BMAT BIOLOGY KNOWLEDGE

Structure animal, plant and bacterial cells:

Animal and plant cells

Function of cells which animal and plant cells have in common

Part Function

Nucleus Contains genetic material, which controls the activities of the cell

Cytoplasm Most chemical processes take place here, controlled by enzymes

Cell membrane Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell

Mitochondria Most energy is released by respiration here

Ribosomes Protein synthesis happens here

Plant cells also have extra parts:

Extra parts of plant cells

Part Function

Cell wall Strengthens the cell

Chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis

Permanent vacuole Filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid

Bacterial cell:

It has cytoplasm, a membrane and a surrounding cell wall, but the genetic material in a
bacterial cell is not in a distinct nucleus.

Yeast has a nucleus

Examples of the functions of cells

Cell Function Adaption

Absorbs light Packed with chloroplasts.

energy for Regular shaped, closely packed
photosynthesis cells form a continuous layer for
efficient absorption of sunlight.

Leaf cell

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Cell Function Adaption

Absorbs water and Long 'finger-like' process with

mineral ions from very thin wall, which gives a
the soil large surface area.

Root hair cell

Fertilises an egg The head contains genetic

cell - female information and an enzyme to
gamete help penetrate the egg cell
membrane. The middle section
is packed with mitochondria for
energy. The tail moves the
Sperm cell
sperm to the egg.

Contains Thin outer membrane to let

haemoglobin to oxygen diffuse through easily.
carry oxygen to Shape increases the surface
the cells. area to allow more oxygen to be
absorbed efficiently. No nucleus,
so the whole cell is full of
Red blood cells
haemoglobin.

Diffusion
Dissolved substances have to pass through the cell membrane to get into or out of a cell.
Diffusion is one of the processes that allows this to happen.

 Diffusion occurs when particles spread. They move from a region where they are in
high concentration to a region where they are in low concentration. Diffusion happens
when the particles are free to move. This is true in gases and for particles dissolved in
solutions.

 Particles diffuse down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to

an area of low concentration.
OSMOSIS

 Osmosis is the movement of water from a less concentrated solution to a more

concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
 Osmosis is important to plants. They gain water by osmosis through their roots.
Water moves into plant cells by osmosis, making them turgid or stiff so that they are
able to hold the plant upright.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Active transport is the process by which dissolved molecules move across a cell
membrane from a lower to a higher concentration.

 In active transport, particles move against the concentration gradient - and therefore
require an input of energyfrom the cell.

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  Sometimes dissolved molecules are at a higher concentration inside the cell than
outside, but, because the organism needs these molecules, they still have to be
absorbed.

 Carrier proteins pick up specific molecules and take them through the cell
membrane against the concentration gradient.
MEIOSIS

 Gametes are formed via the cell division meiosis

 Cells formed by meiosis have ½ as many chromosomes as the cell that formed them
 Human gametes contain 23/46 single chromosomes

Chromosomes are copied and the cell divides TWICE= 4 gametes

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 MITOSIS

1. parent cell
2. chromosomes make identical copies of themselves
3. they line up along the centre
4. they move apart
5. two daughter cells form with identical chromosomes to the parent cell

-Two new cells form

-each cell is identical to other one and the parent cell

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 DNA STRUCTURE

 each strand of DNA is made up of four bases

 the two strands coil together to form a double helix, there are chemical cross-links between
the two strands (these are bases)

Genes and proteins

Each gene in a molecule of DNA contains:

 A different sequence of bases

 Codes for a particular protein
Proteins are made in the cytoplasm of a cell, not in the nucleus. Genes cannot leave the
nucleus, so a copy of the gene is needed. This copy is able to leave the nucleus to go into the
cytoplasm so that proteins can be made by the cell.

The DNA base code

Protein structure is determined by the DNA base code.

Proteins are made from lots of amino acids joined together. Each amino acid is coded by the
sequence (order) of three bases. For example, GGT codes are found in glycine but TCA codes
are found in serine, a different amino acid. The sequence of bases determines the sequence
of amino acids in a protein molecule.

DNA controls the functions of a cell by controlling its production of proteins. Some of these
proteins are enzymes.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. They are found in the cytoplasm but DNA is
found in the nucleus. The genetic code needed to make a particular protein is carried from
the DNA to the ribosomes by a molecule called mRNA. Making:

 mRNA from DNA is called transcription

 Proteins from mRNA is called translation

DNA REPLICATION

 DNA spiral unzips

 Free nucleotides lock onto bases (complementary base pairing)
 Two copies of original spiral formed

Mitosis
During mitosis, the chromosomes:

1. Line up along the centre of the cell

2. Divide
3. Copies then move to opposite poles (ends) of the cell

Meiosis
In meiosis, the chromosome number is halved and each cell is genetically different. The
diagram shows the main stages involved.

During meiosis:

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 In the first division, one chromosome from each pair separate to opposite poles
 In the second division, the chromosomes divide and the copies move to opposite pole
Alleles are different forms of a gene. They can be dominant or recessive. Genetic
diagrams help us to understand the possible outcomes when parents produce
offspring. Huntington’s disease is a disorder of the nervous system that is caused
by a dominant allele. Cystic fibrosis is a disorder of the cell membranes caused by a
recessive allele.

INHERITANCE Alleles
Some characteristics, such as eye colour and the shape of the earlobe, are controlled by a
single gene. These genes may have different forms.

Different forms of the same gene are called alleles (pronounced al-eels). The gene for eye
colour has an allele for blue eye colour and an allele for brown eye colour.

Alleles are dominant or recessive:

 the characteristic controlled by a dominant allele develops if the allele is present

on one or both chromosomes in a pair
 the characteristic controlled by a recessive allele develops only if the allele is present
on both chromosomes in a pair
For example, the allele for brown eyes is dominant, while the allele for blue eyes is recessive.
An individual who inherits one or two alleles for brown eyes will have brown eyes. An
individual will only have blue eyes if they inherit two copies of the allele for blue eyes.

Individuals A and B have brown eyes - only individual C has blue eyes

Huntington’s disease
Huntington’s disease is an inherited disorder that affects the nervous system. It is caused by
a dominant allele. This means it can be passed on by just one parent if they have the
disorder. The genetic diagram shows how this can happen.

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Genetic diagram to show the inheritance of Huntingdon's disease
Note that if you are doing the Foundation Tier paper you are expected to be able to interpret
genetic diagrams. If you are doing the Higher Tier paper, you are expected to be able to draw
genetic diagrams for any combination of dominant and recessive alleles.

DNA structure
DNA is the molecule that holds the instructions for growth and development in every living
thing. Its structure is described as a double-stranded helix held together by complementary
base pairs.

The basic units of DNA are nucleotides. These nucleotides consist of a deoxyribose sugar,
phosphate and base.
The nucleotides are identical except for the base, which can be an adenine, thymine, guanine
or cytosine.

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These basic units are linked together to form strands by strong covalent bonds between the
deoxyribose sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next nucleotide. These strong
bonds form a sugar-phosphate backbone.
The ends of the DNA strand are called the 5’ end, pronounced 5 prime end, at the phosphate
end, and the 3’ end at the deoxyribose end.

All cells store their genetic information in the base sequence of DNA. The genotype is
determined by the sequence of bases.

Organisation of DNA
DNA is present in the cells of every living thing. However, the DNA is organised differently
in different types of organism.
We can divide cells into two groups based on how they organise their DNA – eukaryotes and
prokaryotes.

Prokaryotes
Bacteria are prokaryotes. They do not have a membrane-bound nucleus and their DNA is free
in the cytoplasm.
Bacteria have a single circular chromosome in the centre of the cell that holds all the genes
needed for that bacterium. Bacteria also have extra circles of DNA called plasmids.
These plasmids contain additional genes, such as for antibiotic resistance, which may
increase a bacterium’s chance of survival. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with other bacteria
through hair-like extensions on their surface called pili.

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Eukaryotes
Animals, plants and fungi are eukaryotes. They have a membrane-bound nucleus and their
chromosomes are linear rather than circular.
The DNA found in the linear chromosomes is tightly coiled and packaged around special
proteins as shown below.

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Interestingly, circular chromosomes are also found in mitochondriaand chloroplasts.They
both use their own DNA to make some proteins needed for their function. This gives
evidence for the theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from prokaryotic cells
that were engulfed by a larger cell.

STEM CELLS

Therapeutic cloning
If you were to receive medical treatment with cells grown from stem cells, your body’s
immune system would recognise the cells as foreign, and they would be rejected and die.
But this would not happen if you received cells with the same genes as you.

This could be done by cloning one of your cells to produce an embryo, then taking stem cells
from this. This is called therapeutic cloning. Here are the steps involved:

1. nucleus taken out of a human egg cell

2. nucleus from a patient's cell put into the egg cell
3. egg cell stimulated to develop into an embryo
4. stem cells taken from the embryo
5. stem cells grown in a container of warm nutrients
6. stem cells treated to develop into required cell types

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Artificial cloning of animals – higher
There are two main ways to clone animals.

Embryo transplants
A developing embryo is removed from a pregnant animal at an early stage, before its cells
have had time to become specialised. The cells are separated, grown for a while in a
laboratory, then transplanted into host mothers.

When the offspring are born, they are identical to each other, and to the original pregnant
animal. They are not identical to their host mothers, because they contain different genetic
information.

Fusion cell cloning

Fusion cell cloning involves replacing the nucleus of an unfertilised egg with one from a
different cell. The replacement can come from an embryo. If it is from an adult cell, it is
called adult cell cloning.

'Dolly the sheep' was the first mammal to be cloned using adult cell cloning. She was born in
the UK in 1996, and died in 2003. Here is how she was produced:

1. An egg cell was removed from the ovary of an adult female sheep, and its nucleus
removed.
2. The nucleus from an udder cell of a donor sheep was inserted into the empty egg
cell.
3. The fused cell then began to develop normally, using genetic information from the
donated DNA.
4. Before the dividing cells became specialised, the embryo was implanted into the
uterus of a foster mother sheep. The result was Dolly, who was genetically identical
to the donor sheep.

The cloning process of 'Dolly the sheep'

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 Requirements for DNA replication
 Original DNA template - DNA is a double helix made of two complementary strands. Each strand
can be used as a template to create a new DNA molecule.
 Free DNA nucleotides – needed to form the new strands.
 DNA polymerase – an enzyme that adds new nucleotides to a growing strand of DNA.
 Primers – needed to start the process because DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to an
existing strand of DNA.

DNA replication
Stage one
The DNA is unwound and unzipped. The helix structure is unwound. Special molecules
break the weak hydrogen bonds between bases, which are holding the two strands together.
This process occurs at several locations on a DNA molecule.

Stage two
DNA polymerase adds DNA nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’ direction. Complementary DNA
nucleotides are added to the now exposed bases on both strands. Adenine pairs with thymine,
thymine with adenine, cytosine with guanine and guanine with cytosine. A primer is needed
to start replication.
1. Leading strand is synthesised continuously. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the deoxyribose
(3’) ended strand in a 5’ to 3’ direction.
2. Lagging strand is synthesised in fragments. Nucleotides cannot be added to the phosphate (5’) end
because DNA polymerase can only add DNA nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’ direction. The lagging strand is
therefore synthesised in fragments. The fragments are then sealed together by an enzyme
called ligase.

Stage three
The two new strands twist to form a double helix. Each is identical to the original strand.

Polymerase chain reaction

The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique for the amplification of DNA in vitro
(this describes experiments with cells outside their normal environment).
This technique allows scientists to easily and cheaply turn a single strand of DNA into
millions of copies which can then be used for analysis.
The analysis of DNA is used in the Human Genome Project, paternity testing, diagnosis of
genetic disorders and the detection of infection.

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 Requirements for PCR
 DNA – the original strand of DNA which needs amplified.
 Complimentary primers – primers are short complementary sequences of RNA needed to start DNA
synthesis.
 Thermal cycler – equipment that varies the temperature of the reaction.
 Heat-tolerant polymerase – an enzyme which will add nucleotides to the growing strand and which is
not denatured by the high temperatures used in the reaction.
 Supply of nucleotides – to synthesise the new strands of DNA.

The PCR process

1. DNA heated - to denature the DNA and separate the two strands.
2. DNA cooled - in preparation for adding primers.
3. Complimentary primers added - which are complementary to the target sequences at the two ends of
the region to be amplified.
4. Heat-tolerant DNA polymerase added - which replicates the region of DNA to be amplified. Two
strands are formed.
5. Repeated cycles are carried out - which amplify this region of DNA from a single strand to millions
of copies.

Respiration releases energy for cells from glucose. This can be aerobic respiration,
which needs oxygen, or anaerobic respiration, which does not. During exercise, the
breathing rate and heart rate increase. During hard exercise an oxygen debt may
build up.

Aerobic respiration
Energy is needed for life processes such as:

 Protein synthesis
 Muscle contraction
 Control of body temperature in mammals
Respiration provides the energy needed for all life processes in plants and in animals.

Aerobic respiration needs oxygen. These are the equations for aerobic respiration:

Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

C6H12O6 + 6O2→ 6CO2 + 6H2O

Measuring respiration rate

The rate of respiration can be determined by measuring:

 Increased oxygen consumption

 Increased carbon dioxide production
The faster the rate of respiration, the greater the rate of oxygen use and the greater the rate
of carbon dioxide release. Take care not to confuse respiration with breathing, and rate of
respiration with breathing rate.

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 Respiratory quotient (RQ)
RQ is calculated using this formula:

RQ = carbon dioxide produced ÷ oxygen used

For aerobic respiration using glucose, RQ = 1.

Anaerobic respiration
Exercise
During exercise, the muscle cells respire more than they do at rest. This means:

 Oxygen and glucose must be delivered to them more quickly

 Waste carbon dioxide must be removed more quickly
This is achieved by increasing the breathing rate and heart rate. The increase in heart rate
can be detected by measuring the pulse rate.

Fitness versus health

Fit people are able to carry out physical activities more effectively than unfit people. Their
pulse rate is likely to return to normal more quickly after exercise.

Being fit is not the same as being healthy. Healthy people are free from disease and infection
but this doesn't always mean that they are fit as well. It is possible to be fit but unhealthy, or
healthy but unfit.

Anaerobic respiration
During hard exercise, anaerobic respiration takes place as well as aerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration does not need oxygen for it to happen:

Glucose → lactic acid

The waste product, lactic acid, builds up in the muscles causing pain and tiredness.

Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic
respiration does.

Respiration and exercise - Higher tier

ATP
ATP is a substance that is used as the energy source for many processes in cells. ATP is
produced as a result of respiration. For example, one glucose molecule can release enough
energy during respiration for the production of:

 38 ATP molecules by aerobic respiration

 2 ATP molecules by anaerobic respiration

Metabolic rate
The metabolic rate is the rate at which energy is used by the body. Since aerobic
respiration needs oxygen, the rate of oxygen consumption can be used as an estimate of
metabolic rate.

The rate of respiration is influenced by changes in temperature and pH. This is because
enzymes are involved in respiration, and their activity varies with temperature and pH.

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 Fatigue
Hard exercise can cause fatigue. This is because lactic acid from anaerobic respiration builds
up in the muscles. It takes a while to recover from hard exercise, during which time you may
still breathe heavily and have a higher heart rate than normal. This is because:

 Hard exercise causes a lack of oxygen in cells

 Glucose is not broken down completely in anaerobic respiration
 Panting replaces oxygen, allowing aerobic respiration to happen
 The increased heart rate ensures that the blood carries lactic acid away to the liver.

Neurons
Neurons carry impulses from one place to another, around the many parts of the nervous
system. They connect receptors to the central nervous system and also connect one part of
the nervous system to another, for example in the brain and spinal cord. They also carry
impulses from the nervous system to effector organs, such as muscles and glands.

When neurons are stimulated they transmit an electrical impulse.

The diagram below shows a motor neuron. It has a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm. The
cytoplasm forms a long fibre that is surrounded by a cell membrane. This is called an axon.
The axon carries the electrical impulse and is protected by a fatty sheath - a bit like the
plastic coating around an electrical wire. The fatty sheath increases the speed at which the
nerve impulse is transmitted. The nerve ending is branched to make good contact with other
neurons or the effector organ.

Two neurons do not make direct contact. Where they meet, there is a very small gap called
a synapse. The impulse needs to cross this gap to continue on its journey to, or from,
the CNS. This is done by means of chemicals which diffuse across the gap between the two
neurons.

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Central nervous system
An animal's response to a stimulus is coordinated by its central nervous system(CNS). The
CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It gathers information about, and responds
to, changes in the environment.

Receptors detect a stimulus and send impulses along sensory neurons to the CNS. The CNS
coordinates the information and sends impulses along motor neurons to the effectors, which
bring about a response. The sequence is as follows:

1. Stimulus
2. Receptor
3. Sensory neuron
4. Central nervous system
5. Motor neuron
6. Effector
7. Response

The peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of motor and sensory neurons that carry
impulses from the receptors to the CNS, as well as impulses from the CNS to the effectors.

Reflex arc
Reflex reactions in humans are controlled by the reflex arc.

When the safety of an organism demands a very quick response, the signals may be passed
directly from a sensory neuron, via a relay neurone, to a motor neurone for instant,
unthinking action. This is a reflex action.

A reflex arc is the nerve pathway which makes such a fast, automatic response possible. It
does not matter how brainy you are - you will always pull your hand away from a flame
without thinking about it. It is in-built, or innate, behaviour, and we all behave in the same
way.

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 How synapses work - Higher tier

1. An electrical impulse travels along an axon.

2. This triggers the nerve-ending of a neuron to release chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters.
3. These chemicals diffuse across the synapse (the gap) and bind with receptor
molecules on the membrane of the next neuron.
4. The receptor molecules on the second neuron bind only to the specific
chemicals released from the first neuron. This stimulates the second neuron to
transmit the electrical impulse.

THE RESPIRITORY SYSTEM

The trachea branches into two bronchi (one to each lung).Pleural
membranes surround each lung. Cartilage rings in the walls of the trachea help to
keep it open.
The bronchi split into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles. These end in
microscopic air sacs called alveoli. There is a muscular diaphragm below the lungs.

Ventilation
The ribs, intercostal muscles and diaphragm all play important roles
inventilation (breathing).

Breathing in
When you inhale:
1. the internal intercostal muscles relax and the external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the
ribcage upwards and outwards
2. the diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards
3. lung volume increases and the air pressure inside decreases
4. air is pushed into the lungs

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 Breathing out
When you exhale:
1. the external intercostal muscles relax and the internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage
downwards and inwards
2. the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards
3. lung volume decreases and the air pressure inside increases
4. air is pushed out of the lungs

Gas exchange in the lungs

Gas exchange in the lungs happens in the alveoli. Some of the features of alveoli include:
 thin walls (just one cell thick)
 large surface area
 moist surface
 many blood capillaries

Gas exchange in the lungs happening in the alveoli

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 Inhaled and exhaled air
Compared to atmospheric air, exhaled air contains:
 less oxygen
 more carbon dioxide
 slightly more nitrogen

Atmospheric Exhaled
Gas Change
air air
Nitrogen, N2 78% 79% +1%
Oxygen, O2 21% 16% -5%
Carbon dioxide, CO2 0.04% 4% +4%
Others (mostly argon,
Ar) 1% 1% 0%
Limewater turns milky in the presence of carbon dioxide, so it can be used to show the
differences between inhaled (inspired) air and exhaled (expired) air. The limewater
immediately turns milky on contact with exhaled air.

The heart
The heart is a pump which sends some blood to the lungs and some blood to the rest of
the body each time it beats. The blood on the left side is kept separate from the blood
on the right side.

Blood enters the heart through a vein and collects in an atrium. The atriumcontracts and
the blood is pushed into a ventricle. The ventricle then contracts, and the blood is forced
out through an artery towards the lungs or towards the rest of the body. Valves prevent
the blood flowing back into the atrium or ventricle.

Blood pressure
You should be able to interpret pressure changes in arteries,
capillaries and veins. The chart shows how the pressure changes in
the circulatory system - starting at the aorta leading from the left
ventricle to the rest of the body, and back to the vena cava leading
to the right atrium.

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Pressure changes in the circulatory system

Note - the pressure is greatest in the arteries. The regular rise

and fall in arterial pressure is due to the action of the heart.
The systolic pressure is the pressure in the arteries when the
heart is contracting, and the diastolic pressure is when the heart’s
chambers are refilling with blood.

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The stages of the nitrogen cycle
1. Nitrogen-fixation
Legume plants such as peas, beans and clover contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria
live in swellings in the plant roots callednodules. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen
gas from air into a form that plants can use to make proteins.
Free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also found in the soil. When they die the nitrogen
they have fixed into their biomass is converted intoammonium.

2. Feeding
Animals consume plant protein, digest it using specific enzymes and absorb the free amino
acids.

3. Production of nitrogenous waste products

Animals cannot store excess protein in their bodies. They break it down and turn it into waste
products and excrete them from their bodies.

4. Decomposition
Decomposers (some free-living bacteria and fungi) break down animal and plant proteins
(from dead organisms) and nitrogenous waste products to release energy. As a result
of decompositionnitrogen is released into the soil in the form of ammonium.

5. Nitrification
A group of free-living soil bacteria called nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium into
nitrates in order to obtain energy.

6. Uptake of nitrates
Non-legume plants absorb nitrates from the soil into their roots and use the nitrates to
produce their proteins.

7. Denitrification
This is when bacteria in the soil convert the nitrate back into nitrogen gas which then gets
released back into the atmosphere.

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Carbon cycle
Most of the chemicals that make up living tissue contain carbon. When organismsdie the
carbon is recycled so that it can be used by future generations. The model that describes the
processes involved is called the carbon cycle.

Steps in the carbon cycle

1. Back
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
5. 4
6. Next

1. Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration and combustion.
2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis.
3. Animals feed on the plant passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most
of the carbon they consume is exhaled as carbon dioxideformed during respiration.
The animals and plants eventually die.
4. The dead organisms are eaten by decomposers and the carbon in their bodies is
returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In some conditions decomposition
is blocked. The plant and animal material may then be available as fossil fuel in
the future for combustion.

Carbon cycle in the sea - higher tier only

In the sea, marine animals may convert some of the carbon in their diet to calcium
carbonate which is used to make their shells. Over time the shells of dead organisms collect
on the seabed and form limestone. Due to Earth movements this limestone may eventually
become exposed to the air where it's weathered and the carbon is released back into the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Volcanic action may also release carbon dioxide.

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