Ammeter

Electrical and electronic measuring
equipment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Below is the list of measuring instruments used in electric and electronics
Name Purpose
Ammeter Measures current
Capacitance meter Measures the capacitance of a component
Distortionmeter Measures the distortion added to a circuit
Electricity meter Measures the amount of energy dissipated
LCR meter Measures the inductance,capacitance and the resistance of a component
Microwave power
Measures power at microwave frequencies
meter
General purpose instrument measures voltage, current and resistance (and

Multimeter
sometimes other quantities as well)
Network analyzer Measures network parameters

Ohmmeter Measures the resistance of a component
Oscilloscope Displayes waveform of a signal
Psophometer Measures AF and noice
Q meter Measures Q factor of the RF circuits
Signal generator Generates signals for testing purposes
Spectrum analyser Displayes frequency spectrum
Transistor tester Tests transistors
Tube tester Tests vacuum tubes (triode, tetrode etc.)
Wattmeter Measures the power
Vectorscope Displays the phase of the colors in color TV
Video signal
Generates video signal for testing purposes
generator
Voltmeter Measures the potential difference between two points
VU meter Meaures the level of AF signals in Volume units
Ammeter
Demonstration model of a moving iron ammeter. As the current through the coil increases, the plunger is
drawn further into the coil and the pointer deflects to the right.
Wire carrying current to be measured.

Spring providing restoring force This illustration is conceptual; in a practical meter, the iron core is
stationary, and front and rear spiral springs carry current to the coil, which is supported on a rectangular
bobbin. Furthermore, the poles of the permanent magnet are arcs of a circle.
Ammeter from the old Penn StationTerminal Service Plant in New York City
Zero-center ammeter
An older moving iron ammeter with its characteristic non-linear scale and with the moving iron ammeter
symbol mounted on a small form factor PC.
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.

Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to
measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated
as milliammeters ormicroammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which
relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved
instruments were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed
accurate measurements in electric power systems.
Contents
 1 History
 2 Types
 3 Picoammeter
 4 Application
 5 See also
 6 References
[edit]History
The relation between electric current, magnetic fields and physical forces was first noted
by Hans Christian Ørsted who, in 1820, observed a compass needle was deflected from
pointing North when a current flowed in an adjacent wire. The tangent
galvanometer was used to measure currents using this effect, where the restoring force
returning the pointer to the zero position was provided by the Earth's magnetic field.
This made these instruments usable only when aligned with the Earth's field. Sensitivity
of the instrument was increased by using additional turns of wire to multiply the effect –
the instruments were called "multipliers".[1]
[edit]Types
The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection,

where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a magnetic field. The
modern form of this instrument was developed by Edward Weston, and uses two spiral
springs to provide the restoring force. By maintaining a uniform air gap between the iron
core of the instrument and the poles of its permanent magnet, the instrument has good
linearity and accuracy. Basic meter movements can have full-scale deflection for
currents from about 25 microamperes to 10 milliamperes and have linear scales. [2]
Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon by the
electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of meter responds to
both direct andalternating currents (as opposed to the moving coil ammeter, which
works on direct currentonly). The iron element consists of a moving vane attached to a
pointer, and a fixed vane, surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows
through the coil and induces a magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes repel each other
and the moving vane deflects against the restoring force provided by fine helical
springs.[2] The non-linear scale of these meters makes them unpopular.
An electrodynamic movement uses an electromagnet instead of the permanent

magnet of the d'Arsonval movement. This instrument can respond to both alternating
and direct current.[2]
In a hot-wire ammeter, a current passes through a wire which expands as it heats.

Although these instruments have slow response time and low accuracy, they were
sometimes used in measuring radio-frequency current.[2]
Digital ammeter designs use an analog to digital converter (ADC) to measure the
voltage across the shunt resistor; the digital display is calibrated to read the current
through the shunt.
There is also a whole range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters.[3][4] In

these ammeters the amount of current is summed over time giving as a result the
product of current and time, which is proportional to the energy transferred with that
current. These can be used for energy meters (watt-hour meters) or for estimating the
charge of battery or capacitor.
[edit]Picoammeter
A picoammeter, or pico ammeter, measures very low electrical current, usually from
the picoampere range at the lower end to the milliampere range at the upper end.
Picoammeters are used for sensitive measurements where the current being measured
is below the theoretical limits of sensitivity of other devices, such as Multimeters.
Most picoammeters use a "virtual short" technique and have several different
measurement ranges that must be switched between to cover multiple decades of
measurement. Other modern picoammeters use log compression and a "current sink"
method that eliminates range switching and associated voltage spikes.[5]
[edit]Application
The majority of ammeters are either connected in series with the circuit carrying the
current to be measured (for small fractional amperes), or have their shunt resistors
connected similarly in series. In either case, the current passes through the meter or
(mostly) through its shunt. They must not be connected to a source of voltage; they are
designed for minimal burden, which refers to the voltage drop across the ammeter,
which is typically a small fraction of a volt. They are almost a short circuit.
Ordinary Weston-type meter movements can measure only milliamperes at most,

because the springs and practical coils can carry only limited currents. To measure
larger currents, a resistorcalled a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. The
resistances of shunts is in the integer to fractional milliohm range. Nearly all of the
current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter. This
allows the meter to measure large currents. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt
has a full-scale deflection (FSD) of 50 mV, so shunts are typically designed to produce
a voltage drop of 50 mV when carrying their full rated current.
Zero-center ammeters are used for applications requiring current to be measured with
both polarities, common in scientific and industrial equipment. Zero-center ammeters
are also commonly placed in series with a battery. In this application, the charging of the
battery deflects the needle to one side of the scale (commonly, the right side) and the
discharging of the battery deflects the needle to the other side. A special type of zero-
center ammeter for testing high currents in cars and trucks has a pivoted bar magnet
that moves the pointer, and a fixed bar magnet to keep the pointer centered with no
current. The magnetic field around the wire carrying current to be measured deflects the
moving magnet.
Since the ammeter shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the ammeter in
parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit, at best blowing a fuse, possibly
damaging the instrument and wiring, and exposing an observer to injury.
In AC circuits, a current transformer converts the magnetic field around a conductor into
a small AC current, typically either 1 A or 5 A at full rated current, that can be easily
read by a meter. In a similar way, accurate AC/DC non-contact ammeters have been
constructed using Hall effect magnetic field sensors. A portable hand-held clamp-on
ammeter is a common tool for maintenance of industrial and commercial electrical
equipment, which is temporarily clipped over a wire to measure current. Some recent
types have a parallel pair of magnetically-soft probes that are placed on either side of
the conductor.
Capacitance meter
A capacitance meter is a piece of electronic test equipment used to

measure capacitance, mainly of discrete capacitors. Depending on the sophistication of
the meter, it may display the capacitance only, or it may also measure a number of
other parameters such as leakage,equivalent series resistance (ESR), and inductance.
For most purposes and in most cases the capacitor must be disconnected from circuit;
ESR can usually be measured in circuit.
Contents
 1 Simple checks without a true capacitance meter

 2 Simple and non-bridge meters
 3 Bridges
 4 Equivalent series resistance
[edit]Simple checks without a true capacitance meter

Some checks can be made without a specialised instrument, particularly on
aluminium electrolytic capacitors which tend to be of high capacitance and to be subject
to poor leakage. A multimeter in a resistance range can detect a short-circuited
capacitor (very low resistance) or one with very high leakage (high resistance, but lower
than it should be; an ideal capacitor has infinite resistance). A crude idea of the
capacitance can be derived with an analog multimeter in a high resistance range by
observing the needle when first connected; current will flow to charge the capacitor and
the needle will "kick" from infinite indicated resistance to a relatively low value, and then
drift up to infinity. The amplitude of the kick is an indication of capacitance. Interpreting
results requires some experience, or comparison with a good capacitor, and depends
upon the particular meter and range used.
[edit]Simple and non-bridge meters

Many DVMs (digital volt meters) have a capacitance-measuring function. These usually
operate by charging and discharging the capacitor under test with a known current and
measuring the rate of rise of the resulting voltage; the slower the rate of rise, the larger
the capacitance. DVMs can usually measure capacitances from nanofarads to a few
hundred microfarads, but wider ranges are not unusual.
It is also possible to measure capacitance by passing a known high-
frequency alternating current through the device under test and measuring the
resulting voltage across it.
When troubleshooting circuit problems, a few problems are intermittent or only show up
with the working voltage applied, and are not revealed by measurements with
equipment, however sophisticated, which uses low test voltages. Some problems are
revealed by using a "freezer" spray and observing the effect on circuit operation.
Ultimately, in difficult cases routine replacement of capacitors (relatively cheap
components) is easier than arranging measurements of all relevant parameters in
working conditions.
Some more specialised instruments measure capacitance over a wide range using the
techniques described above, and can also measure other parameters. Low stray and
parasitic capacitance can be measured if a low enough range is available. Leakage
current is measured by applying a direct voltage and measuring the current in the
normal way.
[edit]Bridges
An Andeen-Hagerling 2700A capacitance bridge
More sophisticated instruments use other techniques such as inserting the capacitor-
under-test into a bridge circuit. By varying the values of the other legs in the bridge (so
as to bring the bridge into balance), the value of the unknown capacitor is determined.
This method of indirect uses of measuring capacitance ensures greater precision. The
bridge usually can also measure series resistance and inductance. Through the use
of Kelvin connections and other careful design techniques, these instruments can
usually measure capacitors over a range from picofarads to farads. Combined LCR
meters that can measure inductance, resistance, and capacitance are available.
Bridge circuits do not themselves measure leakage current, but a DC bias voltage can
be applied and the leakage measured directly.
Modern bridge instruments usually include a digital display and, where relevant, some
sort of go/no go testing to allow simple automated use in a production environment. As
with all modern instruments, bridges can be interfaced to computer and other equipment
to export readings and allow external control.
[edit]Equivalent series resistance

While not a capacitance meter as such, a dedicated ESR meter will measure
the equivalent series resistance (but not the capacitance) of a capacitor without the
need to disconnect it from circuit. Capacitors which cause circuit failure due to high ESR
with capacity within tolerance, particularly in switch-mode power supplies, are common.
Distortionmeter
Distortionmeter (or more precisely distortion factor meter) is an electronic measuring

instrument which displays the amount of distortion added to the original signal by an
electronic circuit.
[edit]Harmonic distortion
Distortion is equivalent to adding harmonics to a signal. When a purely sinusoidal signal
is distorted, a series of harmonics is superimposed on the original signal.
If the input is
The normalized output is
The Total harmonics distortion (THD) is defined as the ratio of the harmonics
to the fundamental; [1] i.e.,
This ratio can be given in dB or in percentage.
[edit]The instrument
The distortionmeter is actually a levelmeter with two switcable paralel circuits
at the input. The first circuit measures the total signal at the output of a system.
(For low distortion levels this is almost equal to fundamental). That's calibrated
to 100% or equivalently to 0 dB. The second circuit is a highpass filter which
attenuates the fundamental, with negligable attenuation at harmonics
frequencies. So when the instrument is switched for harmonics measurement
the displayed level is the level of the harmonics only.
Electricity meter
Typical North American domestic analogelectricity meter

Typical North American domestic digital electricity meter
An electricity meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electric
energyconsumed by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device.
Electricity meters are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common one being
the kilowatt hour. Periodic readings of electric meters establishes billing cycles and
energy used during a cycle.
In settings when energy savings during certain periods are desired, meters may
measure demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. In some areas, the
electric rates are higher during certain times of day, to encourage reduction in use. Also,
in some areas meters have relays to turn off nonessential equipment. [1]
Contents
 1 History
o 1.1 Direct Current (DC)
o 1.2 Alternating Current (AC)
 2 Unit of measurement
 3 Types of meters
o 3.1 Electromechanical meters
o 3.2 Electronic meters
 3.2.1 Communication
 3.2.2 Solid-state design
o 3.3 Multiple tariff (variable rate) meters
 3.3.1 Domestic usage
 3.3.2 United Kingdom
 3.3.3 Commercial usage
 4 Appliance energy meters
 5 In-home energy use displays
 6 Smart meters
 7 Prepayment meters
 8 Time of day metering
 9 Power export metering
 10 Ownership
 11 Location
 12 Customer Drop and Metering Equation
 13 Tampering and security
o 13.1 Privacy issues
 14 See also
 15 Notes
 16 References
 17 External links
[edit]History
[edit]Direct Current (DC)

As commercial use of electric energy spread in the 1880s, it became increasingly
important that an electric energy meter, similar to the then existing gas meters, was
required to properly bill customers for the cost of energy, instead of billing for a fixed
number of lamps per month. Many experimental types of meter were
developed. Edison at first worked on a DC electromechanical meter with a direct
reading register, but instead developed an electrochemical metering system, which
used an electrolytic cell to totalize current consumption. At periodic intervals the plates
were removed, weighed, and the customer billed. The electrochemical meter was labor-
intensive to read and not well received by customers. In 1885 Ferranti offered a mercury
motor meter with a register similar to gas meters; this had the advantage that the
consumer could easily read the meter and verify consumption.[2] The first accurate,
recording electricity consumption meter was a DC meter by Dr Hermann Aron, who
patented it in 1883. Hugo Hirst of the British General Electric Company introduced it
commercially into Great Britain from 1888.[3] Meters had been used prior to this, but they
measured the rate of energy consumption at that particular moment, i.e. the electric
power. Aron's meter recorded the total energy used over time, and showed it on a
series of clock dials.
[edit]Alternating Current (AC)
The first specimen of the AC kilowatt-hour meter produced on the basis of
Hungarian Ottó Bláthy's patent and named after him was presented by the Ganz Works
at the Frankfurt Fair in the autumn of 1889, and the first induction kilowatt-hour meter
was already marketed by the factory at the end of the same year. These were the first
alternating-current watt meters, known by the name of Bláthy-meters.[4] The AC kilowatt
hour meters used at present operate on the same principle as Bláthy's original
invention[5][6][7][8] Also around 1889, Elihu Thomson of the American General
Electric company developed a recording watt meter (watt-hour meter) based on an
ironless commutator motor. This meter overcame the disadvantages of the
electrochemical type and could operate on either alternating or direct current. [9]
In 1894 Oliver Shallenberger of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation applied the

induction principle previously used [10] only in AC ampere-hour meters to produce a
watt-hour meter of the modern electromechanical form, using an induction disk whose
rotational speed was made proportional to the power in the circuit.[11][12] The Bláthy
meter was similar to Shallenberger and Thomson meter in that they are two-phase
motor meter.[13] Although the induction meter would only work on alternating current, it
eliminated the delicate and troublesome commutator of the Thomson design.
Shallenberger fell ill and was unable to refine his initial large and heavy design,
although he did also develop a polyphase version.
[edit]Unit of measurement
Panel-mounted solid state electricity meter, connected to a 2 MVA electricitysubstation. Remote current
and voltage sensors can be read and programmed remotely by modem and locally by infra-red. The circle
with two dots is the infra-red port. Tamper-evident seals can be seen.
The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour,
which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of
one hour, or 3,600,000 joules. Some electricity companies use
the SI megajoule instead.
Demand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a
quarter or half hour.
Reactive power is measured in "Volt-amperes reactive", (varh) in kilovar-hours. By

convention, a "lagging" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have positive reactive
power. A "leading", orcapacitive load, will have negative reactive power.[14]
Volt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including

reactive and actual. This is equal to the product of root-mean-square volts and
amperes.
Distortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. Power factor is
the ratio of resistive (or real power) to volt-amperes. A capacitive load has a leading
power factor, and an inductive load has a lagging power factor. A purely resistive load
(such as a filament lamp, heater or kettle) exhibits a power factor of 1. Current
harmonics are a measure of distortion of the wave form. For example, electronic loads
such as computer power supplies draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their
internal storage elements. This can lead to a significant voltage drop near the supply
voltage peak which shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening
causes odd harmonics which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they
are not only wasteful, but may interfere with the operation of other equipment. Harmonic
emissions are mandated by law in EU and other countries to fall within specified limits.
Other units of measurement
In addition to metering based on the amount of energy used, other types of metering are
available.
Meters which measured the amount of charge (coulombs) used, known as ampere-hour
meters, were used in the early days of electrification. These were dependent upon the
supply voltage remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy usage, which
was not a likely circumstance with most supplies.
Some meters measured only the length of time for which charge flowed, with no
measurement of the magnitude of voltage or current being made. These were only
suited for constant-load applications.
Neither type is likely to be used today.
[edit]Types of meters
Mechanism of electromechanicalinduction meter.
1 - Voltage coil - many turns of fine wire encased in plastic, connected in parallel with load.
2 - Current coil - three turns of thick wire, connected in series with load.
3 - Stator - concentrates and confines magnetic field.
4 - Aluminum rotor disc.
5 - rotor brake magnets.
6 - spindle with worm gear.
7 - display dials - note that the 1/10, 10 and 1000 dials rotate clockwise while the 1, 100 and 10000 dials
rotate counter-clockwise.
Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts)

and current(amperes) and finding the product of these to give instantaneous electrical
power (watts) which is then integrated against time to give energy used (joules, kilowatt-
hours etc.). Meters for smaller services (such as small residential customers) can be
connected directly in-line between source and customer. For larger loads, more than
about 200 ampere of load, current transformers are used, so that the meter can be
located other than in line with the service conductors. The meters fall into two basic
categories, electromechanical and electronic.
[edit]Electromechanical meters
This mechanical electricity meter has every other dial rotating counter-clockwise.
The most common type of electricity meter is theelectromechanical induction watt-hour

meter.[15][16]
The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of

an aluminium disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power. The
number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. It consumes a small
amount of power, typically around 2 watts.
The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is connected in such a way that it
produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a magnetic
flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees
using a lag coil.[17] This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that
a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current
and voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of
rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the
disc rotating at a speed proportional to the power being used. The disc drives a register
mechanism which integrates the speed of the disc over time by counting revolutions,
much like the odometer in a car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy
used over a period of time.
The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply.

Different phase configurations use additional voltage and current coils.
Three-phase electromechanical induction meter, metering 100 A 230/400 V supply. Horizontal aluminum
rotor disc is visible in center of meter
The aluminum disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the
register. The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The
dials may be of thecyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read where
for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the
pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. With the dial pointer type, adjacent
pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing mechanism.
The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the
symbol Khwhich is given in units of watt-hours per revolution. The value 7.2 is
commonly seen. Using the value of Kh, one can determine their power consumption at
any given time by timing the disc with a stopwatch. If the time in seconds taken by the
disc to complete one revolution is t, then the power in watts is . For

example, if Kh = 7.2, as above, and one revolution took place in 14.4 seconds, the
power is 1800 watts. This method can be used to determine the power consumption of
household devices by switching them on one by one.
Most domestic electricity meters must be read manually, whether by a representative of
the power company or by the customer. Where the customer reads the meter, the
reading may be supplied to the power company by telephone, post or over the internet.
The electricity company will normally require a visit by a company representative at
least annually in order to verify customer-supplied readings and to make a basic safety
check of the meter.
In an induction type meter, creep is a phenomenon that can adversely affect accuracy,
that occurs when the meter disc rotates continuously with potential applied and the load
terminals open circuited. A test for error due to creep is called a creep test.
Two standards govern meter accuracy, ANSI C12.20 for North America and IEC 62053.
[edit]Electronic meters
Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and can also
transmit readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used, electronic
meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as maximum
demand, power factorand reactive power used etc. They can also support time-of-day
billing, for example, recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak
hours.
Solid state electricity meter used in a home in the Netherlands.
[edit]Communication
Remote meter reading is a practical example of telemetry. It saves the cost of a human
meter reader and the resulting mistakes, but it also allows more measurements, and
remote provisioning. Many smart meters now include a switch to interrupt or restore
service.
Historically, rotating meters could report their power information remotely, using a pair
of contact closures attached to a KYZ line.
In a KYZ interface, the Y and Z wires are switch contacts, shorted to K for half of a
rotor's circumference. To measure the rotor direction, the Z signal is offset by 90
degrees from the Y. When the rotor rotates in the opposite direction, showing export of
power, the sequence reverses. The time between pulses measures the demand. The
number of pulses is total power usage.[18]
KYZ outputs were historically attached to "totalizer relays" feeding a "totalizer" so that
many meters could be read all at once in one place.
KYZ outputs are also the classic way of attaching electric meters to programmable logic
controllers, HVACs or other control systems. Some modern meters also supply a
contact closure that warns when the meter detects a demand near a higher tariff.
Some meters have an open collector output that gives 32-100 ms pulses for a constant
amount of used electrical energy. Usually 1000-10000 pulses per kWh. Output is limited
to max 27 V DC and 27 mA DC. The output usually follows the DIN 43864
standard.[19][20]
Often, meters designed for semi-automated reading have a serial port on that
communicates by infrared LED through the faceplate of the meter. In some apartment
buildings, a similar protocol is used, but in a wired bus using a serial current loop to
connect all the meters to a single plug. The plug is often near the mailboxes. In the
European Union, the most common infrared and protocol is "FLAG", a simplified subset
of mode C of IEC 61107. In the U.S. and Canada, the favoured infrared protocol is ANSI
C12.18. Some industrial meters use a protocol for programmable logic
controllers (Modbus).
The most modern protocol proposed for this purpose is DLM/COSEM which can
operate over any medium, including serial ports. The data can be transmitted
by Zigbee, WiFi, telephone lines or over the power lines themselves. Some meters can
be read over the internet.
Electronic meters now use Low Power Radio, GSM, GPRS, Bluetooth, IrDA, as well
as RS-485 wired link. The meters can now store the entire usage profiles with time
stamps and relay them at a click of a button. The demand readings stored with the
profiles accurately indicate the load requirements of the customer. This load profile data
is processed at the utilities for billing and planning purposes.
AMR (Automatic Meter Reading) and RMR (Remote Meter Reading) describe various
systems that allow meters to be checked without the need to send a meter reader out.
An electronic meter can transmit its readings by telephone line or radio to a central
billing office. Automatic meter reading can be done with GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) modems, one is attached to each meter and the other is placed at the
central utility office.
[edit]Solid-state design
Basic block diagram of an electronic energy meter
As in the block diagram, the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, a processing
and communication engine (i.e. a microcontroller), and other add-on modules such as
RTC, LCD display, communication ports/modules and so on.
The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage
reference, samplers and quantisers followed by an ADC section to yield the digitised
equivalents of all the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a Digital Signal
Processor to calculate the various metering parameters such as powers, energies etc.
The largest source of long-term errors in the meter is drift in the preamp, followed by the
precision of the voltage reference. Both of these vary with temperature as well, and vary
wildly because most meters are outdoors. Characterizing and compensating for these is
a major part of meter design.
The processing and communication section has the responsibility of calculating the
various derived quantities from the digital values generated by the metering engine.
This also has the responsibility of communication using various protocols and interface
with other addon modules connected as slaves to it.
RTC and other add-on modules are attached as slaves to the processing and
communication section for various input/output functions. On a modern meter most if
not all of this will be implemented inside the microprocessor, such as the Real Time
Clock (RTC), LCD controller, temperature sensor, memory and analog to digital
converters.
[edit]Multiple tariff (variable rate) meters
Electricity retailers may wish to charge customers different tariffs at different times of the
day to better reflect the costs of generation and transmission. Since it is typically not
cost effective to store significant amounts of electricity during a period of low demand
for use during a period of high demand, costs will vary significantly depending on the
time of day. Low cost generation capacity (baseload) such as nuclear can take many
hours to start, meaning a surplus in times of low demand, whereas high cost but flexible
generating capacity (such as gas turbines) must be kept available to respond at a
moment's notice (spinning reserve) to peak demand, perhaps being used for a few
minutes per day, which is very expensive.
Some multiple tariff meters use different tariffs for different amounts of demand. These
are usually industrial meters.
[edit]Domestic usage
Domestic variable-rate meters generally permit two to three tariffs ("peak", "off-peak"
and "shoulder") and in such installations a simple electromechanical time switch may be
used. Historically, these have often been used in conjunction with electrical storage
heaters or hot water storage systems.
Multiple tariffs are made easier by time of use (TOU) meters which incorporate or are
connected to a time switch and which have multiple registers.
Switching between the tariffs may happen via a radio-activated switch rather than a time
switch to prevent tampering with a sealed time switch to obtain cheaper electricity.
[edit]United Kingdom
Economy 7 Meter and Teleswitcher

Radio-activated switching is common in the UK, with a nightly data signal sent within the
longwave carrier of BBC Radio 4, 198 kHz. The time of off-peak charging is usually
seven hours between 11.30pm and 6.30am GMT, and this is designed to power storage
heaters and immersion heaters. In the UK, such tariffs are branded Economy 7 or White
Meter. The popularity of such tariffs has declined in recent years, at least in the
domestic market, due to the (perceived or real) deficiencies of storage heaters and the
comparatively low cost of natural gas. An "Economy 10" meter is also available, giving
five hours of heating overnight, with boosts in mid-morning and mid-afternoon.[21]
Most meters using Economy 7 switch the entire electricity supply to the cheaper rate
during the 7 hour night time period,[22] not just the storage heater circuit. The downside
of this is that the daytime rate will be significantly higher, and standing charges may be
a little higher too. For instance, normal rate electricity may be 9p per kWh,
whereas Economy 7's daytime rate might be 14 to 17 p per kWh, but only 5.43p per
kWh at night. Timer switches installed on washing machines, tumble
dryers, dishwashers andimmersion heaters may be set so that they switch on only when
the rate is lower.
[edit]Commercial usage
Large commercial and industrial premises may use electronic meters which record
power usage in blocks of half an hour or less. This is because most electricity
grids have demand surges throughout the day, and the power company may wish to
give price incentives to large customers to reduce demand at these times. These
demand surges often correspond to meal times or, famously, to advertisements in
popular television programmes.
[edit]Appliance energy meters

See also: Kill A Watt
Plug in electricity meters (or "Plug load" meters) measure energy used by individual
appliances. The meter is plugged into an outlet, and the appliance to be measured is
plugged into the meter. Such meters can help in energy conservation by identifying
major energy users, or devices that consume excessive standby power. A power meter
can often be borrowed from the local power authorities[23] or a local public library.[24][25]
[edit]In-home energy use displays

Main article: Home energy monitor
A potentially powerful means to reduce household energy consumption is to provide
convenient real-time feedback to users so they can change their energy using behavior.
Recently, low-cost energy feedback displays have become available. A study using a
consumer-readable meter in 500 Ontario homes by Hydro One showed an average
6.5% drop in total electricity use when compared with a similarly sized control
group. Hydro One subsequently offered free power monitors to 30,000 customers based
on the success of the pilot.[26] Projects such asGoogle PowerMeter, take information
from a smart meter and make it more readily available to users to help encourage
conservation.[27]
[edit]Smart meters
Main article: Smart meter
Smart meters go a step further than simple AMR (automatic meter reading). They offer
additional functionality including a real-time or near real-time reads, power
outage notification, and power quality monitoring. They allow price setting agencies to
introduce different prices for consumption based on the time of day and the season.
These price differences can be used to reduce peaks in demand (load shifting or peak
lopping), reducing the need for additional power plants and in particular the higher
polluting and costly to operate natural gas powered peaker plants. The feedback they
provide to consumers has also been shown to cut overall energy consumption. [citation
needed]
Another type of smart meter uses nonintrusive load monitoring to automatically

determine the number and type of appliances in a residence, how much energy each
uses and when. This meter is used by electric utilities to do surveys of energy use. It
eliminates the need to put timers on all of the appliances in a house to determine how
much energy each uses.
[edit]Prepayment meters
Prepayment meter and magnetic stripetokens, from a rented accommodation in the UK. The button
labeled A displays information and statistics such as current tariff and remaining credit. The button
labeled B activates a small amount of emergency credit should the customer run out
A prepayment key
The standard business model of electricity retailing involves the electricity company
billing the customer for the amount of energy used in the previous month or quarter. In
some countries, if the retailer believes that the customer may not pay the bill, a
prepayment meter may be installed. This requires the customer to make advance
payment before electricity can be used. If the available credit is exhausted then the
supply of electricity is cut off by a relay.
In the UK, mechanical prepayment meters used to be common in rented

accommodation. Disadvantages of these included the need for regular visits to
remove cash, and risk of theft of the cash in the meter.
Modern solid-state electricity meters, in conjunction with smart cards, have removed
these disadvantages and such meters are commonly used for customers considered to
be a poor credit risk. In the UK, one system is the PayPoint network, where
rechargeable tokens (Quantum cards for natural gas, or plastic "keys" for electricity) can
be loaded with whatever money the customer has available.
Recently smartcards are introduced as much reliable tokens that allows two way data
exchange between meter and the utility.
In South Africa, Sudan and Northern Ireland prepaid meters are recharged by entering a
unique, encoded twenty digit number using a keypad. This makes the tokens,
essentially a slip of paper, very cheap to produce.
Around the world, experiments are going on, especially in developing countries, to test
pre-payment systems. In some cases, prepayment meters have not been accepted by
customers. There are various groups, such as the Standard Transfer Specification
(STS) association, which promote common standards for prepayment metering systems
across manufacturers. Prepaid meters using the STS standard are used in many
countries.[28][29][30]
[edit]Time of day metering

Time of Day metering (TOD), also known as Time of Usage (TOU) or Seasonal Time of
Day (SToD), metering involves dividing the day, month and year into tariff slots and with
higher rates at peak load periods and low tariff rates at off-peak load periods. While this
can be used to automatically control usage on the part of the customer (resulting in
automatic load control), it is often simply the customers responsibility to control his own
usage, or pay accordingly (voluntary load control). This also allows the utilities to plan
their transmission infrastructure appropriately. See also Demand-side
Management (DSM).
TOD metering normally splits rates into an arrangement of multiple segments including
on-peak, off-peak, mid-peak or shoulder, and critical peak. A typical arrangement is a
peak occurring during the day (non-holiday days only), such as from 1 pm to 9 pm
Monday through Friday during the summer and from 6:30 am to 12 noon and 5 pm to 9
pm during the winter. More complex arrangements include the use of critical peaks
which occur during high demand periods. The times of peak demand/cost will vary in
different markets around the world.
Large commercial users can purchase power by the hour using either forecast pricing or
real time pricing. Prices range from we pay you to take it (negative) to $1000/MWh (100
cents/kWh).[31]
Some utilities allow residential customers to pay hourly rates, such as Illinois, which
uses day ahead pricing.[32][33]
[edit]Power export metering

See also: Net metering
Many electricity customers are installing their own electricity generating equipment,
whether for reasons of economy, redundancy orenvironmental reasons. When a
customer is generating more electricity than required for his own use, the surplus may
be exported back to the power grid. Customers that generate back into the "grid" usually
must have special equipment and/or safety devices to protect the grid components (as
well as the customer's own) in case of faults (electrical short circuits) or maintenance of
the grid (say voltage potential on a downed line going into an exporting customers
facility).
This exported energy may be accounted for in the simplest case by the meter running
backwards during periods of net export, thus reducing the customer's recorded energy
usage by the amount exported. This in effect results in the customer being paid for
his/her exports at the full retail price of electricity. Unless equipped with a detent or
equivalent, a standard meter will accurately record power flow in each direction by
simply running backwards when power is exported. Such meters are no longer legal in
the UK but instead a meter capable of separately measuring imported and exported
energy is required. Where allowed by law, utilities maintain a profitable margin between
the price of energy delivered to the consumer and the rate credited for consumer-
generated energy that flows back to the grid. Lately, upload sources typically originate
from renewable sources (e.g., wind turbines, photovoltaic cells), or gas or
steam turbines, which are often found in cogenerationsystems. Another potential upload
source that has been proposed is plug-in hybrid car batteries (vehicle-to-grid power
systems). This requires a "smart grid," which includes meters that measure electricity
via communication networks that require remote control and give customers timing and
pricing options. Vehicle-to-grid systems could be installed at workplace parking lots and
garages and at park and ridesand could help drivers charge their batteries at home at
night when off-peak power prices are cheaper, and receive bill crediting for selling
excess electricity back to the grid during high-demand hours.
[edit]Ownership
Following the deregulation of electricity supply markets in many countries (e.g., UK), the
company responsible for an electricity meter may not be obvious. Depending on the
arrangements in place, the meter may be the property of the meter Operator, electricity
distributor, theretailer or for some large users of electricity the meter may belong to the
customer.
The company responsible for reading the meter may not always be the company which
owns it. Meter reading is now sometimes subcontracted and in some areas the same
person may read gas, water and electricity meters at the same time.
[edit]Location
Current transformers used as part of metering equipment for three-phase 400 A electricity supply. The
fourth neutral wire does not require a current transformer because current cannot flow in this wire without
also flowing in one of the three phase wires
A commercial power meter
A Duke Energy technician removes the tamper-proof seal from a electricity meter at a residence
in Durham, North Carolina
The location of an electricity meter varies with each installation. Possible locations
include on a power pylon serving the property, in a street-side cabinet (meter box) or
inside the premises adjacent to the consumer unit / distribution board. Electricity
companies may prefer external locations as the meter can be read without gaining
access to the premises but external meters may be more prone to vandalism.
Current transformers permit the meter to be located remotely from the current-carrying
conductors. This is common in large installations. For example a substation serving a
single large customer may have metering equipment installed in a cabinet, without
bringing heavy cables into the cabinet.
[edit]Customer Drop and Metering Equation

Since electrical standards vary in different regions, "customer drops" from the grid to the
customer also vary depending on the standards and the type of installation. There are
several common types of connections between a grid and a customer. Each type has a
different metering equation.
 Two wire single phase is the most common drop. It is used in Europe, China, India and most
other countries with standards based on those from the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC). Usually, the voltage is 220V, with one of the wires attached to neutral,
and the metering equation is Wh = V * I. This standard can't start standard AC motors, and
requires special motors with shaded poles, or starting capacitors. This standard is popular
because it is the least expensive, and the higher distribution voltage permits use of very few
distribution transformers.
 Split phase has a positive phase, 120V from neutral, and a negative phase that is the
opposite polarity, -120V from neutral. The 120V difference between neutral and the two
phases are good for lighting and light loads. The 240V difference voltage between the high
and low phase is useful for heavy equipment. Like two-wire single-phase, this standard also
requires special motors with starting aids. This customer drop is common in North American
housing and light industry and some parts of Latin America that derive their standards from
ANSI. The lower voltages require more distribution transformers and there is extra wiring,
but a wide selection of customer premises equipment is possible, and the lower voltage
makes lighting circuits safer. The metering equation is Wh = V(IA-IB)/2.
 Two-phase power with an attached neutral is used in some parts of Japan. It can drive self-
starting electric motors and lighting, and is easily derived from common, inexpensive three-
phase delta power systems. It's a compromise that provides much of the safety and
convenience of split-phase yet adds some of the motor-starting ability of three-phase delta.
It's good for the light industry common in Japan. The metering equation is Wh = VA*IA +
VB*IB.
 Three-phase delta power is common in Japan and Turkey, and in industrial drops in IEC
countries. Neutral is provided by an earth ground, local in heavy installations, but often
shared for low-voltage light-duty installations (depending on regional safety rules).
Distribution voltage is 220V for light industrial and housing, with much higher voltages (often
19kV and 22kV) for heavy industry. Three-phase delta can directly operate AC motors. The
phase-to-phase voltage is useful for lighting and single-phase loads. A poorly installed high-
resistance ground can compromise safety. The standard metering equation for three-phase
delta uses Blondel's theorem, measuring only two of the phases: Wh = VA*IA + VB*IB; High
voltages are measured with standard meters and voltage transformers.
 Three-phase Wye power is used for heavy industry and grid distribution in North America,
some parts of Japan and Latin America. It has three phases and a neutral. Neutral is
provided by a low-resistance metallic return to the center tap of the grid generators,
providing superior safety, at extra expense. Higher voltages (18 and 24Kv are common) are
used for heavy industry. Three-phase wye can directly operate AC motors. A distribution
transformer is normally used to drive a split phase distribution line. The standard metering
equation for three-phase wye is: Wh = VA*IA + VB*IB + VC*IC;
In North America, it is common for electricity meters to plug into a standardised socket
outdoors, on the side of a building. This allows the meter to be replaced without
disturbing the wires to the socket, or the occupant of the building. Some sockets may
have a bypass while the meter is removed for service. The amount of electricity used
without being recorded during this small time is considered insignificant when compared
to the inconvenience which might be caused to the customer by cutting off the electricity
supply. Most electronic meters in North America use a serial protocol, ANSI C12.18.
In the UK and other IEC countries the supply and load terminals are in the meter
housing itself. Cables are connected directly to the meter. In some areas the meter is
outside, often on a utility pole. In others, it is inside the building in a niche. If inside, it
may share a data connection with other meters. If it exists, the shared connection is
often a small plug near the post box. The connection is often EIA-485 or infra-red with a
serial protocol such as IEC 62056.
In 2010, networking to meters is rapidly changing. The most common schemes seem to
combine an existing national standard for data (e.g.ANSI C12.19 or IEC 62056)
operating via the internet protocol with a small circuit board that does either powerline
communication, or ties to a digital mobile phone network.
[edit]Tampering and security

Meters can be manipulated to make them under-register, effectively allowing power use
without paying for it. This theft or fraud can be dangerous as well as dishonest.
Power companies often install remote-reporting meters specifically to enable remote
detection of tampering, and specifically to discover energy theft. The change to smart
power meters is useful to stop energy theft.
When tampering is detected, the normal tactic, legal in most areas of the USA, is to
switch the subscriber to a "tampering" tariff charged at the meter's maximum designed
current. At US$ 0.095/kWh, a standard residential 50 A meter causes a legally
collectible charge of about US$ 5,000.00 per month. Meter readers are trained to spot
signs of tampering, and with crude mechanical meters, the maximum rate may be
charged each billing period until the tamper is removed, or the service is disconnected.
A common method of tampering on older meters is to attach magnets to the outside of

the meter. These magnetically saturate the coils or current transformers, preventing the
alternating current from forming eddy currents in the rotor, or inducing voltages in the
current transformer.
Rectified DC loads cause mechanical (but not electronic) meters to under-register. DC

current does not cause the coils to make eddy currents in the disk, so this causes
reduced rotation and a lower bill.
Some combinations of capacitive and inductive load can interact with the coils and
mass of a rotor and cause reduced or reverse motion.
All of these effects can be detected by the electric company, and many modern meters
can detect or compensate for them.
The owner of the meter normally secures the meter against tampering. Revenue meters'
mechanisms and connections are sealed. Meters may also measure VAR-hours (the
reflected load), neutral and DC currents (elevated by most electrical tampering),
ambient magnetic fields, etc. Even simple mechanical meters can have mechanical
flags that are dropped by magnetic tampering or large DC currents.
Newer computerized meters usually have counter-measures against tampering. AMR

(Automated Meter Reading) meters often have sensors that can report opening of the
meter cover, magnetic anomalies, extra clock setting, glued buttons, inverted
installation, reversed or switched phases etc.
Some tampers bypass the meter, wholly or in part. Safe tampers of this type normally
increase the neutral current at the meter. Most split-phase residential meters in the
United States are unable to detect neutral currents. However, modern tamper-resistant
meters can detect and bill it at standard rates.[34]
Disconnecting a meter's neutral connector is unsafe because shorts can then pass
through people or equipment rather than a metallic ground to the generator.
A phantom loop connection via an earth ground is often much higher resistance than
the metallic neutral connector. Even in these cases, metering at the substation can alert
the operator to tampering. Substations, interties and transformers normally have a high-
accuracy meter for the area served. Power companies normally investigate
discrepancies between the total billed and the total generated, in order to find and fix
power distribution problems. These investigations are an effective method to discover
tampering.
In North America power thefts are often connected with indoor marijuana grow
operations. Narcotics detectives associate abnormally high power usage with the
lighting such operations require. Indoor marijuana growers aware of this are particularly
motivated to steal electricity simply to conceal their usage of it.
[edit]Privacy issues
The introduction of advanced meters in residential areas has produced additional
privacy issues that may affect ordinary customers. These meters are often capable of
recording energy usage every 15, 30 or 60 minutes. These can be used for surveillance,
revealing information about people's possessions and behavior.[35] For instance, it can
show when the customer is away for extended periods. Nonintrusive load
monitoring gives even more detail about what appliances people have and their living
and use patterns.
A more detailed and recent analysis of this issue was performed by the Illinois Security
Lab.[36
LCR meter
A LCR meter (Inductance (L), Capacitance (C), and Resistance (R)) is a piece
of electronic test equipment used to measure
the inductance,capacitance and, resistance of a component. In the usual versions of
this instrument these quantities are not measured directly, but determined from a
measurement of impedance. The necessary calculations are, however, incorporated in
the instrument's circuitry; the meter reads L, C and R directly with no human calculation
required.
Usually the device under test (DUT) is subjected to an AC voltage source. The meter
detects the voltage over, and the current through the DUT. From the ratio of these the
meter can determine the magnitude of the impedance. The phase angle between the
voltage and current is also detected and between that and the impedance magnitude
the DUT can be represented as an L and R or a C and R. The meter must assume
either a parallel or a series model for these two elements. The most useful assumption,
and the one usually adopted, is that LR measurements have the elements in series (as
would be encountered in an inductor coil) and that CR measurements have the
elements in parallel (as would be encountered in measuring a capacitor with a leaky
dielectric).It can also be used to judge the inductance variation with respect to the rotor
position in permanent magnet machines.
Inductance
Electromagnetism
Electricity · Magnetism
Electrostatics
Electric charge · Coulomb's law ·Electric field · Electric flux ·Gauss's law · Electric
potential ·Electrostatic induction ·Electric dipole moment ·Polarization density
Magnetostatics
Ampère's law · Electric current ·Magnetic field · Magnetization ·Magnetic flux · Biot–Savart
law ·Magnetic dipole moment ·Gauss's law for magnetism
Electrodynamics
Lorentz force law · emf ·Electromagnetic induction ·Faraday’s law · Lenz's law ·Displacement
current ·Maxwell's equations · EM field ·Electromagnetic radiation ·Liénard–Wiechert
potential ·Maxwell tensor · Eddy current
Electrical Network
Electrical conduction ·Electrical resistance · Capacitance ·Inductance · Impedance ·Resonant
cavities · Waveguides
Covariant formulation
Electromagnetic tensor ·EM Stress-energy tensor ·Four-current ·Electromagnetic four-potential
Scientists
Ampère · Coulomb · Faraday · Gauss ·Heaviside · Henry · Hertz · Lorentz ·Maxwell · Tesla · Volta ·
Weber · Ørsted
Capacitance
Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetostatics
Electrodynamics
Electrical Network
Scientists
Weber · Ørsted
Electrical resistance and conductance

(Redirected from Electrical resistance)
Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetostatics
Electrodynamics
Electrical Network
Scientists
Weber · Ørsted
Multimeter
A digital multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a or VOM, is an electronic measuring

instrumentthat combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to
measure voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may useanalog or digital
circuits—analog multimeters and digital multimeters (often
abbreviated DMMor DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on
a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibration for all the different
measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may
display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity measured.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service
work or abench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They
can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such aselectronic equipment, motor controls, domestic
appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
Multimeters are available in a wide ranges of features and prices. Cheap multimeters
can cost less than US$10, while the top of the line multimeters can cost more than
US$5,000.
Contents
 1 History
 2 Quantities measured
 3 Resolution
o 3.1 Digital
o 3.2 Analog
 4 Accuracy
 5 Sensitivity and input impedance
 6 Burden voltage
 7 Alternating current sensing
 8 Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)
 9 Analog multimeters
 10 Probes
 11 Safety
 12 DMM alternatives
 13 Battery
 14 See also
 15 References
[edit]History
1920s Pocket Multimeter
Avometer Model 8
The first moving-pointer current-detecting device was the galvanometer in 1820. These
were used to measure resistance and voltage by using a Wheatstone bridge, and
comparing the unknown quantity to a reference voltage or resistance. While useful in
the lab, the devices were very slow and impractical in the field. These galvanometers
were bulky and delicate.
The D'Arsonval/Weston meter movement used a fine metal spring to give proportional
measurement rather than just detection, and built-in permanent field
magnets made deflectionindependent of the 3D orientation of the meter. These features
enabled dispensing with Wheatstone bridges, and made measurement quick and easy.
By adding a series or shunt resistor, more than one range of voltage or current could be
measured with one movement.
Multimeters were invented in the early 1920s as radio receivers and other vacuum
tube electronic devices became more common. The invention of the first multimeter is
attributed to British Post Office engineer, Donald Macadie, who became dissatisfied with
having to carry many separate instruments required for the maintenance of
the telecommunications circuits.[1] Macadie invented an instrument which could
measure amperes (aka amps), volts and ohms, so the multifunctional meter was then
named Avometer.[2] The meter comprised a moving coil meter, voltage and precision
resistors, and switches and sockets to select the range.
Macadie took his idea to the Automatic Coil Winder and Electrical Equipment
Company(ACWEEC, founded in ~1923).[2] The first AVO was put on sale in 1923, and
although it was initially a DC. Many of its features remained almost unaltered through to
the last Model 8.
Pocket watch style meters were in widespread use in the 1920s, at much lower cost
thanAvometers. The metal case was normally connected to the negative connection, an
arrangement that caused numerous electric shocks. The technical specifications of
these devices were often crude, for example the one illustrated has a resistance of just
33 ohms per volt, a non-linear scale and no zero adjustment.
The usual analog multimeter when used for voltage measurements loads the circuit
under test to some extent (a microammeter with full-scale current of 50 μA, the highest
sensitivity commonly available, must draw at least 50 microamps from the circuit under
test to deflect fully). This may load a high-impedance circuit so much as to affect the
circuit, and to give a low reading.
Vacuum Tube Voltmeters or valve voltmeters (VTVM, VVM) were used for voltage
measurements in electronic circuits where high impedance was necessary. The VTVM
had a fixed input impedance of typically 1 megohm or more, usually through use of
a cathode follower input circuit, and thus did not significantly load the circuit being
tested. Before the introduction of digital electronic high-
impedance analog transistor and field effect transistor (FETs) voltmeters were used.
Modern digital meters and some modern analog meters use electronic input circuitry to
achieve high-input impedance—their voltage ranges are functionally equivalent to
VTVMs.
Additional scales such as decibels, and functions such as capacitance, transistor

gain, frequency,duty cycle, display hold, and buzzers which sound when the measured
resistance is small have been included on many multimeters. While multimeters may be
supplemented by more specialized equipment in a technician's toolkit, some modern
multimeters include even more additional functions for specialized applications (e.g.,
temperature with a thermocouple probe, inductance, connectivity to a computer,
speaking measured value, etc.).
[edit]Quantities measured
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
 Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.

 Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.
The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified.
 Resistance in ohms.
Additionally, some multimeters measure:
 Capacitance in farads.
 Conductance in siemens.
 Decibels.
 Duty cycle as a percentage.
 Frequency in hertz.
 Inductance in henrys.
 Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test probe,
often a thermocouple.
Digital multimeters may also include circuits for:
 Continuity; beeps when a circuit conducts.

 Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions, i.e., diodes and transistor junctions)
and transistors (measuring current gain and otherparameters).
 Battery checking for simple 1.5 volt and 9 volt batteries. This is a current loaded voltage
scale. Battery checking (ignoring internal resistance, which increases as the battery is
depleted), is less accurate when using a DC voltage scale.
Various sensors can be attached to multimeters to take measurements such as:
 Light level
 Acidity/Alkalinity(pH)
 Wind speed
 Relative humidity
[edit]Resolution
[edit]Digital
The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in "digits" of resolution. For example,
the term 5½ digits refers to the number of digits displayed on the display of a
multimeter.
By convention, a half digit can display either a zero or a one, while a three-quarters digit
can display a numeral higher than a one but not nine. Commonly, a three-quarters digit
refers to a maximum value of 3 or 5. The fractional digit is always the most significant
digit in the displayed value. A 5½ digit multimeter would have five full digits that display
values from 0 to 9 and one half digit that could only display 0 or 1. [3] Such a meter could
show positive or negative values from 0 to 199,999. A 3¾ digit meter can display a
quantity from 0 to 3,999 or 5,999, depending on the manufacturer.
While a digital display can easily be extended in precision, the extra digits are of no
value if not accompanied by care in the design and calibration of the analog portions of
the multimeter. Meaningful high-resolution measurements require a good understanding
of the instrument specifications, good control of the measurement conditions, and
traceability of the calibration of the instrument.
Specifying "display counts" is another way to specify the resolution. Display counts give
the largest number, or the largest number plus one (so the count number looks nicer)
the multimeter's display can show, ignoring a decimal separator. For example, a 5½
digit multimeter can also be specified as a 199999 display count or 200000 display
count multimeter. Often the display count is just called the count in multimeter
specifications.
[edit]Analog
Display face of an analog multimeter

Resolution of analog multimeters is limited by the width of the scale pointer, vibration of
the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of ranges, and
errors due to non-horizontal use of the mechanical display. Accuracy of readings
obtained is also often compromised by miscounting division markings, errors in mental
arithmetic, parallax observation errors, and less than perfect eyesight. Mirrored scales
and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two and a half to three
digits equivalent resolution is usual (and is usually adequate for the limited precision
needed for most measurements).
Resistance measurements, in particular, are of low precision due to the typical

resistance measurement circuit which compresses the scale heavily at the higher
resistance values. Inexpensive analog meters may have only a single resistance scale,
seriously restricting the range of precise measurements. Typically an analog meter will
have a panel adjustment to set the zero-ohms calibration of the meter, to compensate
for the varying voltage of the meter battery.
[edit]Accuracy
Digital multimeters generally take measurements with accuracy superior to their analog
counterparts. Standard analog multimeters measure with typically three percent
accuracy,[4] though instruments of higher accuracy are made. Standard portable digital
multimeters are specified to have an accuracy of typically 0.5% on the DC voltage
ranges. Mainstream bench-top multimeters are available with specified accuracy of
better than ±0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have accuracies of a few parts
per million.[5]
Accuracy figures need to be interpreted with care. The accuracy of an analog
instrument usually refers to full-scale deflection; a measurement of 30V on the 100V
scale of a 3% meter is subject to an error of 3V, 10% of the reading. Digital meters
usually specify accuracy as a percentage of reading plus a percentage of full-scale
value, sometimes expressed in counts rather than percentage terms.
Quoted accuracy is specified as being that of the lower millivolt (mV) DC range, and is
known as the "basic DC volts accuracy" figure. Higher DC voltage ranges, current,
resistance, AC and other ranges will usually have a lower accuracy than the basic DC
volts figure. AC measurements only meet specified accuracy within a specified range
of frequencies.
Manufacturers can provide calibration services so that new meters may be purchased
with a certificate of calibration indicating the meter has been adjusted to standards
traceable to, for example, the US National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), or other nationalstandards laboratory.
Test equipment tends to drift out of calibration over time, and the specified accuracy
cannot be relied upon indefinitely. For more expensive equipment, manufacturers and
third parties provide calibration services so that older equipment may be recalibrated
and recertified. The cost of such services is disproportionate for inexpensive equipment;
however extreme accuracy is not required for most routine testing. Multimeters used for
critical measurements may be part of a metrology program to assure calibration.
Some instrument assume sine waveform for measurements but for distorted wave
forms a true RMS converter (TrueRMS) may be needed for correct RMS calculation.
[edit]Sensitivity and input impedance

When used for measuring voltage, the input impedance of the multimeter must be very
high compared to the impedance of the circuit being measured; otherwise circuit
operation may be changed, and the reading will also be inaccurate.
Meters with electronic amplifiers (all digital multimeters and some analog meters) have
a fixed input impedance that is high enough not to disturb most circuits. This is often
either one or ten megohms; the standardization of the input resistance allows the use of
external high-resistance probes which form a voltage divider with the input resistance to
extend voltage range up to tens of thousands of volts.
Most analog multimeters of the moving-pointer type are unbuffered, and draw current
from the circuit under test to deflect the meter pointer. The impedance of the meter
varies depending on the basic sensitivity of the meter movement and the range which is
selected. For example, a meter with a typical 20,000 ohms/volt sensitivity will have an
input resistance of two million ohms on the 100 volt range (100 V * 20,000 ohms/volt =
2,000,000 ohms). On every range, at full scale voltage of the range, the full current
required to deflect the meter movement is taken from the circuit under test. Lower
sensitivity meter movements are acceptable for testing in circuits where source
impedances are low compared to the meter impedance, for example, power circuits;
these meters are more rugged mechanically. Some measurements in signal circuits
require higher sensitivity movements so as not to load the circuit under test with the
meter impedance.[6]
Sometimes sensitivity is confused with resolution of a meter, which is defined as the
lowest voltage, current or resistance change that can change the observed reading[citation
needed].
For general-purpose digital multimeters, the lowest voltage range is typically several
hundred millivolts AC or DC, but the lowest current range may be several hundred
milliamperes, although instruments with greater current sensitivity are available.
Measurement of low resistance requires lead resistance (measured by touching the test
probes together) to be subtracted for best accuracy.
The upper end of multimeter measurement ranges varies considerably; measurements

over perhaps 600 volts, 10 amperes, or 100 megohmsmay require a specialized test
instrument.
[edit]Burden voltage
Any ammeter, including a multimeter in a current range, has a certain resistance. Most
multimeters inherently measure voltage, and pass a current to be measured through
a shunt resistance, measuring the voltage developed across it. The voltage drop is
known as the burden voltage, specified in volts per ampere. The value can change
depending on the range the meter selects, since different ranges usually use different
shunt resistors.[7][8]
The burden voltage can be significant in very low-voltage circuit areas. To check for its
effect on accuracy and on external circuit operation the meter can be switched to
different ranges; the current reading should be the same and circuit operation should
not be affected if burden voltage is not a problem. If this voltage is significant it can be
reduced (also reducing the inherent accuracy and precision of the measurement) by
using a higher current range.
[edit]Alternating current sensing

Since the basic indicator system in either an analog or digital meter responds to DC
only, a multimeter includes an AC to DC conversion circuit for making alternating
current measurements. Basic meters utilize a rectifier circuit to measure the average or
peak absolute value of the voltage, but are calibrated to show the calculated root mean
square (RMS) value for a sinusoidal waveform; this will give correct readings for
alternating current as used in power distribution. User guides for some such meters
give correction factors for some simple non-sinusoidalwaveforms, to allow the
correct root mean square (RMS) equivalent value to be calculated. More expensive
multimeters include an AC to DC converter that measures the true RMS value of the
waveform within certain limits; the user manual for the meter may indicate the limits of
thecrest factor and frequency for which the meter calibration is valid. RMS sensing is
necessary for measurements on non-sinusoidal periodicwaveforms, such as found in
audio signals and variable-frequency drives.
[edit]Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)
A bench-top multimeter from Hewlett-Packard.
Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability and extra features.
In a digital multimeter the signal under test is converted to a voltage and an amplifier
with electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. A digital multimeter displays
the quantity measured as a number, which eliminates parallax errors.
Modern digital multimeters may have an embedded computer, which provides a wealth
of convenience features. Measurement enhancements available include:
 Auto-ranging, which selects the correct range for the quantity under test so that the
most significant digits are shown. For example, a four-digit multimeter would automatically
select an appropriate range to display 1.234 instead of 0.012, or overloading. Auto-ranging
meters usually include a facility to 'freeze' the meter to a particular range, because a
measurement that causes frequent range changes is distracting to the user. Other factors
being equal, an auto-ranging meter will have more circuitry than an equivalent, non-auto-
ranging meter, and so will be more costly, but will be more convenient to use.
 Auto-polarity for direct-current readings, shows if the applied voltage is positive (agrees
with meter lead labels) or negative (opposite polarity to meter leads).
 Sample and hold, which will latch the most recent reading for examination after the
instrument is removed from the circuit under test.
 Current-limited tests for voltage drop across semiconductor junctions. While not a
replacement for a transistor tester, this facilitates testing diodes and a variety of transistor
types.[9][10]
 A graphic representation of the quantity under test, as a bar graph. This makes go/no-go
testing easy, and also allows spotting of fast-moving trends.
 A low-bandwidth oscilloscope.[11]
 Automotive circuit testers, including tests for automotive timing and dwell signals. [12]
 Simple data acquisition features to record maximum and minimum readings over a given
period, or to take a number of samples at fixedintervals.[13]
 Integration with tweezers for surface-mount technology.[14]
 A combined LCR meter for small-size SMD and through-hole components.[15]
Modern meters may be interfaced with a personal computer by IrDA links, RS-
232 connections, USB, or an instrument bus such as IEEE-488. The interface allows the
computer to record measurements as they are made. Some DMMs can store
measurements and upload them to a computer.[16]
The first digital multimeter was manufactured in 1955 by Non Linear Systems.[17][18]
[edit]Analog multimeters
Inexpensive analog multimeter with a galvanometer needle display

A multimeter may be implemented with a galvanometer meter movement, or less often
with a bar-graph or simulated pointer such as an LCD or vacuum fluorescent display.
Analog multimeters are common; a quality analog instrument will cost about the same
as a DMM. Analog multimeters have the precision and reading accuracy limitations
described above, and so are not built to provide the same accuracy as digital
instruments.
Analog meters are able to display a changing reading in real time, whereas digital
meters present such data in a manner that's either hard to follow or more often
incomprehensible. Also an intelligible digital display can follow changes far more slowly
than an analogue movement, so often fails to show what's going on clearly. Some digital
multimeters include a fast-responding bar-graph display for this purpose, though the
resolution of these is usually low.
Analog meters are also useful in situations where its necessary to pay attention to
something other than the meter, and the swing of the pointer can be seen without
looking at it. This can happen when accessing awkward locations, or when working on
cramped live circuitry.
Analog displays are also used to very roughly read currents well above the maximum
rated current of the meter. For this, the probes are just touched to the circuit
momentarily, and how fast the pointer speeds towards fsd is noted. This is often done
when testing state of charge of dry batteries.
Analogue meter movements are inherently much more fragile physically and electrically
than digital meters. Many analogue meters have been instantly broken by connecting to
the wrong point in a circuit, or while on the wrong range, or by dropping onto the floor.
The ARRL handbook also says that analog multimeters, with no electronic circuitry, are
less susceptible to radio frequency interference.[19]
The meter movement in a moving pointer analog multimeter is practically always a

moving-coil galvanometer of the d'Arsonval type, using either jeweled pivots or taut
bands to support the moving coil. In a basic analog multimeter the current to deflect the
coil and pointer is drawn from the circuit being measured; it is usually an advantage to
minimize the current drawn from the circuit. The sensitivity of an analog multimeter is
given in units of ohms per volt. For example, a very low cost multimeter with a sensitivity
of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere from a circuit at full scale
deflection.[20] More expensive, (and mechanically more delicate) multimeters typically
have sensitivities of 20,000 ohms per volt and sometimes higher, with a 50,000 ohms
per volt meter (drawing 20 microamperes at full scale) being about the upper limit for a
portable, general purpose, non-amplified analog multimeter.
To avoid the loading of the measured circuit by the current drawn by the meter
movement, some analog multimeters use an amplifier inserted between the measured
circuit and the meter movement. While this increased the expense and complexity of the
meter, by use of vacuum tubes or field effect transistors the input resistance can be
made very high and independent of the current required to operate the meter movement
coil. Such amplified multimeters are called VTVMs (vacuum tube voltmeters),[21] TVMs
(transistor volt meters), FET-VOMs, and similar names.
[edit]Probes
Main article: Test probe
A multimeter can utilize a variety of test probes to connect to the circuit or device under
test. Crocodile clips, retractable hook clips, and pointed probes are the three most
common attachments. Tweezer probes are used for closely-spaced test points, as
in surface-mount devices. The connectors are attached to flexible, thickly-insulated
leads that are terminated with connectors appropriate for the meter. Probes are
connected to portable meters typically by shrouded or recessed banana jacks, while
benchtop meters may use banana jacks or BNC connectors. 2mm plugs and binding
posts have also been used at times, but are less common today.
Clamp meters clamp around a conductor carrying a current to measure without the
need to connect the meter in series with the circuit, or make metallic contact at all. For
all except the most specialized and expensive types they are suitable to measure only
large (from several amps up) and alternating currents.
[edit]Safety
All but the most inexpensive multimeters include a fuse, or two fuses, which will
sometimes prevent damage to the multimeter from a current overload on the highest
current range. A common error when operating a multimeter is to set the meter to
measure resistance or current and then connect it directly to a low-impedance voltage
source. Unfused meters are often quickly destroyed by such errors, fused meters often
survive. Fuses used in meters will carry the maximum measuring current of the
instrument, but are intended to clear if operator error exposes the meter to a low-
impedance fault. Meters with unsafe fusing are not uncommon, this situation has led to
the creation of the IEC61010 categories.
Digital meters are rated into categories based on their intended application, as set forth
by IEC 61010 -1 [22] and echoed by country and regional standards groups such as
the CEN EN61010 standard.[23] There are four categories:
 Category I: used where equipment is not directly connected to the mains.

 Category II: used on single phase mains final sub-circuits.
 Category III: used on permanently installed loads such as distribution panels, motors, and 3
phase appliance outlets.
 Category IV: used on locations where fault current levels can be very high, such as supply
service entrances, main panels, supply meters and primary over-voltage protection
equipment.
Each category also specifies maximum transient voltages for selected measuring
ranges in the meter.[24][25] Category-rated meters also feature protections from over-
current faults.[26]
On meters that allow interfacing with computers, optical isolation may protect attached
equipment against high voltage in the measured circuit.
[edit]DMM alternatives
A general-purpose DMM is generally considered adequate for measurements at signal
levels greater than one millivolt or one milliampere, or below about 100 megohms—
levels far from the theoretical limits of sensitivity. Other instruments—essentially similar,
but with higher sensitivity—are used for accurate measurements of very small or very
large quantities. These include nanovoltmeters, electrometers (for very low currents,
and voltages with very high source resistance, such as one teraohm)
and picoammeters. These measurements are limited by available technology, and
ultimately by inherent thermal noise.
[edit]Battery
Hand-held meters use batteries for continuity and resistance readings. This allows the
meter to test a device that is not connected to a power source, by supplying its own low
voltage for the test. A 1.5 volt AA battery is typical; more sophisticated meters with
added capabilities instead or also use a 9 volt battery for some types of readings, or
even higher-voltage batteries for very high resistance testing. Meters intended for
testing in hazardous locations or for use on blasting circuits may require use of a
manufacturer-specified battery to maintain their safety rating. A battery is also required
to power the electronics of a digital multimeter or FET-VOM.
Ohmmeter
This article does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged andremoved. (December 2009)
An ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the

opposition to anelectric current. Micro-ohmmeters (microhmmeter or microohmmeter)
make low resistance measurements. Megohmmeters (aka megaohmmeter or in the
case of a trademarked device Megger) measure large values of resistance. The unit of
measurement for resistance is ohms (Ω).
The original design of an ohmmeter provided a small battery to apply a voltage to a

resistance. It uses a galvanometer to measure the electric current through the
resistance. The scale of the galvanometer was marked in ohms, because the fixed
voltage from the battery assured that as resistance is decreased, the current through
the meter would increase. Ohmmeters form circuits by themselves, therefore they
cannot be used within an assembled circuit.
A more accurate type of ohmmeter has an electronic circuit that passes a constant
current (I) through the resistance, and another circuit that measures the voltage (V)
across the resistance. According to the following equation, derived from Ohm's Law, the
value of the resistance (R) is given by:
For high-precision measurements the above types of meter are inadequate. This is
because the meter's reading is the sum of the resistance of the measuring leads,
the contact resistances and the resistance being measured. To reduce this effect, a
precision ohmmeter has four terminals, called Kelvin contacts. Two terminals carry
the current from the meter, while the other two allow the meter to measure the
voltage across the resistor. With this type of meter, any voltage drop due to the
resistance of the first pair of leads and their contact resistances is ignored by the
meter. This four terminal measurementtechnique is called Kelvin sensing,
after William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, who invented the Kelvin bridge in 1861 to
measure very low resistances. The Four-terminal sensing method can also be
utilized to conduct accurate measurements of low resistances.
Oscilloscope
This article is about current oscilloscopes, providing general information. For history of
oscilloscopes, see Oscilloscope history. For detailed information about various types of
oscilloscopes, see Oscilloscope types.
This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material
may be challenged and removed.(October 2009)
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality

standards. Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain
suggestions. (March 2010)
Illustration showing the interior of a cathode-ray tube for use in an oscilloscope. Numbers in the picture
indicate: 1. Deflection voltage electrode; 2. Electron gun; 3. Electron beam; 4. Focusing coil; 5. Phosphor-
coated inner side of the screen
A Tektronix model 475A portable analog oscilloscope, a very typical instrument of the late 1970s
An oscilloscope (also known as a scope, CRO, DSO or, an O-scope) is a type

of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying
signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential
differences using the vertical or 'Y' axis, plotted as a function of time, (horizontal or 'x'
axis). Although an oscilloscope displays voltage on its vertical axis, any other quantity
that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed as well. In most instances,
oscilloscopes show events that repeat with either no change, or change slowly.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical
signal. In addition to the amplitude of the signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion,
the time between two events (such as pulse width, period, or rise time) and relative
timing of two related signals.[1]
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications

industry. General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic
equipment and laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such
purposes as analyzing an automotive ignition system, or to display the waveform of the
heartbeat as an electrocardiogram.
Originally all oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element and linear
amplifiers for signal processing, (commonly referred to as CROs) however, modern
oscilloscopes have LCD or LED screens, fast analog-to-digital converters and digital
signal processors. Although not as commonplace, some oscilloscopes used storage
CRTs to display single events for a limited time. Oscilloscope peripheral modules for
general purpose laptop or desktop personal computers use the computer's display,
allowing them to be used as test instruments.
Contents
 1 Features and uses

o 1.1 Description
 1.1.1 Display and general external appearance
 1.1.2 Size and portability
 1.1.3 Inputs
 1.1.4 Probes
o 1.2 Front panel controls
 1.2.1 Focus control
 1.2.2 Intensity control
 1.2.3 Beam finder
 1.2.4 Graticule
 1.2.5 Timebase Controls
 1.2.6 Holdoff control
 1.2.7 Vertical sensitivity, coupling, and polarity controls
 1.2.8 Horizontal sensitivity control
 1.2.9 Vertical position control
 1.2.10 Horizontal position control
 1.2.11 Dual-trace controls
 1.2.12 Delayed-sweep controls
 1.2.13 Sweep trigger controls
o 1.3 Basic types of sweeps
 1.3.1 Triggered sweeps
 1.3.1.1 Automatic sweep mode
 1.3.2 Recurrent sweeps
 1.3.3 Single sweeps
 1.3.4 Delayed sweeps
o 1.4 Dual and multiple-trace oscilloscopes
o 1.5 The vertical amplifier
 1.5.1 X-Y mode
o 1.6 Bandwidth
 2 Other features
o 2.1 Examples of use
o 2.2 Selection
o 2.3 Software
 3 Types and models
o 3.1 Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO)
o 3.2 Dual-beam oscilloscope
o 3.3 Analog storage oscilloscope
o 3.4 Digital oscilloscopes
 3.4.1 Digital storage oscilloscope
 3.4.2 Digital sampling oscilloscopes
 3.4.3 Digital phosphor oscilloscopes
o 3.5 Mixed-signal oscilloscopes
o 3.6 Handheld oscilloscopes
o 3.7 PC-based oscilloscopes (PCO)
o 3.8 Related instruments
 4 History
 5 Use as props
 6 See also
 7 References
[edit]Features and uses

Basic Oscilloscope
[edit]Description
[edit]Display and general external appearance
The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four
sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The
display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and vertical
reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most display
sections are equipped with three basic controls, a focus knob, an intensity knob and a
beam finder button.
The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section carries a
Volts-per-Division (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch and the
vertical (primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section is typically equipped
with the vertical beam position knob.
The horizontal section controls the time base or “sweep” of the instrument. The primary
control is the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also included is a
horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position knob is
generally located in this section.
The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to
automatically restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an internal
or external event. The principal controls of this section will be the source and coupling
selector switches. An external trigger input (EXT Input) and level adjustment will also be
included.
In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as
shown. The probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a resistor
of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X) attenuation
factor, but helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe cable from the
signal being measured. Some probes have a switch allowing the operator to bypass the
resistor when appropriate.[1]
[edit]Size and portability
Most modern oscilloscopes are lightweight, portable instruments that are compact
enough to be easily carried by a single person. In addition to the portable units, the
market offers a number of miniature battery-powered instruments for field service
applications. Laboratory grade oscilloscopes, especially older units which use vacuum
tubes, are generally bench-top devices or may be mounted into dedicated carts.
Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be rack-mounted or permanently mounted into a
custom instrument housing.
[edit]Inputs
The signal to be measured is fed to one of the input connectors, which is usually a
coaxial connector such as a BNC or UHF type. Binding posts or banana plugs may be
used for lower frequencies. If the signal source has its own coaxial connector, then a
simple coaxial cable is used; otherwise, a specialised cable called a "scope probe",
supplied with the oscilloscope, is used. In general, for routine use, an open wire test
lead for connecting to the point being observed is not satisfactory, and a probe is
generally necessary. General-purpose oscilloscopes usually present an input
impedance of 1 megohm in parallel with a small but known capacitance such as 20
picofarads.[2] This allows the use of standard oscilloscope probes.[3] Scopes for use with
very high frequencies may have 50-ohm inputs, which must be either connected directly
to a 50-ohm signal source or used with Z0 or active probes.
Less-frequently-used inputs include one (or two) for triggering the sweep, horizontal
deflection for X-Y mode displays, and trace brightening/darkening, sometimes called "Z-
axis" inputs.
[edit]Probes
Main article: Test probe
Open wire test leads (flying leads) are likely to pick up interference, so they are not
suitable for low level signals. Furthermore, the leads have a high inductance, so they
are not suitable for high frequencies. Using a shielded cable (i.e., coaxial cable) is better
for low level signals. Coaxial cable also has lower inductance, but it has higher
capacitance: a typical 50 ohm cable has about 90 pF per meter. Consequently, a one
meter direct (1X) coaxial probe will load a circuit with a capacitance of about 110 pF and
a resistance of 1 megohm.
To minimize loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10X probes) are used. A typical probe
uses a 9 megohm series resistor shunted by a low-value capacitor to make an RC
compensated divider with the cable capacitance and scope input. The RC time
constants are adjusted to match. For example, the 9 megohm series resistor is shunted
by a 12.2 pF capacitor for a time constant of 110 microseconds. The cable capacitance
of 90 pF in parallel with the scope input of 20 pF and 1 megohm (total capacitance
110 pF) also gives a time constant of 110 microseconds. In practice, there will be an
adjustment so the operator can precisely match the low frequency time constant (called
compensating the probe). Matching the time constants makes the attenuation
independent of frequency. At low frequencies (where the resistance of R is much less
than the reactance of C), the circuit looks like a resistive divider; at high frequencies
(resistance much greater than reactance), the circuit looks like a capacitive divider.[4]
The result is a frequency compensated probe for modest frequencies that presents a
load of about 10 megohms shunted by 12 pF. Although such a probe is an
improvement, it does not work when the time scale shrinks to several cable transit times
(transit time is typically 5 ns). In that time frame, the cable looks like its characteristic
impedance, and there will be reflections from the transmission line mismatch at the
scope input and the probe that causes ringing.[5] The modern scope probe uses lossy
low capacitance transmission lines and sophisticated frequency shaping networks to
make the 10X probe perform well at several hundred megahertz. Consequently, there
are other adjustments for completing the compensation.[6][7]
Probes with 10:1 attenuation are by far the most common; for large signals (and slightly-
less capacitive loading), 100:1 probes are not rare. There are also probes that contain
switches to select 10:1 or direct (1:1) ratios, but one must be aware that the 1:1 setting
has significant capacitance (tens of pF) at the probe tip, because the whole cable's
capacitance is now directly connected.
Good oscilloscopes allow for probe attenuation, easily showing effective sensitivity at
the probe tip. Some of the best ones have indicator lamps behind translucent windows
in the panel to prompt the user to read effective sensitivity. The probe connectors
(modified BNC's) have an extra contact to define the probe's attenuation. (A certain
value of resistor, connected to ground, "encodes" the attenuation.)
There are special high-voltage probes which also form compensated attenuators with
the oscilloscope input; the probe body is physically large, and one made by Tektronix
requires partly filling a canister surrounding the series resistor with volatile liquid
fluorocarbon to displace air. At the oscilloscope end is a box with several waveform-
trimming adjustments. For safety, a barrier disc keeps one's fingers distant from the
point being examined. Maximum voltage is in the low tens of kV. (Observing a high-
voltage ramp can create a staircase waveform with steps at different points every
repetition, until the probe tip is in contact. Until then, a tiny arc charges the probe tip,
and its capacitance holds the voltage (open circuit). As the voltage continues to climb,
another tiny arc charges the tip further.)
There are also current probes, with cores that surround the conductor carrying current
to be examined. One type has a hole for the conductor, and requires that the wire be
passed through the hole; it's for semi-permanent or permanent mounting. However,
other types, for testing, have a two-part core that permit them to be placed around a
wire. Inside the probe, a coil wound around the core provides a current into an
appropriate load, and the voltage across that load is proportional to current. However,
this type of probe can sense AC, only.
A more-sophisticated probe (originally made by Tektronix) includes a magnetic flux

sensor in the magnetic circuit. The probe connects to an amplifier, which feeds (low
frequency) current into the coil to cancel the sensed field; the magnitude of that current
provides the low-frequency part of the current waveform, right down to DC. The coil still
picks up high frequencies. There is a combining network akin to a loudspeaker
crossover network.
[edit]Front panel controls
[edit]Focus control
This control adjusts CRT focus to obtain the sharpest, most-detailed trace. In practice,
focus needs to be adjusted slightly when observing quite-different signals, which means
that it needs to be an external control. Flat-panel displays do not need a focus control;
their sharpness is always optimum.
[edit]Intensity control
This adjusts trace brightness. Slow traces on CRT oscilloscopes need less, and fast
ones, especially if not often repeated, require more. On flat panels, however, trace
brightness is essentially independent of sweep speed, because the internal signal
processing effectively synthesizes the display from the digitized data.
[edit]Beam finder
Modern oscilloscopes have direct-coupled deflection amplifiers, which means the trace
could be deflected off-screen. They also might have their CRT beam blanked without
the operator knowing it. In such cases, the screen is blank. To help in restoring the
display quickly and without experimentation, the beam finder circuit overrides any
blanking and ensures that the beam will not be deflected off-screen; it limits the
deflection. With a display, it's usually very easy to restore a normal display. (While
active, beam-finder circuits might temporarily distort the trace severely, however this is
acceptable.)
[edit]Graticule
The graticule is a grid of squares that serve as reference marks for measuring the
displayed trace. These markings, whether located directly on the screen or on a
removable plastic filter, usually consist of a 1 cm grid with closer tick marks (often at
2 mm) on the centre vertical and horizontal axis. One expects to see ten major divisions
across the screen; the number of vertical major divisions varies. Comparing the grid
markings with the waveform permits one to measure both voltage (vertical axis) and
time (horizontal axis). Frequency can also be determined by measuring the waveform
period and calculating its reciprocal.
On old and lower-cost CRT oscilloscopes the graticule is a sheet of plastic, often with
light-diffusing markings and concealed lamps at the edge of the graticule. The lamps
had a brightness control. Higher-cost instruments have the graticule marked on the
inside face of the CRT, to eliminate parallax errors; better ones also had adjustable
edge illumination with diffusing markings. (Diffusing markings appear bright.) Digital
oscilloscopes, however, generate the graticule markings on the display in the same way
as the trace.
External graticules also protect the glass face of the CRT from accidental impact. Some
CRT oscilloscopes with internal graticules have an unmarked tinted sheet plastic light
filter to enhance trace contrast; this also serves to protect the faceplate of the CRT.
Accuracy and resolution of measurements using a graticule is relatively limited; better
instruments sometimes have movable bright markers on the trace that permit internal
circuits to make more refined measurements.
Both calibrated vertical sensitivity and calibrated horizontal time are set in 1 - 2 - 5 - 10
steps. This leads, however, to some awkward interpretations of minor divisions. At 2,
each of the five minor divisions is 0.4, so one has to think 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, and 1.6, which is
rather awkward. One Tektronix plug-in used a 1 - 2.5 - 5 - 10 sequence, which simplified
estimating. The "2.5" didn't look as "neat", but was very welcome.
[edit]Timebase Controls
These select the horizontal speed of the CRT's spot as it creates the trace; this process
is commonly referred to as the sweep. In all but the least-costly modern oscilloscopes,
the sweep speed is selectable and calibrated in units of time per major graticule
division. Quite a wide range of sweep speeds is generally provided, from seconds to as
fast as picoseconds (in the fastest) per division. Usually, a continuously-variable
control (often a knob in front of the calibrated selector knob) offers uncalibrated
speeds, typically slower than calibrated. This control provides a range somewhat
greater than that of consecutive calibrated steps, making any speed available between
the extremes.
[edit]Holdoff control
Found on some better analog oscilloscopes, this varies the time (holdoff) during which
the sweep circuit ignores triggers. It provides a stable display of some repetitive events
in which some triggers would create confusing displays. It is usually set to minimum,
because a longer time decreases the number of sweeps per second, resulting in a
dimmer trace. See trigger holdoff for a more detailed description.
[edit]Vertical sensitivity, coupling, and polarity controls
To accommodate a wide range of input amplitudes, a switch selects calibrated
sensitivity of the vertical deflection. Another control, often in front of the calibrated-
selector knob, offers a continuously-variable sensitivity over a limited range from
calibrated to less-sensitive settings.
Often the observed signal is offset by a steady component, and only the changes are of
interest. A switch (AC position) connects a capacitor in series with the input that passes
only the changes (provided that they are not too slow -- "slow" would mean visible).
However, when the signal has a fixed offset of interest, or changes quite slowly, the
input is connected directly (DC switch position). Most oscilloscopes offer the DC input
option. For convenience, to see where zero volts input currently shows on the screen,
many oscilloscopes have a third switch position (GND) that disconnects the input and
grounds it. Often, in this case, the user centers the trace with the Vertical Position
control.
Better oscilloscopes have a polarity selector. Normally, a positive input moves the
trace upward, but this permits inverting—positive deflects the trace downward.
[edit]Horizontal sensitivity control
This control is found only on more elaborate oscilloscopes; it offers adjustable sensitivity
for external horizontal inputs.
[edit]Vertical position control
The vertical position control moves the whole displayed trace up and down. It is used to
set the no-input trace exactly on the center line of the graticule, but also permits
offsetting vertically by a limited amount. With direct coupling, adjustment of this control
can compensate for a limited DC component of an input.
[edit]Horizontal position control
The horizontal position control moves the display sidewise. It usually sets the left end of
the trace at the left edge of the graticule, but it can displace the whole trace when
desired. This control also moves the X-Y mode traces sidewise in some instruments,
and can compensate for a limited DC component as for vertical position.
[edit]Dual-trace controls
* (Please see Dual and Multiple-trace Oscilloscopes, below.)
Each input channel usually has its own set of sensitivity, coupling, and position controls,
although some four-trace oscilloscopes have only minimal controls for their third and
fourth channels.
Dual-trace oscilloscopes have a mode switch to select either channel alone, both
channels, or (in some) an X-Y display, which uses the second channel for X deflection.
When both channels are displayed, the type of channel switching can be selected on
some oscilloscopes; on others, the type depends upon timebase setting. If manually
selectable, channel switching can be free-running (asynchronous), or between
consecutive sweeps. Some Philips dual-trace analog oscilloscopes had a fast analog
multiplier, and provided a display of the product of the input channels.
Multiple-trace oscilloscopes have a switch for each channel to enable or disable display
of that trace's signal.
[edit]Delayed-sweep controls
* (Please see Delayed Sweep, below.)
These include controls for the delayed-sweep timebase, which is calibrated, and often
also variable. The slowest speed is several steps faster than the slowest main sweep
speed, although the fastest is generally the same. A calibrated multiturn delay time
control offers wide range, high resolution delay settings; it spans the full duration of the
main sweep, and its reading corresponds to graticule divisions (but with much finer
precision). Its accuracy is also superior to that of the display.
A switch selects display modes: Main sweep only, with a brightened region showing
when the delayed sweep is advancing, delayed sweep only, or (on some) a combination
mode.
Good CRT oscilloscopes include a delayed-sweep intensity control, to allow for the
dimmer trace of a much-faster delayed sweep that nevertheless occurs only once per
main sweep. Such oscilloscopes also are likely to have a trace separation control for
multiplexed display of both the main and delayed sweeps together.
[edit]Sweep trigger controls
* (Please see Triggered Sweep, below.)
A switch selects the Trigger Source. It can be an external input, one of the vertical
channels of a dual or multiple-trace oscilloscope, or the AC line (mains) frequency.
Another switch enables or disables Auto trigger mode, or selects single sweep, if
provided in the oscilloscope. Either a spring-return switch position or a pushbutton arms
single sweeps.
A Level control varies the voltage on the waveform which generates a trigger, and
the Slope switch selects positive-going or negative-going polarity at the selected trigger
level.
[edit]Basic types of sweeps
[edit]Triggered sweeps
Type 465 Tektronix oscilloscope. This was a very popular analog oscilloscope, portable, and is an
excellent representative example.
To display events with unchanging or slowly (visibly) changing waveforms, but occurring
at times that may not be evenly spaced, modern oscilloscopes have triggered sweeps.
Compared to simpler oscilloscopes with sweep oscillators that are always running,
triggered-sweep oscilloscopes are markedly more versatile.
A triggered sweep starts at a selected point on the signal, providing a stable display. In
this way, triggering allows the display of periodic signals such as sine waves and square
waves, as well as nonperiodic signals such as single pulses, or pulses that don't recur
at a fixed rate.
With triggered sweeps, the scope will blank the beam and start to reset the sweep
circuit each time the beam reaches the extreme right side of the screen. For a period of
time, called holdoff, (extendable by a front-panel control on some better oscilloscopes),
the sweep circuit resets completely and ignores triggers. Once holdoff expires, the next
trigger starts a sweep. The trigger event is usually the input waveform reaching some
user-specified threshold voltage (trigger level) in the specified direction (going positive
or going negative—trigger polarity).
In some cases, variable holdoff time can be really useful to make the sweep ignore
interfering triggers that occur before the events one wants to observe. In the case of
repetitive, but quite-complex waveforms, variable holdoff can create a stable display
that can't otherwise practically be obtained.
[edit]Automatic sweep mode
Triggered sweeps can display a blank screen if there are no triggers. To avoid this,
these sweeps include a timing circuit that generates free-running triggers so a trace is
always visible. Once triggers arrive, the timer stops providing pseudo-triggers.
Automatic sweep mode can be de-selected when observing low repetition rates.
[edit]Recurrent sweeps
If the input signal is periodic, the sweep repetition rate can be adjusted to display a few
cycles of the waveform. Early (tube) oscilloscopes and lowest-cost oscilloscopes have
sweep oscillators that run continuously, and are uncalibrated. Such oscilloscopes are
very simple, comparatively inexpensive, and were useful in radio servicing and some TV
servicing. Measuring voltage or time is possible, but only with extra equipment, and is
quite inconvenient. They are primarily qualitative instruments.
They have a few (widely spaced) frequency ranges, and relatively wide-range
continuous frequency control within a given range. In use, the sweep frequency is set to
slightly lower than some submultiple of the input frequency, to display typically at least
two cycles of the input signal (so all details are visible). A very simple control feeds an
adjustable amount of the vertical signal (or possibly, a related external signal) to the
sweep oscillator. The signal triggers beam blanking and a sweep retrace sooner than it
would occur free-running, and the display becomes stable.
[edit]Single sweeps
Some oscilloscopes offer these—the sweep circuit is manually armed (typically by a
pushbutton or equivalent) "Armed" means it's ready to respond to a trigger. Once the
sweep is complete, it resets, and will not sweep until re-armed. This mode, combined
with a oscilloscope camera, captures single-shot events.
Types of trigger include:
 external trigger, a pulse from an external source connected to a dedicated input on the
scope.
 edge trigger, an edge-detector that generates a pulse when the input signal crosses a
specified threshold voltage in a specified direction. These are the most-common types of
triggers; the level control sets the threshold voltage, and the slope control selects the
direction (negative or positive-going). (The first sentence of the description also applies to
the inputs to some digital logic circuits; those inputs have fixed threshold and polarity
response.)
 video trigger, a circuit that extracts synchronizing pulses from video formats such
as PAL and NTSC and triggers the timebase on every line, a specified line, every field, or
every frame. This circuit is typically found in a waveform monitor device, although some
better oscilloscopes include this function.
 delayed trigger, which waits a specified time after an edge trigger before starting the sweep.
As described under delayed sweeps, a trigger delay circuit (typically the main sweep)
extends this delay to a known and adjustable interval. In this way, the operator can examine
a particular pulse in a long train of pulses.
Some recent designs of oscilloscopes include more sophisticated triggering schemes;

these are described toward the end of this article.
[edit]Delayed sweeps
These are found on more-sophisticated oscilloscopes, which contain a second set of
timebase circuits for a delayed sweep. A delayed sweep provides a very-detailed look at
some small selected portion of the main timebase. The main timebase serves as a
controllable delay, after which the delayed timebase starts. This can start when the
delay expires, or can be triggered (only) after the delay expires. Ordinarily, the delayed
timebase is set for a faster sweep, sometimes much faster, such as 1000:1. At extreme
ratios, jitter in the delays on consecutive main sweeps degrades the display, but
delayed-sweep triggers can overcome that.
The display shows the vertical signal in one of several modes—the main timebase, or
the delayed timebase only, or a combination. When the delayed sweep is active, the
main sweep trace brightens while the delayed sweep is advancing. In one combination
mode, provided only on some oscilloscopes, the trace changes from the main sweep to
the delayed sweep once the delayed sweep starts, although less of the delayed fast
sweep is visible for longer delays. Another combination mode multiplexes (alternates)
the main and delayed sweeps so that both appear at once; a trace separation control
displaces them.
[edit]Dual and multiple-trace oscilloscopes
Oscilloscopes with two vertical inputs, referred to as dual-trace oscilloscopes, are
extremely useful and commonplace. Using a single-beam CRT, they multiplex the
inputs, usually switching between them fast enough to display two traces apparently at
once. Less common are oscilloscopes with more traces; four inputs are common among
these, but a few (Kikusui, for one) offered a display of the sweep trigger signal if
desired. Some multi-trace oscilloscopes use the external trigger input as an optional
vertical input, and some have third and fourth channels with only minimal controls. In all
cases, the inputs, when independently displayed, are time-multiplexed, but dual-trace
oscilloscopes often can add their inputs to display a real-time analog sum. (Inverting
one channel provides a difference, provided that neither channel is overloaded. This
difference mode can provide a moderate-performance differential input.)
Switching channels can be asynchronous, that is, free-running, with trace blanking while
switching, or after each horizontal sweep is complete. Asynchronous switching is
usually designated "Chopped", while sweep-synchronized is designated "Alt[ernate]". A
given channel is alternately connected and disconnected, leading to the term
"chopped". Multi-trace oscilloscopes also switch channels either in chopped or alternate
modes.
In general, chopped mode is better for slower sweeps. It is possible for the internal
chopping rate to be a multiple of the sweep repetition rate, creating blanks in the traces,
but in practice this is rarely a problem; the gaps in one trace are overwritten by traces of
the following sweep. A few oscilloscopes had a modulated chopping rate to avoid this
occasional problem. Alternate mode, however, is better for faster sweeps.
True dual-beam CRT oscilloscopes did exist, but were not common. One type (Cossor,
U.K.) had a beam-splitter plate in its CRT, and single-ended deflection following the
splitter. (More details are near the end of this article; see "CRT Invention". Others had
two complete electron guns, requiring tight control of axial (rotational) mechanical
alignment in manufacturing the CRT. Beam-splitter types had horizontal deflection
common to both vertical channels, but dual-gun oscilloscopes could have separate time
bases, or use one time base for both channels. Multiple-gun CRTs (up to ten guns)
were made in past decades. With ten guns, the envelope (bulb) was cylindrical
throughout its length.
[edit]The vertical amplifier
In an analog oscilloscope, the vertical amplifier acquires the signal[s] to be displayed. In
better oscilloscopes, it delays them by a fraction of a microsecond, and provides a
signal large enough to deflect the CRT's beam. That deflection is at least somewhat
beyond the edges of the graticule, and more typically some distance off-screen. The
amplifier has to have low distortion to display its input accurately (it must be linear), and
it has to recover quickly from overloads. As well, its time-domain response has to
represent transients accurately—minimal overshoot, rounding, and tilt of a flat pulse top.
A vertical input goes to a frequency-compensated step attenuator to reduce large
signals to prevent overload. The attenuator feeds a low-level stage (or a few), which in
turn feed gain stages (and a delay-line driver if there is a delay). Following are more
gain stages, up to the final output stage which develops a large signal swing (tens of
volts, sometimes over 100 volts) for CRT electrostatic deflection.
In dual and multiple-trace oscilloscopes, an internal electronic switch selects the

relatively low-level output of one channel's amplifiers and sends it to the following
stages of the vertical amplifier, which is only a single channel, so to speak, from that
point on.
In free-running ("chopped") mode, the oscillator (which may be simply a different

operating mode of the switch driver) blanks the beam before switching, and unblanks it
only after the switching transients have settled.
Part way through the amplifier is a feed to the sweep trigger circuits, for internal
triggering from the signal. This feed would be from an individual channel's amplifier in a
dual or multi-trace oscilloscope, the channel depending upon the setting of the trigger
source selector.
This feed precedes the delay (if there is one), which allows the sweep circuit to unblank
the CRT and start the forward sweep, so the CRT can show the triggering event. High-
quality analog delays add a modest cost to a oscilloscope, and are omitted in
oscilloscopes that are cost-sensitive.
The delay, itself, comes from a special cable with a pair of conductors wound around a
flexible magnetically-soft core. The coiling provides distributed inductance, while a
conductive layer close to the wires provides distributed capacitance. The combination is
a wideband transmission line with considerable delay per unit length. Both ends of the
delay cable require matched impedances to avoid reflections.
[edit]X-Y mode
Most modern oscilloscopes have several inputs for voltages, and thus can be used to
plot one varying voltage versus another. This is especially useful for graphing I-V curves
(current versus voltage characteristics) for components such as diodes, as well
as Lissajous patterns. Lissajous figures are an example of how an oscilloscope can be
used to track phase differences between multiple input signals. This is very frequently
used in broadcast engineering to plot the left and right stereophonic channels, to ensure
that the stereo generator iscalibrated properly. Historically, stable Lissajous figures were
used to show that two sine waves had a relatively simple frequency relationship, a
numerically-small ratio. They also indicated phase difference between two sine waves
of the same frequency.
Complete loss of signal in an X-Y display means that the CRT's beam strikes a small
spot, which risks burning the phosphor. Older phosphors burned more easily. Some
dedicated X-Y displays reduce beam current greatly, or blank the display entirely, if
there are no inputs present.
[edit]Bandwidth
Bandwidth is a measure of the range of frequencies that can be displayed; it refers
primarily to the vertical amplifier, although the horizontal deflection amplifier has to be
fast enough to handle the fastest sweeps. The bandwidth of the oscilloscope is limited
by the vertical amplifiers and the CRT (in analog instruments) or by the sampling rate of
the analog to digital converter in digital instruments. The bandwidth is defined as the
frequency at which the sensitivity is 0.707 of the sensitivity at lower frequency (a drop of
3 dB). The rise time of the fastest pulse that can be resolved by the scope is related to
its bandwidth approximately:
Bandwidth in Hz x rise time in seconds = 0.35 [8]
For example, a oscilloscope intended to resolve pulses with a rise time of 1 nanosecond
would have a bandwidth of 350 MHz.
For a digital oscilloscope, a rule of thumb is that the continuous sampling rate should be
ten times the highest frequency desired to resolve; for example a 20
megasample/second rate would be applicable for measuring signals up to about 2
megahertz.
[edit]Other features
Some oscilloscopes have cursors, which are lines that can be moved about the screen
to measure the time interval between two points, or the difference between two
voltages. A few older oscilloscopes simply brightened the trace at movable locations.
These cursors are more accurate than visual estimates referring to graticule lines.
Better quality general purpose oscilloscopes include a calibration signal for setting up
the compensation of test probes; this is (often) a 1 kHz square-wave signal of a definite
peak-to-peak voltage available at a test terminal on the front panel. Some better
oscilloscopes also have a squared-off loop for checking and adjusting current probes.
Sometimes the event that the user wants to see may only happen occasionally. To
catch these events, some oscilloscopes, known as "storage scopes", preserve the most
recent sweep on the screen. This was originally achieved by using a special CRT, a
"storage tube", which would retain the image of even a very brief event for a long time.
Some digital oscilloscopes can sweep at speeds as slow as once per hour, emulating a
strip chart recorder. That is, the signal scrolls across the screen from right to left. Most
oscilloscopes with this facility switch from a sweep to a strip-chart mode at about one
sweep per ten seconds. This is because otherwise, the scope looks broken: it's
collecting data, but the dot cannot be seen.
In current oscilloscopes, digital signal sampling is more often used for all but the
simplest models. Samples feed fast analog-to-digital converters, following which all
signal processing (and storage) is digital.
Many oscilloscopes have different plug-in modules for different purposes, e.g., high-
sensitivity amplifiers of relatively narrow bandwidth, differential amplifiers, amplifiers
with four or more channels, sampling plugins for repetitive signals of very high
frequency, and special-purpose plugins, including audio/ultrasonic spectrum analyzers,
and stable-offset-voltage direct-coupled channels with relatively high gain.
[edit]Examples of use
Lissajous figures on an oscilloscope, with 90 degrees phase difference between x and y inputs.
One of the most frequent uses of scopes is troubleshooting malfunctioning electronic

equipment. One of the advantages of a scope is that it can graphically show signals:
where a voltmeter may show a totally unexpected voltage, a scope may reveal that the
circuit is oscillating. In other cases the precise shape or timing of a pulse is important.
In a piece of electronic equipment, for example, the connections between stages

(e.g. electronic mixers, electronic oscillators, amplifiers) may be 'probed' for the
expected signal, using the scope as a simple signal tracer. If the expected signal is
absent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics is not operating correctly.
Since most failures occur because of a single faulty component, each measurement can
prove that half of the stages of a complex piece of equipment either work, or probably
did not cause the fault.
Once the faulty stage is found, further probing can usually tell a skilled technician
exactly which component has failed. Once the component is replaced, the unit can be
restored to service, or at least the next fault can be isolated. This sort of troubleshooting
is typical of radio and TV receivers, as well as audio amplifiers, but can apply to quite-
different devices such as electronic motor drives.
Another use is to check newly designed circuitry. Very often a newly designed circuit will
misbehave because of design errors, bad voltage levels, electrical noise etc. Digital
electronics usually operate from a clock, so a dual-trace scope which shows both the
clock signal and a test signal dependent upon the clock is useful. Storage scopes are
helpful for "capturing" rare electronic events that cause defective operation.
Pictures of use
Heterodyne
AC hum on sound.

Sum of a low-frequency and a high-frequency signal.
Bad filter on sine.
Dual trace, showing different time bases on each trace.
[edit]Selection
Oscilloscopes generally have a checklist of some set of the above features. The basic
measure of virtue is the bandwidth of its vertical amplifiers. Typical scopes for general
purpose use should have a bandwidth of at least 100 MHz, although much lower
bandwidths are acceptable for audio-frequency applications. A useful sweep range is
from one second to 100 nanoseconds, with triggering and delayed sweep.
The chief benefit of a quality oscilloscope is the quality of the trigger circuit. If the trigger
is unstable, the display will always be fuzzy. The quality improves roughly as the
frequency response and voltage stability of the trigger increase.
Analog oscilloscopes have been almost totally displaced by digital storage scopes
except for the low bandwidth (< 60 MHz) segment of the market. Greatly increased
sample rates have eliminated the display of incorrect signals, known as "aliasing", that
was sometimes present in the first generation of digital scopes. The used test
equipment market, particularly on-line auction venues, typically have a wide selection of
older analog scopes available. However it is becoming more difficult to obtain
replacement parts for these instruments and repair services are generally unavailable
from the original manufacturer.
As of 2007, a 350 MHz bandwidth (BW), 2.5 giga-samples per second (GS/s), dual-
channel digital storage scope costs about US$7000 new. The current true real-time
analog bandwidth record, as of April 2010, is held by the Agilent Infiniium 90000X series
of oscilloscopes with a 32 GHz BW and a sample rate of 80 GSa/s.[citation needed] The
current equivalent time sampling bandwidth record for sampling digital storage
oscilloscopes, as of June 2006, is held by the LeCroy WaveExpert series with a
100 GHz bandwidth.[citation needed]
On the lowest end, an inexpensive hobby-grade single-channel DSO can now be

purchased for under $100 as of August 2010. These often have limited bandwidth but
fulfill the basic functions of an oscilloscope.
[edit]Software
Many oscilloscopes today provide one or more external interfaces to allow
remote instrument control by external software. These interfaces (or buses)
include GPIB, Ethernet, serial port, and USB.
[edit]Types and models

Main article: Oscilloscope types
The following section is a brief summary of various types and models available. For a
detailed discussion, refer to the other article.
[edit]Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO)
The earliest and simplest type of oscilloscope consisted of a cathode ray tube, a
vertical amplifier, a timebase, a horizontal amplifier and apower supply. These are now
called 'analog' scopes to distinguish them from the 'digital' scopes that became common
in the 1990s and 2000s.
[edit]Dual-beam oscilloscope
The dual-beam analog oscilloscope can display two signals simultaneously. A special
dual-beam CRT generates and deflects two separate beams. Although multi-trace
analog oscilloscopes can simulate a dual-beam display
with chop and alternate sweeps, those features do not provide simultaneous displays.
(Real time digital oscilloscopes offer the same benefits of a dual-beam oscilloscope, but
they do not require a dual-beam display.)
[edit]Analog storage oscilloscope
Trace storage is an extra feature available on some analog scopes; they used direct-
view storage CRTs. Storage allows the trace pattern that normally decays in a fraction
of a second to remain on the screen for several minutes or longer. An electrical circuit
can then be deliberately activated to store and erase the trace on the screen.
[edit]Digital oscilloscopes
While analog devices make use of continually varying voltages, digital devices employ
binary numbers which correspond to samples of the voltage. In the case of digital
oscilloscopes, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is used to change the measured
voltages into digital information..
[edit]Digital storage oscilloscope
The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO for short, is now the preferred type for most
industrial applications, although simple analog CROs are still used by hobbyists. It
replaces the unreliable storage method used in analog storage scopes with
digital memory, which can store data as long as required without degradation. It also
allows complex processing of the signal by high-speed digital signal
processingcircuits.[1]
[edit]Digital sampling oscilloscopes
Digital sampling oscilloscopes operate on the same principle as analog sampling
oscilloscopes and like their analog partners, are of great use when analyzing high
frequency signals. That is, signals whose frequencies are higher than the oscilloscope's
sampling rate.
[edit]Digital phosphor oscilloscopes
Digital phosphor oscilloscopes (DPOs) are the most recently developed type of digital
scope. DPOs employ a unique processing architecture in order to overcome the
limitations of DSOs and digital sampling oscilloscopes. This unique architecture is a
parallel processing setup rather than the serial processing setups of the other two types
of digital scopes.
[edit]Mixed-signal oscilloscopes
A mixed-signal oscilloscope (or MSO) has two kinds of inputs, a small number (typically
two or four) of analog channels, and a larger number (typically sixteen) of digital
channels.
[edit]Handheld oscilloscopes
Handheld oscilloscopes (also called scopemeters) are useful for many test and field
service applications. Today, a hand held oscilloscope is usually a digital sampling
oscilloscope, using a liquid crystal display.
[edit]PC-based oscilloscopes (PCO)
A new type of "oscilloscope" is emerging that consists of a specialized signal acquisition
board (which can be an external USB or Parallel port device, or an internal add-
on PCI or ISA card).
[edit]Related instruments
A large number of instruments used in a variety of technical fields are really
oscilloscopes with inputs, calibration, controls, display calibration, etc., specialized and
optimized for a particular application. Examples of such oscilloscope-based instruments
include television waveform analyzers and medical devices such as vital function
monitors and electrocardiogram and electroencephalogram instruments. In automobile
repair, an ignition analyzer is used to show the spark waveforms for each cylinder. All of
these are essentially oscilloscopes, performing the basic task of showing the changes in
one or more input signals over time in an X-Y display.
Other instruments convert the results of their measurements to a repetitive electrical

signal, and incorporate an oscilloscope as a display element. Such complex
measurement systems include spectrum analyzers, transistor analyzers, and time
domain reflectometers (TDRs). Unlike an oscilloscope, these instruments automatically
generate stimulus or sweep a measurement parameter.
[edit]History
Main article: Oscilloscope history
The Braun tube was known in 1897, and in 1899 Jonathan Zenneck equipped it with
beam-forming plates and a magnetic field for sweeping the trace.[citation needed] Early
cathode ray tubes had been applied experimentally to laboratory measurements as
early as the 1920s,but suffered from poor stability of the vacuum and the cathode
emitters. V. K. Zworykin described a permanently sealed, high-vacuum cathode ray
tube with a thermionic emitter in 1931. This stable and reproducible component
allowed General Radio to manufacture an oscilloscope that was usable outside a
laboratory setting.[1]
[edit]Use as props
In the 1950s and 1960s, oscilloscopes were frequently used in movies and television
programs to represent generic scientific and technical equipment. The 1963–65 U.S. TV
show The Outer Limits famously used an image of fluctuating sine waves on an
oscilloscope as the background to its opening credits ("There is nothing wrong with your
television set....").
Television legend Ernie Kovacs utilized an oscilloscope display as a visual transition

piece between his comedy "blackouts" video segments. It was most notably used with
the synchronized playback of a German language version of the song "Mack the Knife".
They were televised during his monthly ABC Television Network specials during the late
1950s until his death in 1962.
Transistor tester
Transistor testers are instruments for testing the electrical behavior of transistors and
solid-state diodes.[1]
Contents
 1 Types of tester
o 1.1 Circuit Tester
o 1.2 Service type transistor testers
o 1.3 Laboratory-standard transistor tester or Analyser
 2 References
[edit] Types of tester

There are three types of transistor testers each performing a unique operation.
 Quick-check in-circuit checker
 Service type tester
 Laboratory-standard tester
In addition, curve tracers are reliable indicators of transistor performance.
[edit] Circuit Tester
A circuit tester is used to check whether a transistor which has previously been
performing properly in a circuit is still operational. The transistor's ability to
"amplify" is taken as a rough index of its performance. This type of tester indicates to
a technician whether the transistor is dead or still operative. The advantage of this
tester is that the transistor does not have to be removed from the circuit.
[edit] Service type transistor testers
These devices usually perform three types of checks:
 Forward-current gain,or beta of transistor.

 Base-to-collector leakage current with emitter open(ico)
 Short circuits from collector to emitter and base.
Some service testers include a go/no-go feature. Some also provide a means of
identifying transistor elements, if these are unknown. The tester has all these features
and can check solid-state devices in and out of circuit. Measurements with the service
type tester are relative rather than absolute. Even so, they are valuable to a technician
in maintaining transistorised equipment.
[edit] Laboratory-standard transistor tester or Analyser
This type of tester is used for measuring transistor parameters dynamically under
various operating conditions. The readings they give are absolute. Among the
important characteristics measured are:
 Icbo collector current with emitter open (Common base)

 ac beta (Common emitter)
 Rin (Input resistance)
Transistor testers have the necessary controls and switches for making the proper
voltage, current and signal settings. A meter with a calibrated "good" and "bad" scale
is on the front. In addition, these transistor testers are designed to check the solid-state
diodes. There are also testers for checking high transistor and rectifiers.
Microwave power meter
This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Please

help improve this article by introducing appropriate citations to
additional sources. (November 2009)
A microwave power meter is an instrument which measures the electrical

power at microwave frequencies.
Usually a microwave power meter will consist of a measuring head which contains
the actual power sensing element, connected via a cable to the meter proper, which
displays the power reading. The head may be referred to as a power sensor or mount.
Different power sensors can be used for different frequencies or power levels.
Historically the means of operation in most power sensor and meter combinations was
that the sensor would convert the microwave power into an analogue voltage which
would be read by the meter and converted into a power reading. Several modern
power sensor heads contain electronics to create a digital output and can be plugged
via USB into a PC which acts as the power meter.
Microwave power meters have a wide bandwidth—they are not frequency-selective.

To measure the power of a specific frequency component in the presence of other
signals at different frequencies a spectrum analyzer or measuring receiver is needed.
Contents
 1 Sensor technologies
o 1.1 Thermal
o 1.2 Diode
o 1.3 Field Strength
 2 Display
 3 References
[edit]Sensor technologies
There are a variety of different technologies which have been used as the power
sensing element. Each has advantages and disadvantages.
[edit]Thermal
Thermocouple power sensors make up the majority of the thermal power sensors sold
at present. They are generally reasonably linear and have a reasonably fast response
time and dynamic range. The microwave power is absorbed in a load whose
temperature rise is measured by the thermocouple. Thermocouple sensors often
require a reference DC or microwave power source for calibration before measuring;
this can be built into the power meter. Thermistor-based power sensors such as
the Agilent 8478B are generally only used in situations where their excellent linearity
is important, as they are both much slower and have a smaller dynamic range than
either thermocouple or diode-based sensors. Other thermal sensing technologies
include microwave calorimeters and bolometers and quasi-optic pulsed microwave
sensors.
[edit]Diode
Many microwave power heads use one or more diode(s) to rectify the incident
microwave power, and have extremely fast response. The diode would generally be
used in its square-law region and hence give an output voltage proportional to the
incident RF power. In order to extend their dynamic range beyond the square-law
region, linearity correction circuits or multiple diode stacks are used. Despite this,
diode sensors generally have poor linearity and can be inaccurate when
measuringmodulated signals; like thermocouple sensors, they often require a reference
source.
[edit]Field Strength
Other technologies have been investigated or implemented for use as power sensors
but are not widely used today; these include torque-vane, electron-beam,MEMS, Hall
effect and atomic fountain based sensors.
[edit]Display
Power meters generally report the power in dBm (decibels relative to 1 milliwatt),
dBW (decibels relative to 1 watt) or watts.
Manufacturers of microwave power meters include: Rohde and Schwarz, Aeroflex,

Agilent, Anritsu, Amitec, Atten Electronics, Boonton Electronics,and TEGAM Inc.
Network analyzer (electrical)
Not to be confused with packet analyzer or telecom network protocol analyzer.
ZVA40 vector network analyser from Rohde & Schwarz.
A network analyzer is an instrument that measures the network

parameters of electrical networks. Today, network analyzers commonly measure s–
parametersbecause reflection and transmission of electrical networks are easy to
measure at high frequencies, but there are other network parameter sets such as y-
parameters,z-parameters, and h-parameters. Network analyzers are often used to
characterize two-port networks such as amplifiers and filters, but they can be used on
networks with an arbitrary number of ports.
Contents
 1 Overview
 2 Architecture
o 2.1 Signal generator
o 2.2 Test set
o 2.3 Receiver
 3 Calibration
o 3.1 Automated calibration fixtures
 4 AC power systems
 5 See also
 6 Notes
 7 References
[edit]Overview
A microwave network analyzer (Agilent Technologies N5245A PNA-X) showing

a Smith chart.
Network analyzers are used mostly at high frequencies; operating frequencies can
range from 9 kHz to 110 GHz.[1] Special types of network analyzers can also cover
lower frequency ranges down to 1 Hz. These network analyzers can be used for
example for the stability analysis of open loops or for the measurement of audio
and ultrasonic components.[2]
The two main types of network analyzers are
 Scalar Network Analyzer (SNA) — measures amplitude properties only

 Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) — measures both amplitude and phase
properties
A VNA may also be called a gain-phase meter or an Automatic Network Analyzer.

An SNA is functionally identical to a spectrum analyzer in combination with
a tracking generator. As of 2007, VNAs are the most common type of network
analyzers, and so references to an unqualified “network analyzer” most often mean a
VNA. The three biggest VNA manufacturers are Agilent, Anritsu, and Rohde &
Schwarz.
A new category of network analyzer is the Microwave Transition Analyzer (MTA)

or Large Signal Network Analyzer (LSNA), which measure both amplitude and
phase of the fundamental and harmonics. The MTA was commercialized before the
LSNA, but was lacking some of the user-friendly calibration features now available
with the LSNA.
[edit]Architecture
The basic parts of a vector network analyzer
The basic architecture of a network analyzer involves a signal generator, a test set, and
one or more receivers. In some setups, these units are distinct instruments.
See scattering parameters#Measurement of S-parameters.
[edit]Signal generator
The network analyzer needs a test signal, and a signal generator or signal source will
provide one. Older network analyzers did not have their own signal generator, but had
the ability to control a stand alone signal generator using, for example, a GPIB
connection. Nearly all modern network analyzers have a built-in signal generator.
High-performance network analyzers have two built-in sources. Two built-in sources
are useful for applications such as mixer test, where one source provides the RF
signal, another the LO, or amplifier intermodulation testing, where two tones are
required for the test.
[edit]Test set
The test set takes the signal generator output and routes it to the device under test, and
it routes the signal to be measured to the receivers.
It often splits off a reference channel for the incident wave. In a SNA, the reference
channel may go to a diode detector (receiver) whose output is sent to the signal
generator's automatic level control. The result is better control of the signal generator's
output and better measurement accuracy. In a VNA, the reference channel goes to the
receivers; it is needed to serve as a phase reference.
Directional coupler. Two resistor power divider.
Some microwave test sets include the front end mixers for the receivers (e.g., test sets
for HP 8510).
The test sets may also contain directional couplers to measure reflected waves.
Transmission/reflection test set.
S-parameter test set.
[edit]Receiver
The receivers make the measurements. A network analyzer will have one or more
receivers connected to its test ports. The reference test port is usually lableled R, and
the primary test ports are A, B, C,.... Some analyzers will dedicate a separate receiver
to each test port, but others share one or two receivers among the ports.
The R receiver may be less sensitive than the receivers used on the test ports.
For the SNA, the receiver only measures the magnitude of the signal. A receiver can
be a detector diode that operates at the test frequency. The simplest SNA will have a
single test port, but more accurate measurements are made when a reference port is
also used. The reference port will compensate for amplitude variations in the test
signal at the measurement plane. It is possible to share a single detector and use it for
both the reference port and the test port by making two measurement passes.
For the VNA, the receiver measures both the magnitude and the phase of the signal. It
needs a reference channel (R) to determine the phase, so a VNA needs at least two
receivers. The usual method down converts the reference and test channels to make
the measurements at a lower frequency. The phase may be measured with a
quadrature detector. A VNA requires at least two receivers, but some will have three
or four receivers to permit simultaneous measurement of different parameters.
There are some VNA architectures (six-port) that infer phase and magnitude from just
power measurements.
[edit]Calibration
The accuracy and repeatability of measurements can be improved with calibration.
Calibration involves measuring known standards and using those measurements to
compensate for systematic errors. After making these measurements, the network
analyzer can compute some correction values to produce the expected answer. For
answers that are supposed to be zero, the analyzer can subtract the residual. For non-
zero values, the analyzer could calculate complex factors that will compensate for
both phase and amplitude errors. Calibrations can be simple (such as compensating
for transmission line length) or involved methods that compensate for losses,
mismatches, and feedthroughs.
A network analyzer (or its test set) will have connectors on its front panel, but the
measurements are seldom made at the front panel. Usually some test cables will go
from the front panel to the device under test (DUT) such as a two-port filter or
amplifier. The length of those cables will introduce a time delay and corresponding
phase shift (affecting VNA measurements); the cables may also introduce some
attenuation (affecting SNA and VNA measurements).
S-parameter measurements have a notion of a reference plane. The goal is to refer all
measurements to the reference plane.
Using ideal shorts, opens, and loads makes calibration easy, but ideal standards are
difficult to make. Modern network analyzers will account for the imperfections in the
standards. (Agilent 2006)
[edit]Automated calibration fixtures
A calibration using a mechanical calibration kit may take a significant amount of time.
Not only must the operator sweep through all the frequencies of interest, but the
operator must also disconnect and reconnect the various standards. (Agilent 2003,
p. 9) To avoid that work, network analyzers can employ automated calibration
standards. (Agilent 2003) The operator connects one box to the network analyzer. The
box has a set of standards inside and some switches that have already been
characterized. The network analyzer can read the characterization and control the
configuration using a digital bus such as USB.
[edit]AC power systems

It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article
titled Power quality meter. (Discuss)
This section
requires expansion.
From 1929 [3] to the late 1960s, large alternating current power systems were
modelled and studied on AC network analyzers ( or Transient network analyzers).
These were an outgrowth of the DC calculating boards used in the very earliest power
system analysis. These systems were essentially models of the power system, with
generators, transmission lines, and loads represented by miniature electrical
components with scale values in proportion to the modeled system.[4]Model
components were interconnected with flexible cords to represent the schematic of the
modelled system. To reduce the size of the model components, the network analyzer
was energized at a higher frequency than the 50 Hz or 60 Hz utility frequency, and
model circuits were energized at relatively low voltages to allow for safe
measurement with adequate precision. Typically, results accurate to around 2% of
measurement could be obtained. [5]
AC network analyzers were much used for power flow studies, short circuit
calculations, and system stability studies, but were ultimately replaced by numerical
solutions running on digital computers. While the analyzers could provide real-time
simulation of events, with no concerns about numeric stability of algorithms, the
analyzers were costly, inflexible, and limited in the number of busses and lines that
could be simmulated. [6] Since the multiple elements of the AC network analyzer
formed a powerful analog computer, occasionally problems in physics and chemistry
were modelled (by such researchers as Gabriel Kron of General Electric), during the
period up to the late 1940s prior to the ready availability of general-purpose digital
computers.[7]
Psophometer
Psophometer
In telecommunications, a psophometer is an instrument that provides a visual

indication of the audible effects of disturbing voltages of various frequencies.
A psophometer usually incorporates a weighting network. The characteristics of the

weighting network depend on the type of circuit under investigation, such as whether
the circuit is used for high-fidelity music or for normal speech.
Q meter
A Q meter is a piece of equipment used in the testing of radio frequency circuits. It

has been largely replaced in professional laboratories by other types
ofimpedance measuring device, though it is still in use among radio amateurs. It was
developed at Boonton Radio Corporation in Boonton, New Jersey in 1934 byWilliam
D. Loughlin[1].
A Q meter measures Q, the quality factor of a circuit, which expresses how much
energy is dissipated per cycle in a non-ideal reactive circuit:
This expression applies to an RF and microwave filter, bandpass LC filter, or any

resonator. It also can be applied to an inductor or capacitor at a chosen frequency. For
inductors
Where XL is the reactance of the inductor, L is the inductance, ω is the angular
frequency and R is the resistance of the inductor. The resistance R represents the loss
in the inductor, mainly due to the resistance of the wire.
For LC band pass circuits and filters:
Where F is the resonant frequency (center frequency) and BW is the filter

bandwidth. In a band pass filter using an LC resonant circuit, when the loss
(resistance) of the inductor increases, its Q is reduced, and so the bandwidth of the
filter is increased. In a coaxial cavity filter, there are no inductors and capacitors, but
the cavity has an equivalent LC model with losses (resistance) and the Q factor can be
applied as well.
Signal generator
A signal generator, also known variously as function generator, pitch

generator, arbitrary waveform generator, digital pattern generator or frequency
generator is an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating electronic
signals (in either the analog or digital domains). They are generally used in designing,
testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electroacoustic devices; though
they often have artistic uses as well.
There are many different types of signal generators, with different purposes and
applications (and at varying levels of expense); in general, no device is suitable for all
possible applications.
Traditionally, signal generators have been embedded hardware units, but since the age
of multimedia-PCs, flexible, programmable software tone generators have also been
available.
Contents
 1 General purpose signal generators
o 1.1 Function generators
o 1.2 Arbitrary waveform generators
 2 Special purpose signal generators
o 2.1 Pitch generators and audio generators
 2.1.1 Computer programs
o 2.2 Video signal generators
 3 Technical Trends Driving the ARB Industry
 4 See also
[edit]General purpose signal generators

[edit]Function generators
Leader Instruments LSG-15 signal generator
Main article: Function generator
A function generator is a device which produces simple repetitive waveforms. Such

devices contain an electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a
repetitive waveform. (Modern devices may use digital signal processing to synthesize
waveforms, followed by a digital to analog converter, or DAC, to produce an analog
output). The most common waveform is a sine wave, but sawtooth, step
(pulse), square, and triangular waveform oscillators are commonly available as
arearbitrary waveform generators (AWGs). If the oscillator operates above the audio
frequency range (>20 kHz), the generator will often include some sort
ofmodulation function such as amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM) as well as a second oscillator that
provides anaudio frequency modulation waveform.
Function generators are typically used in simple electronics repair and design; where
they are used to stimulate a circuit under test. A device such as an oscilloscopeis then
used to measure the circuit's output. Function generators vary in the number of
outputs they feature, frequency range, frequency accuracy and stability, and several
other parameters.
[edit]Arbitrary waveform generators

Main article: Arbitrary waveform generator
Arbitrary waveform generators, or AWGs, are sophisticated signal generators

which allow the user to generate arbitrary waveforms, within published limits
offrequency range, accuracy, and output level. Unlike function generators, which are
limited to a simple set of waveforms; an AWG allows the user to specify a source
waveform in a variety of different ways. AWGs are generally more expensive than
function generators, and are often more highly limited in available bandwidth; as a
result, they are generally limited to higher-end design and test applications.
[edit]Special purpose signal generators
A pitch generator and a probe for locating a specific pair of wires amongst many, for
example in apunch block.
In addition to the above general-purpose devices, there are several classes of signal
generators designed for specific applications.
[edit]Pitch generators and audio generators
A pitch generator is a type of signal generator optimized for use

in audio and acoustics applications. Pitch generators typically include sine waves over
the audio frequency range (20 Hz–20 kHz). Sophisticated pitch generators will also
include sweep generators (a function which varies the output frequency over a range,
in order to make frequency-domain measurements), multipitch generators (which
output several pitches simultaneously, and are used to check for intermodulation
distortion and other non-linear effects), and tone bursts (used to measure response to
transients). Pitch generators are typically used in conjunction with sound level meters,
when measuring the acoustics of a room or a sound reproduction system, and/or with
oscilloscopes or specialized audio analyzers.
Many pitch generators operate in the digital domain, producing output in various
digital audio formats such as AES-3, or SPDIF. Such generators may include special
signals to stimulate various digital effects and problems, such as clipping, jitter, bit
errors; they also often provide ways to manipulate the metadata associated with digital
audio formats.
The term synthesizer is used for a device that generates audio signals for music, or
that uses slightly more intricate methods.
[edit]Computer programs
Whilst professional signal generators can be expensive, casual hobbyists can make use
of computer programs which generate signals and use the sound card to output the
signal as audio. These programs can be fun for experimentation but are often limited
by the hardware capabilities of the sound card to generate signals only within the aural
band.
[edit]Video signal generators

Main article: Video signal generator
A video signal generator is a device which outputs

predetermined video and/or television waveforms, and other signals used to stimulate
faults in, or aid in parametric measurements of, television and video systems. There
are several different types of video signal generators in widespread use. Regardless of
the specific type, the output of a video generator will generally
contain synchronization signals appropriate for television, including horizontal and
vertical sync pulses (in analog) or sync words (in digital). Generators
of composite video signals (such as NTSC and PAL) will also include
a colorburst signal as part of the output. Video signal generators are available for a
wide variety of applications, and for a wide variety of digital formats; many of these
also include audio generation capability (as the audio track is an important part of any
video or television program or motion picture).
[edit]Technical Trends Driving the ARB Industry

New high-speed DACs provide up to 16-bit resolution at sample rates in excess of 1
GS/s. These devices provide the foundation for an AWG with the bandwidth and
dynamic range to address modern radio and communication applications. In
combination with a quadrature modulator and advanced digital signal processing,
high-speed DACs can be applied to create a full-featured vector signal generator with
very high modulation bandwidth. Example applications include commercial wireless
standards such as Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) and LTE, in addition
to military standards such as those specified in the Joint Tactical Radio System
(JTRS) initiative. Also, broad modulation bandwidth allows multi-carrier signal
generation, necessary for testing receiver adjacent channel rejection.
[edit]See also
 A/N URM-25D Signal Generator, Cold War-era hardware still in use today.
[edit]External links
 Function Generator & Arbitrary Waveform Generator Guidebook
 Understanding signal generator specifications
 Waveform Generator Fundamentals
 Blog Post: All About ABRS (Waveform Generators)
 Software tone generator available online.
Spectrum analyzer
(Redirected from Spectrum analyser)

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010)
A spectrum analyzer
Typical spectrum analyzer display, showing power vs. frequency/wavelength
A spectrum analyzer or spectral analyzer is a device used to examine the spectral

composition of some electrical, acoustic, or optical waveform. It may also measure
the power spectrum.
A spectrum analyzer is a laboratory instrument that displays signal amplitude

(strength) as it varies by signal frequency. The frequency appears on the horizontal
axis, and the amplitude is displayed on the vertical axis. To the casual observer, a
spectrum analyzer looks like an oscilloscope and, in fact, some lab instruments can
function either as oscilloscopes or spectrum analyzers.
A spectrum analyzer can be used to determine whether or not a wireless transmitter is

working according to federally defined standards for purity of emissions. Output
signals at frequencies other than the intended communications frequency appear as
vertical lines (pips) on the display. A spectrum analyzer can also be used to determine,
by direct observation, the bandwidth of a digital or analog signal.
A spectrum analyzer interface is a device that can be connected to a wireless receiver

or a personal computer to allow visual detection and analysis of electromagnetic
signals over a defined band of frequencies. This is called panoramic reception and it
can be used to determine the frequencies of sources of interference to wireless
networking equipment, such as Wi-Fi and wireless routers.
Contents
 1 Types
 2 Typical functionality
o 2.1 Frequency range
o 2.2 Marker/peak search
o 2.3 Bandwidth/average
o 2.4 Amplitude
o 2.5 View/trace
 3 Operation
 4 RF uses
 5 See also
 6 References
[edit]Types
There are analog and digital spectrum analyzers:
 An analog spectrum analyzer uses either a variable band-pass filter whose

mid-frequency is automatically tuned (shifted, swept) through the range of
frequencies of which the spectrum is to be measured or a superheterodyne
receiver where the local oscillator is swept through a range of frequencies.
 A digital spectrum analyzer computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT), a
mathematical process that transforms a waveform into the components of
itsfrequency spectrum.
Some spectrum analyzers (such as "real-time spectrum analyzers") use a hybrid

technique where the incoming signal is first down-converted to a lower frequency
using superheterodyne techniques and then analyzed using fast fourier
transformation (FFT) techniques.
[edit]Typical functionality
This section
requires expansion.
[edit]Frequency range
Two key parameter for spectrum analysis are frequency and span. The frequency
specifies the center of the display. Span specifies the range between the start and stop
frequencies, the bandwidth of the analysis. Sometimes it is possible to specify the start
and stop frequency rather than center and range.
[edit]Marker/peak search
Controls the position and function of markers and indicates the value of power.
Several spectrum analyzers have a "Marker Delta" function that can be used to
measure Signal to Noise Ratio or Bandwidth.
[edit]Bandwidth/average
Is a filter of resolution. The spectrum analyzer captures the measure on having

displaced a filter of small bandwidth along the window of frequencies.
[edit]Amplitude
The maximum value of a signal at a point is called amplitude. A spectrum analyzer

that implements amplitude analysis is called a Pulse height analyzer.
[edit]View/trace
Manages parameters of measurement. It stores the maximum values in each frequency

and a solved measurement to compare it.
[edit]Operation
A real time analysis of a song. This spectrum analyzer output features frequency on X
(horizontal), magnitude on Y (vertical), and moves through time in sequence with the
song
Frequency spectrum of the heating up period of a switching power supply (spread

spectrum) incl.waterfall diagram over a few minutes.
Usually, a spectrum analyzer displays a power spectrum over a given frequency range,
changing the display as the properties of the signal change. There is a trade-off
between how quickly the display can be updated and the frequency resolution, which
is for example relevant for distinguishing frequency components that are close
together. With a digital spectrum analyzer, the frequency resolution is Δν = 1 / T,
the inverse of the time T over which the waveform is measured and Fourier
transformed (according to Uncertainty principle). With an analog spectrum analyzer,
it is dependent on the bandwidth setting of the bandpass filter. However, an analog
spectrum analyzer will not produce meaningful results if the filter bandwidth (in Hz)
is smaller than the square root of the sweep speed (in Hz/s)[citation needed], which means
that an analog spectrum analyzer can never beat a digital one in terms of frequency
resolution for a given acquisition time. Choosing a wider bandpass filter will improve
the signal-to-noise ratio at the expense of a decreased frequency resolution.
With Fourier transform analysis in a digital spectrum analyzer, it is necessary to

sample the input signal with a sampling frequency νs that is at least twice the
bandwidth of the signal, due to the Nyquist limit. A Fourier transform will then
produce a spectrum containing all frequencies from zero to νs / 2. This can place
considerable demands on the required analog-to-digital converter and processing
power for the Fourier transform. Often, one is only interested in a narrow frequency
range, for example between 88 and 108 MHz, which would require at least a sampling
frequency of 216 MHz, not counting the low-pass anti-aliasing filter. In such cases, it
can be more economic to first use a superheterodyne receiver to transform the signal
to a lower range, such as 8 to 28 MHz, and then sample the signal at 56 MHz. This is
how an analog-digital-hybrid spectrum analyzer works.
For use with very weak signals, a pre-amplifier can be used,

although harmonic and intermodulation distortion may lead to the creation of new
frequency components that were not present in the original signal. A new method,
without using a high local oscillator (LO) (that usually produces a high-frequency
signal close to the signal) is used on the latest analyzer generation like Aaronia´s
Spectran series. The advantage of this new method is a very low noise floor near the
physical thermal noiselimit of -174 dBm(1Hz).
[edit]RF uses
Spectrum analyzers are widely used to measure the frequency
response, noise and distortion characteristics of all kinds of RF circuitry, by
comparing the input and output spectra.
In telecommunications, spectrum analyzers are used to determine occupied bandwidth

and track interference sources. Cellplanners use this equipment to determine
interference sources in the GSM/TETRA and UMTS technology.
In EMC testing, a spectrum analyzers may be used for basic precompliance testing
BUT it can not be used for full testing and certification, an EMI Receiver like
theRohde & Schwarz ESU EMI Receiver is used.
Tube tester
A tube tester is an electronic instrument designed to test certain characteristics

of vacuum tubes. Tube testers evolved along with the vacuum tube to satisfy the
demands of the time, and this evolution faded with the tube era, yet with the High-End
advent, they became a pricey piece of equipment. The first tube testers were simple
units designed for specific tubes to be used in the battle fields of World War I by radio
operators, so they could easily test the tubes of their communication equipment.
Contents
 1 Types of tube testers
o 1.1 Filament continuity tester
o 1.2 Emission tester
o 1.3 Short circuit test
o 1.4 Mutual conductance tester
o 1.5 Dynamic conductance tester
 2 References
[edit]Types of tube testers

[edit]Filament continuity tester
The simplest one is the filament continuity tester, usually with a neon lamp connected
in series with the filament and a current limiting resistance fed directly by the mains.
[edit]Emission tester
Next in complexities is the emission tester, which basically treats any tube as a diode
by carefully connecting the cathode to ground, all the grids and plate to B+ voltage,
feeding the filament with the correct voltage, and an ammeter in series with either the
plate or the cathode. This effectively measures emission, the current which the
cathode is capable of emitting, for the given plate voltage, which can usually be
controlled by a variable load resistor.
Older testers may call themselves Plate Conductance if the ammeter is in series with
the plate, or Cathode Conductance if the meter is in series with the cathode.[1]
The problems of emission testers are:
 they do not measure key characteristics of tubes, like transconductance

 they do not perform the tests at real load, voltages and currents
 they test the tube under static conditions, which are not even near the
dynamic conditions the tube would work with in a real electronic device
 tubes with grids, might not even show the real emission because of hot
spots in the cathode, hidden by the grids under normal conditions
[edit]Short circuit test
Usually, emission testers and better testers have a short circuit test which is just a
variation of the continuity tester with a neon lamp, and which allows to identify if
there is any shortcut between the different electrodes.
[edit]Mutual conductance tester
The mutual conductance tester tests the tube dynamically by applying bias and an AC
voltage to the control grid, and measuring the current obtained on the plate, while
maintaining the correct DC voltages on the plate and screen grid. This setup measures
the transconductance of the tube, indicated in micromhos.[2]
[edit]Dynamic conductance tester
The dynamic conductance tester is just a variation of the emission tester with its
implications, where a proportional AC voltage is applied to each electrode. This tester
exists thanks to Jackson mainly to avoid infringing the patents of the mutual
conductance tester held by Hickok, but obviously do not provide the same
measurements.
Wattmeter

Wattmeter
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate
of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit.
Contents
 1 Electrodynamic
 2 Electrodynamometer
 3 Electronic wattmeter
o 3.1 Digital
 4 Radio frequency
 5 See also
 6 References
[edit]Electrodynamic
Early wattmeter on display at the Historic Archive and Museum of Mining
in Pachuca, Mexico.
The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists

of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as
the potential coil.
The current coils connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is
connected in parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle
that moves over a scale to indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the
current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this
field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a
general rule, a high-value resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that
flows through it.
The result of this arrangement is that on a dc circuit, the deflection of the needle is
proportional to both the current and the voltage, thus conforming to the equation
W=VA or P=VI.
For AC power, curent and voltage may not be in step, owing to the delaying effects of
circuit inductance or capacitance. On an ac circuit the deflection is proportional to the
average instantaneous product of voltage and current, thus measuring true
power, P=VI cos φ. Here, cosφ represents the power factor which shows that the
power transmitted may be less than the apparent power obtained by multiplying the
readings of a voltmeter and ammeter in the same circuit.
The two circuits of a wattmeter can be damaged by excessive current.

The ammeter and voltmeter are both vulnerable to overheating — in case of an
overload, their pointers will be driven off scale — but in the wattmeter, either or even
both the current and potential circuits can overheat without the pointer approaching
the end of the scale! This is because the position of the pointer depends on the power
factor, voltage and current. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will give a low
reading on the wattmeter, even when both of its circuits are loaded to the maximum
safety limit. Therefore, a wattmeter is rated not only in watts, but also
in volts andamperes.
A typical wattmeter in educational labs has two voltage coils (pressure coils) and a
current coil. We can connect the two pressure coils in series or parallel to each other
to change the ranges of the wattmeter. Another feature is that the pressure coil can
also be tapped to change the meter's range. If the pressure coil has range of 300 volts,
the half of it can be used so that the range becomes 150 Volts.
[edit]Electrodynamometer
Siemens electrodynamometer, circa 1910. F = Fixed coil, D = Movable coil, S = Spiral

spring, T = Torsion head, MM = Mercury cups, I = Index needle
An early current meter was the electrodynamometer. Used in the early 20th century,
the Siemens electrodynamometer, for example, is a form of an electrodynamic
ammeter, that has a fixed coil which is surrounded by another having its axis at right
angles to that of the fixed coil. This second coil is suspended by a number of silk
fibres, and to the coil is also attached a spiral spring the other end of which is fastened
to a torsion head. If then the torsion head is twisted, the suspended coil experiences a
torque and is displaced through an angle equal to that of the torsion head. The current
can be passed into and out of the movable coil by permitting the ends of the coil to dip
into two mercury cups.
If a current is passed through the fixed coil and movable coil in series with one
another, the movable coil tends to displace itself so as to bring the axes of the coils,
which are normally at right angles, more into the same direction. This tendency can be
resisted by giving a twist to the torsion head and so applying to the movable coil
through the spring a restoring torque, which opposes the torque due to the dynamic
action of the currents. If then the torsion head is provided with an index needle, and
also if the movable coil is provided with an indicating point, it is possible to measure
the torsional angle through which the head must be twisted to bring the movable coil
back to its zero position. In these circumstances, the torsional angle becomes a
measure of the torque and therefore of the product of the strengths of the currents in
the two coils, that is to say, of the square of the strength of the current passing through
the two coils if they are joined up in series. The instrument can therefore be graduated
by passing through it known and measured continuous currents, and it then becomes
available for use with either continuous or alternating currents. The instrument can be
provided with a curve or table showing the current corresponding to each angular
displacement of the torsion head.
[edit]Electronic wattmeter
Prodigit Model 2000MU (UK version), shown in use and displaying a reading of 10
Watts being consumed by the appliance.
Electronic wattmeters are used for direct, small power measurements or for power
measurements at frequencies beyond the range of electrodynamometer-type
instruments.
[edit]Digital
A modern digital electronic wattmeter/energy meter samples the voltage and current
thousands of times a second. For each sample, the instantaneous voltage should then
be multiplied by the current of the same instant, and the average of this outcome is the
real power. The real power divided by the apparent volt-amperes (VA) is the power
factor. A computer circuit uses the sampled values to calculate RMS voltage, RMS
current, VA, power (watts), power factor, and kilowatt-hours. The simple models
display that information on LCD. More sophisticated models retain the information
over an extended period of time, and can transmit it to field equipment or a central
location. Wattmeters vary considerable in correctly calculating energy consumptions,
especially when real power is much lower than VA.
[edit]Radio frequency
Instruments with moving coils can be calibrated for direct current or power
frequency currents up to a few hundred Hz. At radio frequencies a common method is
a rectifier circuit arranged to respond to current in a transmission line; the system is
calibrated for the known circuit impedance.
Vectorscope

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010)
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality

standards. Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain
suggestions. (April 2010)
A video vectorscope displaying color bars. The diagonal direction of the color
burst vector is indicative of a PAL signal.
The graticule of an NTSC vectorscope.
A vectorscope is a special type of oscilloscope used in both audio and video

applications. Whereas an oscilloscope or waveform monitor normally displays a plot
of signal vs. time, a vectorscope displays an X-Y plot of two signals, which can reveal
details about the relationship between these two signals. Vectorscopes are highly
similar in operation to oscilloscopes operated in X-Y mode; however those used in
video applications have specialized graticules, and accept standard television or video
signals as input (demodulating and demultiplexing the two components to be analyzed
internally).
Contents
 1 Applications
o 1.1 Video
o 1.2 Audio
 2 References
[edit]Applications
[edit]Video
In video applications, a vectorscope supplements a waveform monitor for the purpose

of measuring and testing television signals, regardless of format
(NTSC, PAL,SECAM or any number of digital television standards). While a
waveform monitor allows a broadcast technician to measure the overall characteristics
of a video signal, a vectorscope is used to visualize chrominance, which is encoded
into the video signal as a subcarrier of specific frequency. The vectorscope locks
exclusively to the chrominance subcarrier in the video signal (at 3.58 MHz for NTSC,
or at 4.43 MHz for PAL) to drive its display. In digital applications, a vectorscope
instead plots the Cb and Cr channels against each other (these are the two channels in
digital formats which contain chroma information).
A vectorscope uses an overlaid circular reference display, or graticule, for visualizing

chrominance signals, which is the best method of referring to the QAM scheme used
to encode color into a video signal. The actual visual pattern that the incoming
chrominance signal draws on the vectorscope is called the trace. Chrominance is
measured using two methods—color saturation, encoded as the amplitude, or gain, of
the color red, subcarrier signal, and hue, encoded as the subcarrier's phase. The
vectorscope's graticule roughly represents saturation as distance from the center of the
circle, and hue as the angle, in standard position, around it. The graticule is also
embellished with several elements corresponding to the various components of the
standard color bars video test signal, including boxes around the circles for the colors
in the main bars, and perpendicular lines corresponding to the U and V components of
the chrominance signal (and additionally on an NTSC vectorscope, the I and Q
components). NTSC vectorscopes have one set of boxes for the color bars, while their
PAL counterparts have two sets of boxes, because the R-Y chrominance component in
PAL reverses in phase on alternating lines. Another element in the graticule is a fine
grid at the nine-o'clock, or -U position, used for measuring differential gain and phase.
Often two sets of bar targets are provided: one for colorbars at 75% amplitude and one
for colorbars at 100% amplitude. The 100% bars represent the maximum amplitude
(of the composite signal) that composite encoding allows for. 100% bars are not
suitable for broadcast and are not broadcast safe. 75% bars have reduced amplitude
and are broadcast safe.
In some vectorscope models, only one set of bar targets is provided. The vectorscope
can be setup for 75% or 100% bars by adjusting the gain so that the color burst vector
extends to the "75%" or "100%" marking on the graticule.
The reference signal used for the vectorscope's display is the color burst that is
transmitted before each line of video, which for NTSC is defined to have a phase of
180°, corresponding to the nine-o'clock position on the graticule. The actual color
burst signal shows up on the vectorscope as a straight line pointing to the left from the
center of the graticule. In the case of PAL, the color burst phase alternates between
135° and 225°, resulting in two vectors pointing in the half-past-ten and half-past-
seven positions on the graticule, respectively. In digital (and component analog)
vectorscopes, colorburst doesn't exist; hence the phase relationship between the
colorburst signal and the chroma subcarrier is simply not an issue. A vectorscope
for SECAM uses a demodulator similar to the one found in a SECAM-receiver to
retrieve the U and V colour signals since they are transmitted one at a time (Thomson
8300 Vecamscope).
On older vectorscopes implemented with CRTs, the graticule was often implemented
as a silkscreened overlay which was superimposed over the front surface of the CRT.
One notable exception was the Tektronix WFM601 series of instruments, which are
combined waveform monitors/vectorscopes used to measure CCIR 601television
signals. The waveform-mode graticules of these instruments is implemented with a
silkscreen; whereas the vectorscope graticule (consisting only of bar targets, as this
family did not support composite video) was drawn on the CRT by the electron beam.
Modern instruments have graticules drawn using computer graphics, and both
graticule and trace are rendered on an external VGA monitor or an internal VGA-
compatible LCD display.
Most modern waveform monitors include vectorscope functionality built in; and many
allow the two modes to be displayed side-by-side. The combined device is typically
referred to as a waveform monitor, and standalone vectorscopes are rapidly becoming
obsolete.
[edit]Audio
In audio applications, a vectorscope is used to measure the difference between

channels of stereo audio signals. One stereo channel drives the horizontal deflection
of the display, and the other drives the vertical deflection. A monoaural signal,
consisting of identical left and right signals, results in a straight line with a slope of
positive one. Any stereo separation is visible as a deviation from this line, creating
a Lissajous figure. If the straight line (or deviation from it) appears with a slope of
negative one, this indicates that the left and right channels are 180° out of phase.
Video signal generator

A video signal generator is a type of signal generator which outputs

predetermined video and/or television waveforms, and other signals used to stimulate
faults in, or aid in parametric measurements of, television and video systems. There
are several different types of video signal generators in widespread use. Regardless of
the specific type, the output of a video generator will generally
contain synchronization signals appropriate for television, including horizontal and
vertical sync pulses (in analog) or sync words (in digital). Generators
of composite video signals (such as NTSC and PAL) will also include
a colorburst signal as part of the output.
Contents
 1 Types of video signal generators
o 1.1 Test signal generators
o 1.2 VITS inserters
o 1.3 Sync pulse generators (SPG)
o 1.4 Logo inserters
[edit]Types of video signal generators

Video signal generators are primarily classed according to their function. In addition,
they may be classified according to the video formats and interface standard they
support—one generator may generate composite analog signals
(typically NTSC, PAL, or both), another may generate CCIR 601, and a third may
generateMPEG streams over an ASI.
Many manufacturers sell signal generation platforms, which can be populated with
multiple modules providing the above capabilities (and supporting different formats).
Many such platforms also include audio generation capability (as television includes
audio as well as video), supporting either embedded audio or standalone audio
formats.
[edit]Test signal generators
A test signal generator generates test patterns, and other useful test signals, for
troubleshooting and analzying television systems. These devices are generally
intended for offline use (test patterns are seldom broadcast, unless a station is not
operating properly or is off the air at the time), as they output complete television
signals. Examples of signals output by such a device include:
 Color bars, one of several test signals used to verify the proper reproduction
of a TV system's color gamut, and/or that a television signal or plant is
compliant with the appropriate analog transmission standards
 Flat fields, a signal consisting of nothing but a specific color (typically white,
black, a shade of gray, or one of the primary colors (red, green, and blue) at
maximum saturation). A red field is especially important in PAL applications, as
it is the "red difference" portion of the chroma signal whose phase alternates
every line; the red field should appear as a solid block of color, with no visible
"bands" going across the screen.
 Multibursts, sweeps, and pulse signals, used to test the frequency response of
a television system
 Ramp signals and staircase signals are used to check the voltage linearity of a
television system
 Convergence patterns, used to check the alignment and linearity of a receiver
 The bowtie signal, used to check the relative (inter-channel) timing of a
component video signal.
A few specialized signals are used in digital environments:
 The PLL test signal is a pathological test signal used to stress the phase-locked
loop of a serial digital receiver; this is done by outputting a bit pattern which,
after passing through the linear feedback shift register used to scramble serial
digital signals, resulting (with a high degree of probability) in a long strings of
zeroes or ones, followed by a long string of the opposite polarity, on the digital
(NRZI) signal; an issue which can cause poorly-designed PLLs to unlock.
 The Equalizer test signal is another pathological signal, consisting of a long
string of zeroes or ones, followed by a single bit of the opposite polarity. It can
cause poorly-designed cable equalizers to malfunction.
 The SDI Checkfield signal, standardized by SMPTE RP178 (for SD) and RP198
(for HD), is a test signal which contains one of the above signals in the upper
portion of the video, and the other in the lower portion of the video.
In addition, sophisticated signal generators may allow modification of the video

timing, adjustment of the gains of the various components (including out of range),
the introduction of jitter or bit errors (into digital signals), the introduction of motion,
or other effects.
[edit]VITS inserters
A vertical interval test signal inserter, or VITS inserter inserts test patterns into
the vertical interval of a television signal. Unlike test signal generators; a VITS
inserter is used to insert the test signal into live programming, so that inline
measurements of a transmission chain can be made while the chain is operational. (As
the vertical interval is typically not visible on end-user televisions, this can be done
without producing any artifacts noticeable to viewers). Since VITS signals can often
be transmitted, it is also possible for a television station to receive its own on-air feed,
and use the VITS to detect and troubleshoot problems in on-air transmission.
[edit]Sync pulse generators (SPG)
A sync pulse generator is a special type of generator which produces synchronization

signals, with a high level of stability and accuracy. These devices are used to provide
a master timing source for a video facility. The output of an SPG will typically be in
one of several forms, depending on the needs of the facility:
 A continuous wave signal

 In standard-definition applications, a bi-level sync signal, often with
a colorburst signal in facilities that have analog equipment. Typically, this is
either inNTSC or PAL format. As the resulting signal is usually indistinguishable
from an all-black television signal of the same format, this sort of reference is
commonly known as black or black burst.
 In some high-definition applications, a tri-level sync signal is used instead. This
signal is virtually identical to the synchronization signal used in component
analogue video (CAV); and is similar to the synchronization signals used
in VGA (the main difference being, in VGA the horizontal and vertical syncs are
carried on different wires; whereas TLS signals include both H and V syncs).
[edit]Logo inserters
Main article: Character generator
Logo inserters are devices used to insert a television station's logo, or other fixed
graphics, into a live television signal. Often called a "Bug Generator."
Voltmeter
Demonstration voltmeter from a physics class
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference

between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a
scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical
display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.
Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a

panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instruments,
usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter,
are standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work. Any
measurement that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is
suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical
process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full
scale, and are used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts.
Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially
calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory instruments
capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters
using amplifiers can measure tiny voltages of microvolts or less.
Part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to check its
accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston Cell is used as a standard voltage for precision
work. Precision voltage references are available based on electronic circuits.
Contents
 1 Analog voltmeter
 2 VTVMs and FET-VMs
 3 Digital voltmeters
 4 References
 5 See also
[edit]Analog voltmeter
A moving coil galvanometer of thed'Arsonval type.
 The red wire carries the current to be measured.

 The restoring spring is shown in green.
 N and S are the north and south poles of the magnet.
A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a resistor in

series with the instrument. It employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong
magnetic field. When an electric current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator
rotates and compresses a small spring. The angular rotation is proportional to the
current through the coil. For use as a voltmeter, a series resistance is added so that the
angular rotation becomes proportional to the applied voltage.
One of the design objectives of the instrument is to disturb the circuit as little as
possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is
achieved by using a sensitive ammeter or microammeter in series with a high
resistance.
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of
ohms resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value. For
example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at
full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's
terminals would be 200,000 ohms and at full scale the meter would draw 1
milliampere from the circuit under test. For multi-range instruments, the input
resistance varies as the instrument is switched to different ranges.
Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet field respond only to direct

current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the circuit so that the coil
deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made with the zero
position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end; these are useful if the voltage
reverses its polarity.
Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle use the mutual repulsion between
two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a spring. Meters of this type draw
negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with
either alternating or direct current.
[edit]VTVMs and FET-VMs

The sensitivity and input resistance of a voltmeter can be increased if the current
required to deflect the meter pointer is supplied by an amplifier and power supply
instead of by the circuit under test. The electronic amplifier between input and meter
gives two benefits; a rugged moving coil instrument can be used, since its sensitivity
need not be high, and the input resistance can be made high, reducing the current
drawn from the circuit under test. Amplified voltmeters often have an input resistance
of 1, 10, or 20 megohms which is independent of the range selected. A once-popular
form of this instrument used a vacuum tube in the amplifer circuit and so was called
the vacuum tube voltmeter, or VTVM. These were almost always powered by the
local AC line current and so were not particularly portable. Today these circuits use a
solid-state amplifier using field-effect transistors, hence FET-VM, and appear in
handheld digital multimeters as well as in bench and laboratory instruments. These are
now so ubiquitous that they have largely replaced non-amplified multimeters except
in the least expensive price ranges.
Most VTVMs and FET-VMs handle DC voltage, AC voltage, and resistance
measurements; modern FET-VMs add current measurements and often other
functions as well. A specialized form of the VTVM or FET-VM is the AC voltmeter.
These instruments are optimized for measuring AC voltage. They have much wider
bandwidth and better sensitivity than a typical multifunction device.
[edit]Digital voltmeters
Two digital voltmeters. Note the 40 microvolt difference between the

two measurements, an offset of 34 parts per million.
The first digital voltmeter was invented and produced by Andrew Kay of Non-Linear
Systems (and later founder of Kaypro) in 1954.
Digital voltmeters (DVMs) are usually designed around a special type of analog-to-
digital converter called an integrating converter. Voltmeter accuracy is affected by
many factors, including temperature and supply voltage variations. To ensure that a
digital voltmeter's reading is within the manufacturer's specified tolerances, they
should be periodically calibrated against a voltage standard such as the Weston cell.
Digital voltmeters necessarily have input amplifiers, and, like vacuum tube
voltmeters, generally have a constant input resistance of 10 megohms regardless of set
measurement range.
VU meter
A VU meter is often included in audio equipment to display a signal level in Volume

Units; the device is sometimes also called volume indicator (VI).
An analog VU meter with peak LED
Another miniature magnetoelectric VU meter
The response of a VU meter (black line) compared to instantaneous input level (grey
area) of a drum beat. Level is in dB and time is in seconds
An electrical VU meter
It is intentionally a "slow" measurement, averaging out peaks and troughs of short

duration to reflect the perceived loudness of the material. It was originally developed
in 1939 by the combined effort of Bell Labs and broadcasters CBS and NBC for
measuring and standardizing the levels of telephone lines.
Volume Unit (VU) defined: The reading of the volume indicator shall be 0 VU when
it is connected to an AC voltage equal to 1.23 Volts RMS (equal to +4 dBu) at
1000 cycles per second.[1][2]
The typical VU scale is from −20 to +3. The rise and fall times of the meter are both
300 milliseconds, meaning that if a constant sine wave of amplitude 0 VU is applied
suddenly, the meter will take 300 milliseconds to reach the 0 on the scale. It behaves
as a full-wave averaging instrument, and is not optimal for measuring peak levels.
The behaviour of VU meters is defined in ANSI C16.5-1942, British Standard BS

6840, and IEC 60268-17.

Ammeter

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ammeter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ammeter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical and electronic measuring

Below is the list of measuring instruments used in electric and electronics

Ammeter Measures current

Capacitance meter Measures the capacitance of a component

Distortionmeter Measures the distortion added to a circuit

Electricity meter Measures the amount of energy dissipated

LCR meter Measures the inductance,capacitance and the resistance of a component

General purpose instrument measures voltage, current and resistance (and

Network analyzer Measures network parameters

Oscilloscope Displayes waveform of a signal

Psophometer Measures AF and noice

Q meter Measures Q factor of the RF circuits

Signal generator Generates signals for testing purposes

Spectrum analyser Displayes frequency spectrum

Transistor tester Tests transistors

Tube tester Tests vacuum tubes (triode, tetrode etc.)

Wattmeter Measures the power

Vectorscope Displays the phase of the colors in color TV

Voltmeter Measures the potential difference between two points

VU meter Meaures the level of AF signals in Volume units

Wire carrying current to be measured.

An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit.

The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection,

An electrodynamic movement uses an electromagnet instead of the permanent

In a hot-wire ammeter, a current passes through a wire which expands as it heats.

There is also a whole range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters.[3][4] In

Ordinary Weston-type meter movements can measure only milliamperes at most,

A capacitance meter is a piece of electronic test equipment used to

 1 Simple checks without a true capacitance meter

[edit]Simple checks without a true capacitance meter

[edit]Simple and non-bridge meters

An Andeen-Hagerling 2700A capacitance bridge

[edit]Equivalent series resistance

Distortionmeter (or more precisely distortion factor meter) is an electronic measuring

The normalized output is

This ratio can be given in dB or in percentage.

Typical North American domestic analogelectricity meter

[edit]Direct Current (DC)

In 1894 Oliver Shallenberger of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation applied the

Reactive power is measured in "Volt-amperes reactive", (varh) in kilovar-hours. By

Volt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including

Other units of measurement

Neither type is likely to be used today.

Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts)

The most common type of electricity meter is theelectromechanical induction watt-hour

The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of

The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply.

disc to complete one revolution is t, then the power in watts is . For

Economy 7 Meter and Teleswitcher

[edit]Appliance energy meters

[edit]In-home energy use displays

Another type of smart meter uses nonintrusive load monitoring to automatically

In the UK, mechanical prepayment meters used to be common in rented

[edit]Time of day metering

[edit]Power export metering

A commercial power meter

[edit]Customer Drop and Metering Equation

[edit]Tampering and security

A common method of tampering on older meters is to attach magnets to the outside of