a formal salutation or closing remark.

IMPORTANCE OF MEMOS
 Usually you write memos to inform readers of specific information.

 You might also write a memo to persuade others to take action, give feedback on an
issue, or react to a situation.
 However, most memos communicate basic information, such as meeting timb es or
due dates.
 Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new information, like
policy changes, price increases, etc., or by persuading the reader to take an action,
such as attend a meeting, use less paper, or change a current production procedure.
Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when they connect the
purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the reader.
GENERAL FORMAT
 When you write a memo, you will follow a general format. Your company may have
specific requirements that you must use. For instance, a company might have a
particular way of presenting a heading or may even use a specific type of letterhead
or logo.
 However, usually a memo has a "to," "from," "subject," and "date" entry
The following are important while drafting a memo:
 Heading http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop3b.cfm
 Message http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop3c.cfm
 Tone http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop3d.cfm
 Length http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/memo/pop3e.cfm
 Format Guidelines
Heading
 A memo's heading provides information about who will receive the memo, who is
sending the memo, the date, and the memo's subject. This information may be bolded
or highlighted in some way. For example:
TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
 Additionally, you might also initial your name in the "FROM" line to indicate that
you gave the memo a final approval.
 Sometimes organizations specify how to fill out the headings. If you are unsure, it
may be a good idea to include your job title and your reader's. The memo will then be

informative to someone new to the situation, or someone who received the memo
after it was passed on from the original reader.
Message
 It is important that the first sentence of the memo should answer that question with a
purpose statement. The best purpose statements are concise and direct.
 Your memo's message should also provide a context for readers. In other words, always
tell your readers why you are writing. Consider the following questions:
 Is your memo a result of a situation? For instance, "As a result of yesterday's meeting..."
 Is your memo a reminder? For example, "The Proposal is due July 2."
 By providing context for your readers, you avoid being asked to provide that information
later. Also, you should always include your contact information at the bottom of your
message. This can be your phone number or e-mail address.
 Finally, consider how your memo looks. If you have nothing but paragraph after
paragraph of text, you might use lists to draw attention to specific information. Lists
represent an effective way to present information. Not only do they breakdown large
amounts of text, but they also provide text in a way that is visually pleasing. Lists are
especially useful for conveying steps, phases, years, procedures, or decisions. By
avoiding full sentences in a list, your information is concise and more likely to engage
your readers. For example:
Tone
 Since you typically send memos to those working within your company, you can use
a more informal tone than you would if you were writing a business letter.
 For example, you might refer to your colleagues by their first names or use humor.
However, always keep in mind that you still need to be professional. Ask yourself
how the company's president would react to your memo. If you would be
embarrassed to have the president read your memo, consider changing or eliminating
information.
However, always keep in mind that you still need to be professional. Ask yourself how the
company's president would react to your memo. If you would be embarrassed to have the
president read your memo, consider changing or eliminating information.
Length

 Memos are generally short, concise documents. However, you may have to write longer
memos, depending on your topic. For example, a memo might present the new guidelines
for a specific office task.
 Obviously, if you have over forty guidelines, the memo will be more than a page. Some
memos might even introduce a short report. In this case, you might include the report in
the memo, or the memo might be a separate document, introducing the report.
Format Guidelines
Regardless of the style, memos generally have similar format characteristics, unless otherwise
specified by your professor or company. Listed below are some basic guidelines that can help
you create a memo:
 Memos have one-inch margins around the page and are on plain paper
 All lines of the memo begin at the left margin
 The text begins two spaces after the subject line
 The body of the memo is single-spaced, with two spaces between paragraphs
 Second-page headings are used, as in business letters
 The second page includes who the Memo is to, the page number, and the date
 The sender usually signs the Memo using initials, first name, or complete name
BUSINESS REPORTS
This is a printe d or microfilmed collection of facts and figures presented in a logical and concise
form. It may also refer to communication of information and advice from some one who has
collected and studied facts to some one who needs to be informed in order to make decisions or
take action. Or this is communication design from to convey and record information that will be
of practical use to the reader.
Importance of Business Reports
 Indicate actual performance of a firm i.e. financial.

 Form the foundation for decision making e.g. quantity and quality of products and
services.
 Financial and credit reports allow organisations to easily access loans.
 Enable enforcement of fair policies and procedures e.g. remuneration of the employees
and taxes levied.

 Allow identification and solving of problems i.e. through monitoring and evaluation
reports.
 Required for record keeping purposes i.e. source of reference.
Classification and Types of Reports
Several reports are written in business. They are a very important method of gaining and giving
information. Business reports are classified according;
1. Function i.e. whether to inform or analyse.
a. Analytical reports are written to solve problems. Information is analysed, conclusions are
drawn and recommendations.
b. Informational reports – inform or instruct i.e. present information. The reader sees the
details of events, activities or conditions. No analysis of the situation, no conclusions and
no recommendations.
2. Origin i.e. whether authorised or voluntary.
a. Authorised reports - Are those requested or ordered for but by management.

b. Voluntary reports - Are those not requested or ordered for by management but
individuals do their research and present findings on their free will.
3. Frequency o f the issue - whether periodic or special.
a. Periodic reports – Are those written on a timely basis e.g. daily, weekly, monthly,
quarterly or yearly. E.g. financial reports.
b. Special reports – Are those written for specific information or reports made on a special
topic after research and investigation e.g. market research report.
4. Formality – Whether formal or informal.
a. Formal reports are those written by a selected committee or group of people after fairly
detailed investigations or research. These are meant to benefit the organization. The
reverse is true for informal reports.
5. Subject matter-These are reports in line with the origin of the department. E.g. Safety report,
accident report from HR department or Safety department and equipment and maintenance
report from Production department or Maintenance department.
Characteristics of Business Reports
1. Accuracy: Check that everything you write factually accurate. Facts should be capable of
being verified, argument soundly based and the reasoning should be logical. Don’t write
anything that will misinform, mislead or unfairly persuade the readers. This will be doing a
disservice not only to yourself but also to your department and organisation. Accurate
information is essential for effective communication and decision – making.
2. Objectivity: A report should not be an essay reflecting personal emotions and opinions. You
must look at all sides of a problem with an open mind before stating your conclusion. Making it
clear that you have an open mind when writing your report will in most cases, make your

conclusions and recommendations more acceptable to your readers. The emphasis therefore,
should be on the factual material presented and the conclusions drawn, rather than on any
personal beliefs, biases or prejudices (pre c onception, pre – judgement, narrow – mindness,
discrimination and unfairness).
3. Conciseness: Aim at keeping the reports concise. In doing this, do not mistake shortness for
conciseness. A report may be brief because it omits important information. A concise report on
the other hand is short but still contains all the essential details.
4. Simplicity: A report should also be as simple as it can be. However guard against over –
simplifying, to the point of missing out information which the reader needs to fully understand
what you are trying to say. Keep the readers firmly in mind and keep asking yourself whether or
not they will be able to follow the logic of your presentation.
5. Avoid Pointless words: Some words and phrases – like basically, actually, undoubtedly, each
and every one and during the course of our investigation – keep cropping up in reports, yet they
add nothing to the message and often can be removed without changing the meaning or to the
tone. Try leaving them out of your writing. You will find your sentences survive, succeed and
may even flourish without them.
Report Structure
A report is mainly made up of 3 parts i.e. the Introduction, Text, and the Terminal section. But
before the introduction, is the heading like any other business document.
1. Heading: There should be two headings to a report i.e. the name of the company and the
report heading e.g. Report on students’ poor performance last semester.
2. Introduction: This is made of eleven parts and these are;
a) Authorisation – This is the name of person who asked for the report.
b) Problem – Gives reasons of the report.
c) Purpose – Determines what the writer should put in the report.
d) Scope – Refers to the area of coverage.
e) Limitations – These are hindrances encountered while making the report. May be in
terms of money, time, research assistance or available data.
f) Methodology – Refers to methods used in collection of required material. These
include observation, interviews, and questionnaires e.t.c.
g) Sources – Types of sources of information i.e. primary or secondary.
h) Background – This is history of the situation being investigated.
i) Important terms – Definition of the used terms that are rare in the report.
j) Brief statement of results (Executive summary) – This contains the summary of the
whole report.
k) Plan for presentation – Contains the order of the topics presented in the report.

3. Text: This section provides all the necessary explanation of the report. It includes
interpretation of data and comments on the significance of the findings. It often referred to as
Discussion, Findings or Data Analysis.
4. Terminal section: This section contains the summary, conclusions and recommendations. Its
main function is to point out the whole report and make it’s final meaning clear and distinct
(presenting a clear un mistakable impression) thus should be based on the text and should not
include any new information.
a) Summary - Reflects what has been discussed or analysed in the text in a brief form.
b) Conclusion – Evaluates facts discussed in the text and comes to a stand point with out
including the personal opinion of researcher or writer.
c) Recommendation – Suggest the action to be taken or decision to be made basing on the
findings and conclusions.
Approaches to organising a report body
There are two types / ways of arranging a report i.e.
1. Inductive arrangement: This is indirect, logical from the known to the unknown.
Explanation comes before main ideas. The format is to start with the Introduction, Text
(discussion and explanation) and the Terminal section last.
When to use Inductive Arrangement / Approach
 You must have a detailed explanation in order to understand the conclusions or

recommendations for instance in a scientific or technical report.
 If the reader is a type who will fight the decision unless he/she is 1st given complete
details and becomes convinced by the logical development of facts.
 When the reader might feel less biased towards conclusions and will be more likely to
accept them if 1st given the analysis of the important factors.
 If the reader needs to be encouraged to read the entire report and not just the terminal
section.
 When the reader prefers the report in this order.
2. Deductive Arrangement / Approach: This is direct and comparable (suitable for

comparison) to the direct plans used for direct requests and good messages. The main idea comes
before explanation. The format is to start with the Terminal section, Introduction and Text. Or
Introduction, Terminal section and Text.
When to use Deductive Arrangement / Approach
When your reader;
 Is a busy executive who wishes to know only what the conclusions are or what action is
to be taken and when and who has the responsibility.

 Prefers to determine quickly whether to scan the text for confirmation of conclusions or
recommendations and whether the rest of the report is worth reading.
 Wants the writer’s point of view promptly.
 Can better analyse data if conclusions or recommendations are given first.
 Prefers the report in that order.
NON- VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Definition
Refers to human action and behavior and the corresponding meaning that is attached to the
behavior. Or conveying a message without using words or writing. E.g. gestures, eye contact,
posture, facial expressions e.t.c.
Importance of Non – Verbal Communication
 Non – verbal messages are stronger than verbal messages e.g. there is a saying that
actions speak louder than words.
 Non – verbal clarifies verbal messages e.g. saying thank you with a smile makes the
message more meaningful.
 Non – verbal messages are sent more frequently than verbal messages.
 It’s reliable i.e. people can deceive through words but not their bodies.
 Non – verbal communication has no universal meaning. E.g. one tapping on a table may
be understood as anger to some people that may not be the case i.e. one act may have
many meanings.
 Express emotions
 Communicate to deaf
 Communicate with people who don't understand your language.
 Ritual (greeting)
 non-verbal messages cannot be avoided: even when we do nothing, we convey a message
Disadvantages
 You can not have long conversation.

 Can not discuss the particulars of your message
 Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions.
 Can not be used as a public tool for communication.
 Less influential and can not be used everywhere.
 Not everybody prefers to communicate through non-verbal communication.

 Somebody cannot understand your expression or posture,that you are trying to tell and
they misunderstood. And which is not good sometime.
 Can't be avoided when others are near you
 Can't explain complex ideas
 Doesn't come across phone lines or in written text
 Only communicates for limited distances, and only in the present moment
Divisions of Non – verbal
These are basically 3;
o Environmental
o Social interactions
o Physical Interactions
1. Environmental communication
With the environment, time, territory, design and arrangement contribute to the communication
of messages. Each of these conveys a message about its occupants.
a. Time: Business is time bound. Workers must arrive in time; work in shifts and meet
specified production quotas. Time is money i.e. most workers are paid by clock. Time is
power i.e. people of busy schedules are perceived as more important than those who have
time for social niceties. Key cultural aspect in the area of time include;
- Monochromic cultures i.e. doing one activity at the same time e.g. reading a newspaper in
a meeting may imply impoliteness.
- Polychromic cultures i.e. people do several things at the same time e.g. having a meeting
while at the same time reading documents or surfing the internet to research for solutions.
Common in Latin America.
b. Territory: Many people consider their workspace, a table, a chair or piece of
machinery, an office they have run for several years as their territory that others can’t
enter without permission.
c. Design and arrangement: Some time we are constantly influenced with out
realizing it by the design and arrangement of the environment. Therefore
managers should be familiar with five elements of that design and arrangement i.e.
o The building design

o The office space design

o The room design
o The room colour
o Desk arrangement
I. Building design: This can shape the type of communication among its occupants e.g.
buildings away from stairways are quiet and tend to be secure showing the seriousness of
the organization.
II. Office space design / Layout: The corner office with windows is usually for a Chief
Executive Office or partner. Inner offices are for junior executives, sometimes they have
no windows but at least there is a door and an area you can call you own. The general
office is for the lower echelon and support personnel. There is no privacy.
III. Room design: For fast turnover in restaurants and bars use bright lighting and should be
in a noisy place. However for many other types of organizations use of bright colours and
location in noisy places may indicate lack of seriousness.
IV. Room colours: Colour is used as a motivator. It’s believed that conferences conducted in
cheerful bright rooms are more successful than those held in dull environments. E.g. red
is aggressive, exciting and stimulating and related to emotions and passion, Blue is cool,
clear, serene and has a calming effect, and Green is light, fresh and peaceful.
2. Social Communication
The environment in which we work and live influences how we communicate, affects verbal and
nonverbal behaviour. Social aspects that send important messages include;
a) Space: Personal distance extends from one to the four feet away from the body. This is
often referred to as uninvisible. Social distance is between four and ei ght feet away from
the body. This is used for impersonal or business like situations.
Proxemics—How Space Influences Communication. Proxemics refers to the amount
of space that individuals naturally maintain between each other. Sociologists report four
territorial zones: intimate space (up to 1 1/2 feet), personal space (1 to 2 1/2 feet), social
space (4 to 7 feet), and public space (10 feet or more). When our territorial space is
invaded, we resent and resist the intrusion. Business conversations may take place in
personal or social space, but never in intimate space. Meetings are usually conducted in
public space. Although effective communicators probably could not name these four
zones, they instinctively understand and observe spatial requirements.
b) Status: Title or position communicates status. Time that elapses between knocking at some
one‘s door and entry communicates status. How far into the territory the visitor penetrates
and how quickly he/she does it depends on the status.
c) Symbols: These are used by organizations to identify themselves or their products. These
create recognition of the organization and its products i.e. useful in helping sell and
maintaining usable public image e.g. logos and trade marks.

3. Physical Communication
It’s the most personal and unconscious but also the most easily controlled part of physical
behaviour. This includes body gestures, facial expressions, eye movements, voice and clothing.
b) Body: There is no precise meaning obtained from body position and movement. E.g. one
may cry when she is happy but another when she is sad. Body languages differ from
culture to culture. Each culture has its own body language. Interpretation of body
language message is more accurate when it’s received over a period of time and not only
in one observation.
c) Gestures: These are the movements of the body parts especially hands. Gestures vary in
meaning from culture to culture and must be interpreted in the context of their meaning
e.g. hand shakes for friendliness, peace and sealing an agreement for gentlemen.
d) Facial expressions: Smiling is a powerful signal / indication to warmth, approachability.
Smiling is often contagious and others will respond favourably. They will be more
comfortable around you.
e) Eye movement: An eye moves an estimated 1000 times during the average day. Meaning
attached to various movements.
f) Clothing: This makes or breaks a person. It influences how the people around us think
about us. Dressing communicates a variety of messages to others in the organization. It
reveals something about your emotions and discloses information about our behaviour
and differentiates us from others.
g) Voice: Verbal messages relate to vocal factors like tone, quality, and style, rate of speech
or accents. Voices discuss many messages. The sensitive strive to use a voice that
complements and emphasizes the words that he/she speaks.
h) Touch
Touch is the first non-verbal experience we have in life and through it we learn to relate
to people and objects. It is critical to our sense of well-being. Each person will respond to
touch in a personal way and that response will be based on values affected by age, sex,
role, cultural norms, background and the situation itself. Australians of Anglo-Celtic
background are sometimes reluctant to touch publicly, and especially reluctant to touch
strangers. In fact, apologies are made when someone is touched by mistake. Touching is
seen as acceptable in courtship, in greetings, especially in handshakes and sometimes
women may kiss each other or men may kiss women to indicate friendship or intimacy.
In some European cultures men may kiss other men as a sign friendship or kinship.
Touching is an important human activity. However, we need to be aware of the cultural

implications of a touch (forbidden between men and women in some cultures) and, in the
workplace, of the implications of touch that can lead to sexual harassment issues.
i) Physical appearance of the body

j) Posture. The way you stand and hold your body also sends messages about your self
confidence. Stooped or bowed shoulders may signal that you are burdened, self

conscious, lacking confidence, submissive, beaten, guilty, or afraid. A straight back with
squared shoulders typifies strength and responsibility. Hunched shoulders suggest
anxiety or weariness.
Problems Associated With Non -verbal communication
o Differences in interpretation. Each person may interpret it according to

background, knowledge and experience.
o Can’t be stored.
o No consistency in meaning i.e. unique from society to society. E.g. nodding
means yes to a Ugandan but no to Japanese.
o May not be complete for effectiveness.
o May contradict the verbal communication e.g. I’m happy to receive, yet the
attitude or body language is not friendly.
o It’s not applicable when there is along distance between the communicators.
o Highly influenced by the personality of the communicator and receiver in
question.
VERBAL/ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is known as communication by word of mouth.
It may be face-to-face or not. Oral communication may be in form
 A conversation
 A telephone conversation
 Interviews
 Training sessions
 Conference/ seminars
 A gossip in the lift
 A chance meeting in the corridor etc
Note:

Oral communication can take place between two or more people.
It can be planned or incidental.
It can be formal or informal.
WHY WOULD ONE CHOOSE ORAL COMMUNICATION?
 It makes possible speedy interchange with immediate feedback and spontaneous thinking.
 People can ask questions and clarify points i.e. in case any thing is not clear to the
audience, explanation can always be made.
 It is direct, simple, time saving and least expensive.
 It conveys per sonal warmth and friendliness because of personalized contacts.
 Any misunderstandings can be cleared immediately.
 It serves as evidence of events and proceedings.
DISADVANTAGES
 Spontaneous responses may not be carefully thought about and this means that a wrong
feed back may be transmitted.
 Different meaning may be conveyed by manner of speaking, tone of voice and facial
expression.
 The spirit of authority cannot be transmitted effectively in verbal communication.
 Lengthy and distant communication can’t be effectively conveyed verbally.
 Meetings can be costly in terms of time and organizational money.
 There are high chances of distorting the meaning of the message if hierarchy is to be
followed.
LISTENING
Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain.
Listening leads to understanding of ideas and facts. It takes attention or sticking to the task in
spite of distractions. Listening is half of oral communication. In other words, if someone
communicates and there is no one to listen, then communication becomes incomplete.

It’s an active mental process & it goes beyond simply hearing. Listen- ‘conscious hearing’ or to
pay attention
Listening is a skill that needs to be practiced and taken as seriously as speaking and writing, for
the consequences of not listening carefully could be very disastrous.
NOTE: The difference between listening and hearing is that, hearing is physical.
Listening involves following and understanding the sound- it is hearing with a purpose.
TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING
What is effective listening?
This is actively absorbing the information given to you by the speaker, showing that you are
listening and interested, and providing feedback to the speaker so that he or she knows the
message was received. Effective listeners show speakers that they have heard and understood.
GOOD LISTENING SKILLS
1. Establish eye contact with the speaker.
 Studies show that listening has a positive relationship with eye contact while the speaker
is speaking. This interrupts your brain and adds distraction to the speaker.
 Focus on the visual aid only when it is an asset to the point being discussed.
 Don’t get so involved in taking notice that you fail to often look at the speaker. The
speaker’s gestures, movements and facial expression are often an important part of the
message. Etc.
In other words, the better eye contact you have with the speaker, the better you will listen. There
are some things you should do to establish eye contact:-
Don’t look at others who enter or leave
2. Want to listen

This suggestion simply says that, you must have an intent to listen. We can recall having been
forced to listen to a speech or briefing that we didn’t want to listen to. This listening seldom
results in understanding or enjoyment. Therefore, we should always clear our mind and prepare
to listen.
3. Avoid pre-judgment/ Don’t be biased
Never pre- judge the speaker because of appearance, occupation and do not make any
conclusions before hearing what is said. Remember you cannot evaluate the importance of
the message from the speaker until you have heard it.
Let us face it: We all have likes and dislikes; some things turn us on, others turn us off. These
characteristics are natural and to be expected but we should not let our- likes and dislikes- get
in the way of understanding the speaker’s message. E.g. One may be biased about people
from a certain region.
4. Give positive feedback
It is always important to give positive feedback non-verbally. You can give feedback by:-
 Looking and acting interested. Positive head nods, alertness and smiles all offer
encouragement to the speaker.
 Asking questions. Questions that show interest and attention encourage both the
speaker and the listener.
 Share information with the speaker- we tend to tell things to those who tell us
things.
5. Judge content not delivery
You must appraise the content and not the speaker. Weigh the merits of what the speaker is
saying. Focus on the main issues to see whether they have some sense in them.
However, there are also times when you must judge the speaker. E.g. job interviews, speech
contests e.t.c. Here, judgment of the speaker is important.
6. Extract key points

You can pick out and repeat to your self key words and phrases to help you fix in your mind
what is being said. Take notes effectively- Don’t attempt to write everything down. Effective
listeners focus on ideas. If you have been given an article, circle or highlight the most
important points.
7. Follow the golden rule
Do to others you would have them do unto you.
The effective listener is always other directed, focused on the other person. In other words, be
the kind of listener you want others to be when you are talking. Ask “How would I want others
to listen to me?” That’s how to be an effective listener.
8. Block out distractions
Fight distractions and other competing thoughts if you are to be a good listener. Everyone has
mannerisms. Unfortunately, some mannerisms are negative or distracting. These should be
avoided. Avoid these mannerisms:-
 Tapping a pencil, playing with a rubber band or some other objects, such things distract
other listeners and annoy the speaker.
 Continually looking at the clock or your watch
 Rearranging items in your wallet
 Reading a paper.
Such things hinder the speaker, divert the attention of other listeners, and prevent you from being
the best listener you can be.
9. Be open minded
Appreciate the speaker’s point of view and accept that it may not agree with your own.
10. Do not interrupt

Never bring in judgments until the speaker has finished and try as much as you can not to be
emotional
Poor Listening Habits and Good Listening Habits
Poor Listening
Poor Listeners... Good Listeners...
Habits
Criticize the speaker's voice, realize that a lecture is not a popularity
Criticizing a clothes, or looks. Therefore, they contest. Good listeners look for the ideas
speaker decide that the speaker won`t say being presented, not for things to
anything important. criticize.
become so involved in disagreeing listen with the mind, not the emotions.
Finding fault with with something the speaker states Good listeners jot down something they
the speaker that they stop listening to the disagree with to ask the speaker later,
remainder of the lecture then go on listening.
Use little distractions -- someone

Allowing yourself coughing, a pencil dropping, the filter out distractions and concentrate on
to be distracted door opening and closing -- as an what the speaker is saying.
excuse to stop listening.
understand that speakers talk about what

Look at the speaker but don't listen. they think is most important. Good
Faking attention They expect to get the material listeners know that a good lecture may
from the textbook later. not contain the same information as the
textbook.
Outline the lecture in detail. The

Forcing every adjust their style of note-taking to the
listener is so concerned with
lecture into one speaker's topic and method of
organization that he misses the
format organization.
content.
want to see how the facts and examples

Only want the facts. They consider support the speaker's ideas and
Listening only for
everything else to be only the arguments. Good listeners know that
facts
speaker's opinion. facts are important, because they support
ideas.

Think it is too difficult to follow want to learn something new and try to
Listening to only the speaker's complicated ideas and understand the speaker's point. A good
the easy material logic. A poor listener wants listener is not afraid of difficult,
entertainment, not education. technical, or complicated ideas.
listen closely for information that can be

Calling a subject Decide a lecture is going to be dull
important and useful, even when a
boring and "turn out" the speaker.
lecture is dull.
Get upset at words which trigger

hear these same words. When they do,
Overreacting to certain emotions -- words such as
they listen very carefully. A good
"push button" communist, income tax, Hitler or
listener tries to understand the speaker's
emotional words abortion. Emotion begins and
point of view.
listening ends.
use any extra time or pauses in the

Move along lazily with the speaker
lecture to reflect on the speaker's
Wasting thought even though thinking is faster than
message. They think about what the
speed speaking. A poor listener
speaker is saying, summarize the main
daydreams and falls behind.
points, and think about the next points.
TYPES OF LISTENING
COMPETITIVE OR COMBATIVE LISTENING
Happens when we are more interested our main point of view than in understanding or exploring
someone else’s view. We either listen to openings to take the floor, or for flaws or weak points
we can attack
PASSIVE OR ATTENTIVE LISTENING
We are genuinely interested in hearing and understanding the other person’s point of view. We
are attentive and passively listen. We assume that we heard and understood correctly but we stay
passive and we don’t verify it.

ACTIVE OR REFLECTIVE LISTENING
It is the most useful and important listening skill. We are genuinely interested in understanding
what the other person is thinking, feeling, wanting or what the message means, and we are active
in checking out our understanding before we respond with our own new message.
It requires often that the listener attends to the words and feelings of the sender for
understanding. It also requires the receiver to hear various messages, understand the meaning
and then verify the meaning by offering feedback
Other Types of listening
– Content listening –enables you to understand and retain message.

– Critical listening enables you to evaluate the information
– Empathic listening is used to draw out the other person.
The listening Process
Listening is a process involving 5 related Activities, which generally occur in this sequence.
• Sensing – physical hearing of message & taking note of it.

• Interpreting- decoding & absorbing what you hear
• Evaluating- forming an opinion about the message
• Remembering – Sorting a message for future reference
• Responding –acknowledge the message by reacting
Receiving/sensing. Physical hearing of a message
Attending/interpreting. Focusing attention. decoding & absorbing what you hear
Understanding
Evaluating. Analyse and judge the message
Remembering
Responding

Sources of difficulty by the listener
 Being pre-occupied and not listening

 Being so interested in what you have to say that you listen mainly to find an opening to
get the floor, or to get thing to disagree with
 Listening to your own personal beliefs about what is being said
 Evaluating and making judgments about the speaker or the message
 Rushing to advising before you hear the entire message
 Being right: You cant listen to criticism, you cant be corrected, you cant take suggestions
to change
 Dreaming – drifting about in our interior fantasies
 Not asking for clarification when you know that you do not understand
Barriers to listening
In order to improve your listening skills you need to be aware of the major barriers to effective
listening. Some barriers come from the listeners themselves (for example, disinterest in the
topic), some from the sender (for example, a boring tone) and others from the environment (too
much noise).
Probably the most famous study about listening was undertaken by Ralph Nichols who examined
100 of the poorest listeners and 100 of the best listeners in a university setting. His 10 bad
listening habits are often quoted in communication texts (see Gibson & Hodgett 1990, for
example). They are:
 deciding in advance that the subject is uninteresting

 focusing on the poor delivery of the speaker
 becoming overexcited and anxious to make your own point
 focusing only on facts
 a tendency to outline everything
 pretending to pay attention
 allowing distractions to interfere
 avoiding difficult material
 responding emotionally to certain words or phrases
 Day dreaming because of the difference between speech speed and thought speed. s

Basics for effective listening:
 Desire to become a better listener

 Stop talking while the speaker is talking
 Look at the speaker, avoid looking at your watch
 Leave your emotions behind
 Get rid of distractions and get ready to listen
 Recognize your own prejudice
 Use your own words to verbalize your understanding of the message
 Look for feelings or intent beyond the meaning of the words
 Give feedback
 Listen for ideas, not facts
 Judge content, not delivery
 Listen optimistically
 Concentrate, don’t start dreaming
 Don’t think ahead of the speaker
Effective use of a telephone
ORAL COMMUNICATION/SPEECH
It is the most commonly used in our day to day lives and indeed in organizations. It probably has
the largest impact on both the sender and receiver. For this reason, it requires great skills and
people should be attentive when speaking. In organizations, managers speak to surbodinates, to
colleagues and vice versa.
PREPARATION FOR AN EFFECTIVE SPEECH

“Anyone can give a speech but not everyone can give an effective speech”. While day to day
conversation is difficult to plan, executing formal presentation is easier to plan for because you
are aware and you have time to do so effectively. Planning is essentially preparation for
everything that is looking ahead to see how you will do things. Being prepared is by far the most
important element. How many times do you practice your speech? As a general rule, you should
spend about 30 hours of preparation and rehearsal time for every hour you will be speaking. Use
a tape recorder or videotape and view yourself. This will help you to get an accurate picture of
how you speak.
To give an effective speech there are things that you should consider.
1. Determine the purpose. What are you trying to achieve/communicate? What is the
purpose of your speech? Are you informing, do you want action, or to persuade or
entertain. When you are invited to give a speech at a conference, seminar or even
address a group of people on a topic that you are conversant with, it is important for
you to ascertain what you expect to achieve by the end of the day.
2. Analyze your audience and the situation. Who are you going to talk too? What
levels are they in terms of knowledge, age, sex, their needs, their occupations, their
backgrounds? This tells you how, when, where and what say. You will prepare
differently when talking to different people for example if you are talking to
accountants, you can use appropriate technical expressions like illustrations in your
presentation.
3. Collect and interprete information(research). When making a presentation, the
speaker has an opportunity to organize himself, collect data, write down what you
will say, revise it and re-arrange it so that it suits the objective of the communication.
4. Organize the information.Organisating data is sequencing of the presentation so that
it is logical and will be understood by the audience. A speech is organized like a
report that is introduction, text (discussion of details) and conclusions. As part of
organizing your presentation, you have to decide how you will present the talk. Good
presentation involves getting a full understanding of what you are going so that you
have command over the subject.
5. Give of Yourself - Use personal examples and stories in your speech whenever
possible. Make sure your stories help to emphasize or support your point. The stories
must match your message. Use examples from your personal and professional life to
make your point. In either case be willing to give of yourself by sharing some of
yourself with the audience.
6. Use Natural Humor - Don't try to be a stand up comedian. Use natural humor by
poking fun at yourself and something you said or did. Be sure NOT to make fun of
anyone in the audience. People will laugh with you when you poke fun at yourself but
don't over do it.
7. Plan Your Body & Hand Positions - During the practice of your speech look for
occasions where you can use a gesture. Establish three positions where you will stand
and practice not only how to move to them but where in your speech do you move.
Pick three positions, one on center stage, one to your right, and one to your left. Do
not hide behind the lectern. When you do move maintain eye contact with the
audience.
8. Pay attention to all details - Make sure you have the right location (school, hotel,
room & time). Make sure you know how to get to where you are speaking. Ask how

large an audience you will be speaking to. Make sure you bring all your visual aids
and plenty of handouts. Arrive early so you can check out where you will be speaking
and make any last minute adjustments. It is very important that you pay attention to
even the smallest details. You can never over plan. Remember, "He who fails to plan
is planning for failure"
9. Plan visual aids. What you see you remember, so goes the saying. it is therefore
preferable that visual aids are used when making a presentation to re enforce what
one is saying and hold the attention of the audience. examples include power point
presentation, overhead projectors,poster/flipcharts,whiteboards,chalkboards,hand outs
etc
METHODS OF PRESNTATION/DERIVERY
Once the objectives are clear and the presentation has been written systematically
depending on your abilities, then you may decide on the methods of presentation. they
include;impromptu,reading,memorizing,and extramporaneous.
Impromptu speaking. It means speaking with out preparation. This is usually when
you’re called to speak without notice. It is important to keep such speech as short as
possible and restrict what you say. For instance refer to the audience, the importance of
the topic, event and coutesy must be inbuilt in the speech.
Reading. This is good because you don’t deviate from what you have prepared. However
using this method, make sure that the speech is short and has no complicated phrases,
figures or graphs to present to the audience. In business meetings reading is not the
preferred presentation and also in conferences, there is never enough time for one to
read the whole presentation. This is where visual aids become important. Using this
method, handouts, charts, transparencies and now slides from power points computer
software has made presentations easier.
Memorizing. This is committing information to memory. It is cramming information into

the mind. This takes time and can not be used for a speech. A speech may be long and
once spoken, it may not be used again. There is therefore no merit in committing lengthy
speeches to memory. However you may memorize important quotes about what you want
to say that are relevant to the topic that you are presenting.
Extramporaneous. This is the most preferred method of presentation. This is where you
speak from the previously prepared outline. You speak out on the issues but keep on
referring to the notes or outline. The outline enables you to keep track of what you want
to say and facilitates allocation of time to specific points on the outline. Visual aids are
very important under this method

OVERCOMING SPEAKING ANXIETY IN PRESENTATIONS (STAGE FRIGHT)
Do your knees feel like Gumby's when you have to get up and speak in front of a group?
Do you feel like the next words out of your mouth are going to be the dumbest words ever
uttered by a human?
Some of the world's most famous presenters have freely admitted to nervousness and stage
fright. Mark Twain said it best, "There are two types of speakers: those that are nervous and
those that are liars".
Everyone, even experienced speakers, has some anxiety when speaking in front of a group of
people. This is perfectly normal. The best way to deal with this anxiety is to first acknowledge
that this fear is perfectly normal and you are not alone. To reduce your fear, you need to make
sure you properly and thoroughly prepare yourself before you speak.
Proper preparation and rehearsal can help to reduce this fear by about 75%. Proper breathing
techniques can further reduce this fear by another 15%. Your mental state accounts for the
remaining 10%.
Nothing will relax you more than to know you are properly prepared. Below are 10 steps you can
take to reduce your speech anxiety.
1. Know the room - become familiar with the place in which you will speak. Arrive early
and walk around the room including the speaking area. Stand at the lectern, speak into the
microphone. Walk around where the audience will be seated. Walk from where you will
be seated to the place where you will be speaking.
2. Know the Audience - If possible, greet some of the audience as they arrive and chat with
them. It is easier to speak to a group of friends than to a group of strangers.
3. Know the Material - If you are not familiar with your material or are uncomfortable
with it, your nervousness will increase. Practice your speech or presentation and revise it
until you can present it with ease.
4. Learn How to Relax - You can ease tension by doing exercises. Sit comfortable with
your back straight. Breathe in slowly, hold your breath for 4 to 5 seconds, and then
slowly exhale. To relax your facial muscles, open your mouth and eyes wide, and then
close them tightly.
5. Visualize Yourself Speaking - Imagine yourself walking confidently to the lectern as the
audience applauds. Imagine yourself speaking, your voice loud, clear and assured. When
you visualize yourself as successful, you will be successful.
6. Realize People Want You To Succeed - All audiences want speakers to be interesting,
stimulating, informative and entertaining. They want you to succeed - not fail.
7. Don't apologize For Being Nervous - Most of the time your nervousness does not show
at all. If you don't say anything about it, nobody will notice. If you mention your
nervousness or apologize for any problems you think you have with your speech, you'll
only be calling attention to it. Had you remained silent, your listeners may not have
noticed at all.

8. Concentrate on Your Message - not the medium - Your nervous feelings will dissipate
if you focus your attention away from your anxieties and concentrate on your message
and your audience, not yourself.
9. Turn Nervousness into Positive Energy - the same nervous energy that causes stage
fright can be an asset to you. Harness it, and transform it into vitality and enthusiasm.
10. Gain Experience - Experience builds confidence, which is the key to effective speaking.
Most beginning speakers find their anxieties decrease after each speech they give.
If the fear of public speaking causes you to prepare more, then the fear of speaking serves as its
own best antidote.
Remember, "He who fails to prepare is preparing for failure - so Prepare, Prepare, Prepare"
INTERVIEWS
It’s an interaction between two or more people in order to gain information to accomplish a
predetermined purpose. It could be planned or unplanned.
It’s a two way street that provides the opportunity for information exchange and for mutual
marketing and fact finding.
Types of interviews.
 Job interviews: The interviewer assesses your suitability and experience while the
interviewee markets themselves and gets to know about the organization. Initially the
interviews are official and structured but later there can be spontaneous questions to get the
candidate’s response.
 Information interviews: The interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision. Questions are
asked and answers are given.. One needs to decide in advance what information you require.
 Persuasive interviews: A person tells another about a new idea, product and explains why
the other should act on the recommendations. The persuader asks about the other’s needs and
shows how the product is able to meet those needs.
 Exit interviews: The interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee is leaving the
organization. Usually insight is given on how the organization is being run.
 Evaluation interviews: A supervisor periodically gives an employee feedback on his or her
performance. They discuss progress on predetermined standards and evaluate areas that
require improvement.
 Counseling interviews: Personal problems interfering with work performance are discussed

 Conflict resolution interviews: Two competing people or groups explore their problems and
attitudes. The goal is to bring two parties closer together, cause adjustments in perceptions
and attitudes and create a more productive climate.
 Disciplinary interviews: A supervisor tries to correct the behavior of an employee who has
ignored the organizational rules and regulations. The aim is to make the employee see the
reason for the rules and agree to comply.
 Terminal interviews: A supervisor informs an employee of the reasons for the termination.
The interviewer tries to avoid involving the company in legal action and tries to maintain as
positive a relationship as possible
PREPARING FOR INTERVIEWS
 Define the purpose: Clearly defined purpose sets the tone of the interview and helps
determine your plan of action.
 Decide who should be involved: Whether a panel is necessary which consists of the
supervisor, manager e.t.c or just one interviewer.
 Plan the interview format or structure: The basic structure includes an opening (covers
the greeting, establishes common ground and purpose), a body (accomplishes the goal
through questioning and explaining. Information about previous experience, job
description, organizational structure, get cues about background and attitude e.t.c), and a
close (applicant summarises his or her understanding of the job, clarification on any
misunderstandings, inform about when notification would be given).
Responsibilities of an interviewee.
o Anticipate the interviewer’s questions.

o Plan your answers so that whatever you want to say is said.
o You can also introduce questions of your own.
o Research about the company.
o Be smart, polite and alert.
o Keep time.
o Carry your academic papers.
o Try to act as normal as possible.
Responsibilities of an interviewer.
o Schedule the interview and ensure that the venue is comfortable and convenient.
o Collect information, listen and probe i.e. develop a set of questions and their sequence.
o Keep the interviewee at ease so he can keep on answering the questions.
How to succeed in the interview
Before

o Get references on time.
o Read the application requirements on the advertisement carefully.
o Check the advertised job prospects and it’s potential.
o Consider the organization carefully; it’s reputation, employee relations, location e.t.c.
o When short listed, confirm your acceptance and find out as much as possible about the
firm.
During
o Keep time.
o Check your appearance
o Avoid fiddling with clothes, rings, neck.
o Look directly at the interviewer when asking or answering questions.
o Don’t mumble or gamble
o Pose when answering to see if you can go on or you’ve given a satisfactory answer.
o Take time over tricky questions.
o Try to think ahead and anticipate what will be asked next.
o Ask questions
After
o If offered the job, confirm your acceptance as soon as possible.

o The current employer should have your resignation in good time.
o Always part from employers on good terms. You may need them later in your career.


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TEAM UNIVERSITY

DIPLOMA OF EDUCATION (PRIMARY

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 1

By the end of the course unit students should be able to;

1) Discuss the conceptual framework of communication.

1) Design, deliver, and evaluate learning and teaching on a continuum of instructional

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 2

UNIT 1: Introduction to Communication 8 hours

UNIT 2: Types and forms of communication 8 hours

UNIT 3: Planning for communication 6 hours

 The basic writing principles

UNIT 4: Written Communication (Self or Group Study) 7 hours

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 3

 Pubic speaking or Presentations

UNIT 6: Nonverbal Communication 8 hours

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND / OR EQUIPMENT

 Whiteboard and Markers

 Continuous assessment tests 20%

READING MATERIALS OR LIST

Sue C. Camp & Marilyn L. Satterwhite, College Communication

Courtland Bovee & John V. Thill, Effective Communication

Shirley Taylor, Communication for Business

Asha Kaul, Effective Business Communication

L.A. Woolcott & W. R. Unwin, Mastering Business Communication

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 4

Communication refers to a process of giving, receiving or exchanging (sharing) information,

It is the transfer of information in form of understandable messages through a channel to others.

Everyday people are communicating whether it is talking on telephone, face-to-face, writing

 Aids decision making

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 5

1) VERBAL OR ORAL COMMUNICATION

Forms of verbal communication

The success of verbal communication depends on one’s ability to listen carefully.

Interactive, restricted audience, any time any place, immediate feedback,

People can ask questions and clarifications

No records for future reference

Depends on the ability of the speaker to speak

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 6

More detailed, records, formal, complex issues,

Non interaction, restrictive in use, no immediate feedback.

Advantages of written communication

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 7

Disadvantages of written communication

 Usually takes sometime for the message to arrive.

Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving

It’s divided into 3, Environment, social and physical.

Social ie space, status and symbol

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 8

Widely used, unconscious communication, miss interpretation, security purposes,

It is sent more frequently than verbal

Clarify verbal messages

Helps in reading situations

Importance of Non – Verbal Communication

o Differences in interpretation. Each person may interpret it according to

4th Trimester In-service Lecture Materials Page 9

 Recipient/ audience-who is receiving the message (status), appropriate language, the

Communication is a heart or lifeblood of any organization. Therefore, Organizations can hardly