Bridge Course Math PDF

Bridge Course of Mathematics 1
Bridge Course of Mathematics
A mathematical prodigy, also known as the

‘human computer’, Shakuntala Devi (1929–2013)
was known for her complex problem-solving skills
without the aid of any mechanical device. During
her early years, she shot to fame by mentally
calculating one of the toughest mathematical
multiplications 10 seconds before the fastest and
Shakuntala Devi
the most efficient computer of the time.
She was able to answer all of his challenging mathematical

problems, prompting him to call her a ‘‘Mathematical Wizard’’. Apart
from being an unparalleled mathematician, Devi was also an astrologer,
activist and a prolific writer, whose works went on to inspire millions of
people.
‘‘Just as a mountaineer climbs a mountain– because

it is there, so a good mathematics student studies
new material – because it is there’’.
– JAMES B. BRISTOL
Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Department of Mathematics, P.M.E.C. Berhampur
MODULE – I
 INDICES
 LOGARITHMS
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOMETRY
 THE EQUATION OF A LOCUS
 POLYNOMIALS
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
INDICES
1
Index, Indices : A number indicating a typical characteristics of an expression. For
example, in 23, 3 is the exponent or index or power and 2 is the base.
The Fundamental Law of Indices
This fundamental law of indices states that if m and n are positive integers then am × an
= a : the quantity am being the product of m factors each one being a. We can always extend
m+n
this result to the product of am × an = ap where m, n and p are each positive integers. Thus
am × (an × ap) = am × an+ p = am+n+p
or (am × (an) × an = am+n × ap = am+n+p.
the same result being obtained whether we first associate an with ap or am with an. All we have
done here done here is use the associative law for multiplication. From the fundamental law we
deduce the following results for positive integers m and n.
(i) am  an = am–n if m > n
1
(ii) am  an = n mif m < n
a
(ii) (am)n + (an)m = amn + amn
We can prove these results by using the fundamental law as follows :
(i) Since m – n is positive, am–n × an = am–n+n = am. Q.E.D.
(ii) Since n – m is positive then
1 1 1
n mm
 n  m m  n
a a a a
Now multiply both sides of the equation by am to get
am am
 ,
a n m  a m a n
1
i.e. am  an = n mQ.E.D.
a
(iii) (am)n = am × am × am × am .... × am, a product of n factors. each one being am,
= a2m × am × am .... × am
= a2m × (a product of n –2 factors, each one being am)
4 Bridge Course of Mathematics
= a3m × (a product of n – 3 factors, each one being am)

= a4m × (a product of n – 4 factors, each one being am)
= anm
Similarly (an)m = amn = anm
Two further results which we need to be reminded of are
F aI
and (v) G J
am
m
m
(iv) (ab) = a b m m
H bKbm

Having identified these laws for positive indices m and n we assume that they are true
for all rational numbers, i.e. any number of the form p/q where p and q are integers (positive or
negative and q  0. All that remains to be done is to find a meaning for some of the new
expressions which are consistent with these laws.
Example – 1: To obtain a meaning for a1/n, where n is a positive integer.
Solution : We start with some numerical examples a1/2 × a1/2 = a1 = a, but since we know that
a  a  a , but since we know that a  a  a it follows that a1/2 = a , e.g.
9 = 3, 251/2 = 5.
1/2
Next consider a1/3 × a1/3 × a1/3 × a1/3 = a1/3 = a1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = a1 = a, but since we know that
3
a  3 a  3 a  a it follows that a1/3 = 3 a i.e. nth root of a (e.g. 81/3 =2, 1251/3 = 5).
For cases such as 171/4 we are unable to simplify the results as we did for 321/8 althrough
we can find the fifth root of 17 by using logarithms as the reader possibly already knows. For a
number such as 961/5 we can go part of the way towards simplification by realising that since 96
= 32 × 3 the result (iv) above enables us to wirte
961/5 = (32 × 3)1/5 = 321/5 × 31/5
2 × 3 15 or 2 5 3
Similarly
2501/3 = (125 × 2)1/3 = 1251/3 × 21/3 = 5 × 21/3 = 5 3 2
Example – 2 : To obtain a meaning for am/n, m and n being positive integers.
Solution: Now since am/n = (a1/n)m we may interrpret am/n as an (nth root of a) taken or raised to
the power of m, i.e. d ai . For example, 32
n
m
3/5
= (321/5)3 = (2)3 = 8.
c h
1
m n
Another interpretation giving the same result is to consider am/n = a , in which case
we now find an nth root of (a taken to the power m) that is n a m Numerically this becomes 323/
5
= (32) 1/ 5 = (32)1/5 = 8, as before. Clearly the first method of evalution is the easier.
Example – 3 : To obtain a meaning for a0, a  0.
Solution: Consider the result a0 × an = an × a0 = an+0 = an. Since multiplication by 1 is the only
way to leave an unchanged, it follows that a0 =1.
Example – 4 : To obtain a meaning for a–n when n is a positive integer.
Solution: Consider an × a–n = a –n + n = a0 = 1

a n  a n 1
then n
 a n  n
a a
3 1 1
e.g. 2   . In words, a–n is the reciprocal of an
23 8
1
thus a–1 =
a
Finally we consider a–1/n where n is a positive integer. We have
(a–1/n)n = a–n/n= a–1 = 1/a.
Taking the nth roots of both sides we get
d i FGH a1 IJK
1/ n
1
a 1/ n  
a 1/ n
1 1
e.g. 81/ 3  1/ 3

8 2
Rationalisation
A number such as 3 , 2 , 8 is called an irrational number because it cannot be
expressed as a quotient of two integers like
15 1 7 7
7.7  and 2  or
2 3 3 3
7 FG IJ
7
1/ 2
71/ 2
Now suppose we have to simplify
9
, i.e.
9HK ,since this is the same as
91/ 2
we
obtain the result

b7 g 1/ 2
,and 7 will have to be either-left as it is or written as 2.65, after

3
consulting tables of square roots. Thus

b7 g 1/ 2
is the simplification and

2.65
 0.88 (2 decimal
3 3
F 9I
places) is the evaluated form. On the other hand, if we attempt to simplify G J
1/ 2
H 7K we obtain
3
, we consider that a further simplification is necessary by rationalising the denominator so
7
as to make
3 3 7 3 7
 
7 7 7 7

1 xy 1 xy
Using the result x2 – y2 = (x – y) (x + y), so that
b xy
 2
g
x y 2
or  2
x  y x  y2
, we
1
now consider rationalising the denominator in the expression such as by writing
2 1
1

d 2 1 i 
2 1

2 1
 2 1
d 2 1 i d 2 1 id 2 1 i 2 1 1
1
Similarly  2 1
2 1
1
Example – 5 : Simplify x 
d x  1i
2
Solution: Rationalise the denominator
1 1 x c x  1h  x  cx  1h
2 2
x  x2  1
c x  1h x  FH cx  1hIK
  
x c x  1h
2
x c x  1h
2
x 2 2 2
2
x2  x2 1
 cx 1h  x
2
a a  2b
Example – 6 : Given that is a good approximation to 2 prove that is a better
b ab
approximation.
F a  2b IJ
Solution: We are being asked to prove than G
2
a2
H a b K is closer to 2 than
b2
. We can illustrate
a 2 49
this numerically by taking a = 7, b = 5, in which case  so that
b 2 25
a2 a2 49 1
2  2  2 
b2 b2 25 25
FG a  2b IJ 2
289 1 17 7 1
H ab K 2
144

144
so we see that
12
is closer to 2 than 5 because 144 is
1
smaller than .
25
a2 a 2 2b 2  a 2 a  2b FG IJ 2
The closeness of 2 of 2 is given by 2  2 

b b b 2 . The closeness of
a b H K to
2 is given by

2
ba  2bg 2
2
a 2  4ab  4b 2
ba  b g 2
a 2  2ab  b 2

d
2a 2  4ab  2b 2  a 2  4ab  4b 2 i 
a 2  2b 2
a 2  2ab  b 2 ba  b g 2
a 2  2b 2 2b 2  a 2
Now (a + b)2 > b2 for a > 0, b > 0, so that 
ba  b g 2 is less than
b2
in magnitude
a
although of different sign. This means that if the approximation is less than 2 then the
b
a  2b
approximation is greater than 2 (but still closer to 2 ).
ab
It we return to the numerical case suggested after 7/5 we produced a closer or better
approximation to 2 in 17/12. Now let us start again but this time with 17/12, i.e a = 17, b =
12. Thus
a  2b 17  24 41
 
a b 29 29
so that
FG a  2b IJ  FG 41IJ
2 2
1681
H a  b K H 29 K 
841
The closeness of this approximation is given by
1681 1
2 
841 841
1 1 41 17
and since is less than we have as a better approximation to 2 than .
841 144 29 12
1 1 1 1 1 1
Note that the errors in the approximations are  2,  2,  2 so that a
25 5 144 12 841 29
continuation of this process produces closer and closer approximations. This procedure produces
a sequence of rational numbers which get as close as we please to (i.e. tend to) the irrational
number 2 .


LOGARITHMS
2
For any number ‘a’ and a positve integer ‘n’ we have

an = a × a × a × a .... (n terms)
In this the real number ‘a’ is known as base and ‘n’ is known as exponent of the nth power
of a.
Logarithms. For any positive number ‘a’ (a  1), If am = b, then logarithm of ‘b’ to base
‘a’ is ‘m’ and it can be written as log ab = m
so we find that
am = b and log ab = m are equal.
(Note : log is the abbreviation to logarithm)
The logarithm of ‘b’ to base ‘a’ is defined as the number ‘m’ which has to be given as an
exponent to obtain b.
Some Results
log 1 = 0
log a = 1
Properties of Logarithms
loga x.y = logax + logay
FG x IJ = log x – log y
loga
H yK a
logaxn = n loga x
1
loga n x = logax
n
(Note : loga (b ± c) = logab ± logac)
Decimal Logarithm and Natural Logarithm
Those logarithms whose base is 10 are known as decimal logrithms. They are indicate
by ‘Log’ with no base.
Those logarithms which has a base ‘e’ (e =2.71828) are known as Natural or Naplerian
logarithms. They are indicated by ln.
The following formula can be used to change from decimal logarithm to natural logarithm
or vice-versa.
Logb  In.b . Log e OP
Inb 
Log b
Log e
PQ
Log e  0.434294
EQUALITY IN LOGARITHM
log a x  log a y  x  y
INEQUALITY IN LOGARITHM
(i) If 0 < a < 1, then
log a x  0 when x  1 

log a x  0 when 0  x  1
(ii) If a > 1, then
log a x  0, when x  1 

log a x  0, when 0  x  1
(iii) logax > logay
 x  y if a  0 and a  1

 x  y if 0  a  1
(iv) If a > 1, then
logax < logay  0 < x < y
(v) If 0 < a < 1 then
logax > logay  0 < x < y
(vi) a > 1, x > 1 logax > 0
(vii) 0 < a < 1, 0 < x < 1  logax > 0
(viii) 0 < a < 1, x > 1  logax < 0
(ix) a > 1, 0 < x < 1  logax < 0
(x) a > 1, x > 1 and x > a  logax > 1
(xi) a > 1, x > 1, x < a  0 < loga x < 1
(xii) 0 < a < 1, 0 < x < 1, x > a  0 < logax < 1
(xiii) 0 < a < 1, 0 < x < 1, x < a  logax > 1
(xiv) If a > 1, then logax < b  0 < x < ab
(xv) If a > 1, then logax > b  x > ab

(xvi) If 0 < a < 1, then logax < b  x > ab

(xvii) If 0 < a < 1, then logax > b  0 < x < ab.
Standard Form of a Number
p
If m is a positive real number, it may be written as m = n ×10 , where p  I and I < n < 10.
This form is called the standard form e.g. 8634 can be written as 8.634 × 103 standard form).
Characteristics and Mantissa
We know, log m = log n + p
where p is an integer and as 1  n < 10 so 0  log n < 1 i.e. log n lies between 0 and 1. When log
m has been has been expressed as p + log n where p is an integer and 0  log n < 1, we say the
p is Characteristic of log m and that log n is the mantissa.
Points to Remember
1. It is possible to express all positive decimals in the form m = n 10º
where p is an integer (positive, zero or negative) and 1  n < 10
2. The characteristic of the logarithm of a given number can be any integer, positive zero or
negative but mantissa
How to find the characteristic
Following rules may be applied to find the characteristic.
For a positive number m, the characteristic of log m is found by using following rules.
(i) If m > 1, count the number of digits in the integral part of m and subtract 1 from it to get
characteristic e.g. In 563.4 is 3 – 1 = 2
[Converse is also true i.e. If the characteristic of log m is 2, then number of digits in
integral part of m is 2 + 1 = 3
(ii) If m < 1, count the number of zeroes immediately after the decimal point and add 1 to it.
The number so obtained with a negative sign gives the characteristic. e.g. if m = 0.0321
the number of zeroes immediately after the decimal point is one, therefore characterterstic
of log 0.0321 is 1 + 1 = 2 with negative sign and it is written as 2 .
Converse is also true i.e.. If characteristic of log m is 2 then the number of zeros
immediately after decimal point in m is 2 –1 =1.
How to find the mantissa of the log of a Number
To find mantissa we have to consult the log lables. following procedure is adopted to
find the mantissa.
1. Locate first two digits of the given number in the left hand column, of the log tables,
headed by N. If there is only one digit in the given number then we put a zero to the right
of the number to make it a two digit number.
2. Locate the entry in the row obtained earlier in the column headed by third digit in earlier
in the number whose logarithm has to be found.
3. Now locate the entry in the same row, and in the column headed by the fourth digit in the
given number in the table of proportional parts, and add the entry now obtained to the
entry obtained earlier.

How to find the antilogarithm of a Given Number

To find the antilogartithim of a given number following rules may be used.
1. To find antilogarithm only mantissa is to be considered.
2. In the antilogarithm table, locate the first two digits in the number in the first column.
3. Locate the entry in this row and the column headed by third digit in the number.
4. In the same row and column headed by fourth digit in the number locate the entry in the
table of proportional parts.
5. Add this to the entry obtained earlier and insert the decimal point at a suitable place
following the rules of characteristics.
Applications of Logarithms
Logarithms are quite useful in carrying out complicated calculations. e.g.
(i) In calculations of compound interest.
(ii) In Calculations of population growth.
(iii) In Calculations of depreciation value (depreciation or decay is negative growth).
(iv) In Calculations of mensurations.
(v) In calculations of least square method.
Example – 1: Find the value of 72 log 7 5 .
Solution : 7 2log7 5  7log7 25  25 [ a loga M = M ]
Example – 2: Find the number of soluions of the equation log2 (x2 + 2x – 1) = 1
Solution : log2(x2 +2x – 1) = 1
 x2 + 2x – 1 = 21 = 2
 x2 + 2x – 3 = 0
 (x + 3) (x – 1) = 0
 x = –3, 1
Number of solutions is 2.
Example – 3 : If log2 (9x – 1 + 7) – log2 (3x–1 + 1) = 2, then, find the values of x.
 9 x 1  7 
Solution : log 2  x 1 2
 3 1 
9 x 1  7
 x 1
 22  4
3 1
y2  7
 4 (Taking y = 3x – 1)
y 1
 y2 – 4y + 3 = 0
 y = 1, 3
 3x – 1 = 30 or 31
 x = 1, 2

Example – 4 : Solve for x : logx (8x – 3) – logx4 = 2.

8x  3
Solution : We have log x 2
4
8x  3
 x2  , or 4x2 = 8x – 3, or 4x2 – 8x +3 = 0,
4
or, 4x2 – 6x – 2x + 3 = 0, or, 2x(2x – 3) – 1 (2x – 3)
= 0, or, (2x – 3) (2x – 1) = 0.
 either 2x – 3 = 0 or 2x – 1 = 0.
 x = 3/2 or x = 1/2
Example – 5 : Show that
16 25 81
23log  17 log  10log  1 (Base 10).
15 24 80
16
Solution : 23log = 23 [log16 – log15]
15
= 23[log24 – 10g(3× 5)]
= 23[4 log 2 – log 3 – log 5]
= 92 log 2 – 23 log 3 – 23 log 5
25
17 log = 17 [log 25 – log 24]
24
= 17 [ log52 – log(23 × 3)]
= 17 [2 log 5 – 3 log 2 – log3]
= 34 log 5 – 51 log 2 – 17 log 3
81
10log = 10[log 81 – log 80]
80
= 10 [log34 – log(24 × 5)]
= 10[4 log 3 – 4 log 2 – log 5]
= 40 log 3 – 40 log 2 – 10 log 5
 L.H.S of the given relation becomes
= log 2 (92 – 51 – 40) + log 3 (–23 – 17 + 40) + log 5 (– 23 + 34 – 10)
= log 2 + log 5 = log 10 = 1 ( the base is 10, log10 10 = 1).


BASIC CONCEPTS OF
GEOMETRY
3
Geometry. The branch of mathematics which deals with lines, curves, solids, surfaces
and points in space.
Point : In Geomertry a point has a position only and is represented by a dot. A point has
no length, width or thickness. It is designated by capital letters next to the dot as A,B,C,D,E,F,X,Z,
etc.
Here A is as point
Line: A line has length but no thickness or width. A straight line may be created by any
method, extended indefinitely in both directions. Lines are denoted by small letters i.e. a, b, c
etc.
A geometrical line is a set of points and extends endlessly in both are
A B
Plane : A plane is a flat surface such that a straight line joining any two of its plane lies
whoolly in the surface is called a plane (surface) or a plane. It is also a set of points and it has
no thickness. Planes, lines and points are related to one another in following manner.
(1) A line is terminated by points or lines meet in points.
(2) A plane is bounded by lines or the planes meets in line.
Line Segment : The position of a line with end points are called line segment A & B A,
B.
Collinear Point : Three or more than three points are said to be collinear they
K
A B C
all lie on same straight line.
Concurrent Lines : Three or more than three are said to be concurrent if there is a point
that lies pon all of them.
d
c
b
O
a
In it, lines a, b, c d are concurrent because point o lines on all tthe lines a, b, c, and d.
Intersecting Lines : Two lines whose intersection is not empty are known as intersecting
lines. The common point is called the point of inter-section.
Parallel Lines : Two Coplanar line whose intersection is empty are known as parallel
lines.
Angle : An angle is the union of two
angle
rays with a common initial part i.e.
Vertex : The common initial point is known as the vertex of the angle.
Arm : The two rays constituting the angle are called the arms (of angle). The magnitude
of an angle is the amount of rotation in which one arm must be rotated about the vertex, so as
to coincide with the other arm.
The unit for the measurement of an angle is called Degree.
The angle formed by AB and AC is written as  BAC or  CAB. In naming the angle,
the vertex is always written in the middle. But sometimes.
C C
A B A B
for convenience, angles are denoted by ,  1, 2 etc.
Congruent or equal angles : Two angle are congruent if they cover each other completely
and exactly.
Types of Angles :
Right angles : A right angle is an angle if its measure is 90º ABC is a right angle.
90º
B C

Acute angle : An acute angles is less than a right. Its measure lies between
B
40º
O A
0º and 90º. In figure  AOB is an acute angle.
Obtuse angle : An obtuse angle (measure lies between 90 and 180º as shown is diagram.
Straight Angle : An angle of 180º is called a straight angle.
B O A
Complementary Angles : Two angles are complementary if their sum measure 90º.
Here A + B = 90º, therefore A and B are the example of Complement-ary angles.
A
B
Reflex Angle : A reflex angle is an angle if its measure lies between 180º and 360º as
shown in figure.
A
B
Complete Angle : An angle of 360º is called a complete angle.

Supplementary Angles : Two angles are said to be supplementary if their measure sum
is of 180º as in diagram shown below.
A + B = 180º, therefore A and B are supplementary angles.
If two angles are supplementary, then each is called the supplement of the other. Thus
angles 120º and 60º are supplementary and angle of 60º is the supplement of an angle 120º.
Transversal : A line that intersect two or more lines at distinct points is called a transversal.
In figure AB and CD are two lines and EF is a transversal cutting at G and H. The angles 1, 2,
7,8 are called exterior angles. Angles 3, 4, 5, 6 are called interior angles.

A 2
G 1
3 B
6 4
H 5
7 D
C 8
The pairs of angles 1 and 5, 4 and 8,2 and 6, 3 and 7 are called corresponding angles.
The pairs of angles 3 and 5, 4 and 6 are called alternate interior angles.
E E
A L 3 B A P 3 B
1 4 1 4
M 2 O 2
C D C D
F F
The pair of angles 1 and 3, 2, and 4, 5 and 7, 6 and 8 are called vertically opposite
angles.
Adjacent Angles : Two angles are said to be adjacent if they have the same vertex,
common arm and the other arm of one angle is on side of the common arm and that of the other
is on the opposite side.
Vertically Opposite Angles : Anytwo angles that are formed by two intersecting lines
and are not adjacent are known as vertically opposite angles.
Traingles :
Traingle A figure that has three sides and three angles is known as a traingle and it is
denoted by  delta, a Greek letter.
Sides Three line segment AB, BC, CA are called sides of angle.
Angles  ABC,  BAC and  ACB are called its angles. The angle of the traingle in
short can be written as  A,  B and  C.
A
B C
Vertices The points ABC are called as the vertices of the traingle ABC.
Types of triangles "
A traingle, whose two sides are unequal is called a scalene triangle.
A traingle, whose two sides are equal is called an isosceles traingle.

an equilateral triangle. If in a triangle, all the angles are equal then it is called equilateral
triangle.
If in a traingle, all the angles are acute (less than 90º) then it is called an Acute angled
traingle.
If in a traingle an angle is a right angle, then it is called a Right angled traingle and the
side opposite the right angle is called the Hypotenuse.
C
90º
A B
If in a triangle an angle is obtuse (greater than 90º) then it is called an Obtuse angled
traingle.
Regular Polygon : A polygon is called regular if all its sides are equal and all its angles
are equal.
Each angle of polygon 

bn  2g  180º
n
where n is the no. of sides of polygon.
Median : In a traingle the straight line joining the middle point of any side to the opposite
vertex is called a median.
A
ME
DI
NA
B E D C
Altitude : In a traingle a straight line is drawn, from one angular point, to the opposite
side, the straight line is called the altitude or height with respect to that side.
Theorem : A sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360º.
Here is a quadrilateral ABCD
then A + B +  C + D = 360º
C D A B
Fig
Congruent
Two line segments are congruent if and only if their lengths are equal and without bending,
stretching or twisting one figure can be superimposed on the other so that both of them can be
brought into coincidence as shown in figure.

A D
C B E F
Fig
Congruence of two angles
Two angles are congruent if and only if their measure are equal to each other as shown
here.
Congruence of two triangle
Two traingles are congruent if and only if there is a correspondence between their vertices
such that the corresponding sides and corresponding angles of two traingles are equal as shown
in diagram.
A P
B C Q R
Fig
Congruent traingles are similar but the converse is not always true i.e., the similar traingles
are not congruent always.
Congruent triangles coincide by superposition.
In congruent traingles, corresponding sides lie opposite to equal side.
If ABC is congruent to PQR and the correspondence ABC « PQR makes the six pairs
of corresponding parts of the two traingles congruent then it is written as ABC  PQR.
The symbol ‘‘c.p.c.t.’’ is used to indicate correspondong parts of two congruent
triangles.
Criteria for congruent of two triangles
(1) SAS criteria – Side-Angle-Side
(2) ASA criteria – Angle – Side – Angle
(3) SSS criteria – 3 sides
Theorem : Angle opposite to two equal sies of a  are equal as shown here
ABC in which AB = AC, then n C = B.
A
B C
Fig

Theorem : Two triangles are congruent if two angles and the included side of one
traingle are equal to the corresponding two angles and the included side of the other triangle.
Here in ABC & DEF. B = E, BC = EF and C = F then ABC  DEF..
A D
B CE F
Fig
And if two angles of a traingle qare equal, then the sides opposite to them are also equal.
Here in diagram ABC in which C = B then AB = AC.
A
B D C
Fig
Theorem : Two triangle are congruent if the three sides of one triangle are equal to the
corresponding three sides of the other triangle.
Here in diagram ABC & DEF, AB = DE, BC = EF and AC = DF then ABC  DEF..
D
A
B C
E
Fig
Theorem : RHS (Right angle Hypotenuse-Side)
P
A
B C Q
Fig

Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are
respectively equal to the hypotenuse and the corresponding side of the other triangle.
as in ABC & PQR,  B =  Q = 90º AC = PR & BC = QR then ABC PQR..
Some Inequality Relations
Theorem : If two sides of any triangle are unequal then the longer side has greater angle
opposite to it.
as in ABC, AB > AC then ACB > ABC
A
B C
Fig
And if in a traingle, the greater angle has the longer side opposite to it.
as in  ABC  ACB > ABC then AB > AC
A
B C
Fig
Theorem : The sum of any two sides of a traingle is greater than the third side i.e.
AB + AC > BC
as in ABC then AC + BC > AB
AB + BC > AC
B C
Fig
Theorem : Of all the lines segments that can be drawn to a given line from a point which
is not lying on it then the perpendicular line segment is the shortest.
as  is line and P is a point not lying on it, Pm  N is any point on  then M then
PM < PN.

l
M N
Fig
Parallelogram
A parallelogam is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and equal (Abbreviated
|| gm.)
A rhombus is a parallelogram which has two adjacent sides equal.
Rectangle is a parallelogram which has one of its angles a right angle.
Square is a rectangle which has two adjacent equal sides.
A square is also a quadrilateral all of whose sides are equal and all of whose angles are
right angles.
A Kite is a quandrilqateral which has two pairs of adjacent sides equal.
Trapezium is a quadrilateral which has a pair of opposite sides parallel but the other two
sides are not non-parallel and is called a trapezium.
Isosceles trapezium . A trapezium in which the sides which are not parallel but equal to
one another is known as an isosceles trapezium.
Theorem : A quadrilateral is a parallelogram, if opposite sides are of equal lengths.
D C
A B
Fig
Theorem : The two diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other
D C
A B
Fig

Theorem : The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.

D C
4 1
O
2 3
A B
Fig
Theorem : A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if a pair of opposite sides is
parallel and of equal length.
D C
A B
Fig
Theorem : A parallelogram is a rhombus if and only if its diagonals are perpendicular to
each other.
Here ABCD is a rhombus. Its diagonals AC & BD intersect at O, then  BOC = 90º.
D C
A B
Fig
Theorem : A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if and only if the diagonals bisect each
other.
Theorem :A parallelogram is a rectangle if any only if its diagonals have an equal
length.
Here ABCD is a rectangle. AC and BD are its diagonals then AC = BD.
D C
A B
Fig

Theorem : A parallelogram is a square if and only if its diagonals are equal and are at the
right angles.
Theorem : The line segment joining the mid-points of any two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and equal to half of it.
Theorem : If there are three parallel lines, and the intercepts made by them on one
transversal are equal, then the intercepts on any other transversal are also equal.
Here in figure three parallel lines I, m, n are cut by a transversal at A, B, C, such that
AB = BC, r is any other transversal intersecting I, m, n at D, E, F, then DE = EF.
Q P
G D A
l
E B
m
C
F H n
Fig


THE EQUATION OF A LOCUS
4
Locus :
When a point moves so as to comply. with certain conditions, the path it traces out is
called the locus of the point under these conditions. Thus a point which is completed to move
on this page of paper so that it is always 5 cm from the right hand edge of the page can only
move on a line which is parallel to the edge of the page and 5 cm away.
The conditions placed upon the point are : (i) the point must be on the page; (ii) the point
must be on the pag ; (ii) the point must always be 5 cm from the right-handed edge. The locus
of the point is the line segment AB given in Fig. We would arrive at the answer by plotting one
or two possible positions, then a few more, until observing the answer as the line segment AB.
B B
P 1 P2
P3
5cm P4
P5
A A
(a) (b) (c)
Fig
Another example would be to find the locus of a point which moved on this page so that
it was always 5 cm from the centre C of this page. Again we note that the conditions to be
complied with are : (i) the point must be on this page; (ii) the point must always be 5 cm from
C. We try one or two points and then some more, as shown in Fig. and as we move from P1 to
P2 to P3, etc, we realise that we are plotting points on the circumference of a circle centre C and
deduce that the locus is the circumference of this circle i.e. the set of all points which make up
the circumference. If we relax the condition (i) that the point be on this page then we have to
use a little imagination and ‘see’ that the locus is the surface of a sphere of radius 5 cm and
centre C. This of course does imply that we always think of a sphere in this manner, i.e. that
every point on its surface is the same distance from the centre.
As another example, consider finding the locus of a point which moves on this page so
that it is equidistant from the two point A and B in above Fig. (a). As usual we start by identifying
the conditions to be satisfied as: (i) the point must always be on this page ; (ii) wherever it is, it
must be the same distance from A and B. We begin by plotting one or two trial points; the
midpoint M of AB must be one point on the locus (assuming that there are others!) and, as
illustrated in Fig. (c) the point N looks about right – certainly the point K looks wrong because
it is nearer to A than B. Recalling the result of Fig.(b) we try a pair of compasses opened to a
radius greater than AM and with centres alternately A and B we draw circles with the same
radius and where they intersect will be a point which is the same distance from A as it is from
B. Repeating this several times we eventually ‘see’ that the locus is a straight line though M
perpendicular to AB. Thus each time, unless we ‘know’ the answer, we must build up the locus
point by point until we identify its final form.
The Equation of a Locus
We describe any point P in the coordinate plane as P (x, y) but, as soon as we impose
conditions on its position, then it will only be able to move according to these conditions in
what we have called a ‘locus’. Imposing conditions on P means interpreting their influence
of x and y. Thus we have seen that if P must move, so that it is only 3 units from the x axis,
then the y co-ordinate of P must always be ±3 and so the conditions mean y = 3 and y = –3.
The locus is therefore the two lines y = 3 and y = –3.
Similarly x2 + y2 = 25 is an equation of a locus which we determine in the usual way by
finding as many points as necessary to deduce the complete curve. Thus (3, 4), (–3, 4), (–3,
–4), (3, –4) are four points satisfying the equation but hardly enough to deduce that the locus
will be a circle centre, the origin and radius 5 units. Indeed it will be very tedious to proceed in
this way to deduce the locus. However, the reader should appreciate that any equation x and y
which shall be dealing with can be represented by a curve or a straight line in the coordinate
plane. What we need to do is to build a store of standard results which we can subsequently
describe as ‘well known’.
Consider how we can produce a straight line through a point. Firstly it must have the
same gradient everywhere and secondly it will have to pass through the point. The basic problem
of producing a particular line is thus expressed by the following example.
Example – 1. Find the equation of the straight line which has a gradient of –1 and passes
through the point C (5, 2). Find also the point in which this line intersects
the line y = 3x – 5.
Solution : We again use above Fig. and, as before, we suggest that the point Q (x, y) lies on the
line. Although we have not found the line yet, we do know that it slopes in the direction
suggested because the gradient is negative.
We now calculate the gradient of the line by moving from C (5, 2) to Q (x, y).
change in y y  2
 the gradient is   1
change in x x  5
 y – 2 = – 1 (x – 5)
i.e. y = –x + 7 is the required equation to the straight line.

POLYNOMIALS
5
Polynomials means an algebric expression consisting of many terms involving powers

of the variable.
Definition : A function p (x) of the from p (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .... + anxn where a0a1,
a2...., an are real number and n is a non-negative integer is called a polynomial in x, over reals.
Standard Form of a Polynomial : A polynomial is said to be in standard form if the
powers of x are either in increasing or in decreasing order.
Some special types of Polynomials.
(1) Zero-polynomial : If in a polynomial all the coefficients are zero, then it is called
the zero polynomial.
e.g. 0x2 – 0x + 0 is a zero polynomial
(2) Monomial : After combining like powers of x, if a polynomial consists pof a single
term, it is called a monomial.
e.g., 3 –2x2, 7x3 etc. are called monomials.
(3) Binomial : If a polynomial consists of two terms, it is called a binomial.
e.g. 5x + 7, 2x3 + 3 etc. are binomial consists of three terms, called a trainomial.
Powers of Polynomial
Notable Products
(A + B) (A – B) = A2 – B2
(A + B + C)2 = A2 + B2 + C2 + 2AB + 2BC + 2CA
Some Important Relations
(A + B)0 = 1
(A – B)0 = 1
(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2
(A – B)2 = A2 – 2AB + B2
(A + B)3 = A3 + 3A2B + 3AB2 + B3
(A – B)3 = A3 – 3A2B + 3AB2 – B3
(A + B)4 = A4 + 4A3B + 6A 2B2 + 4AB3 + B4

(A – B)4 = A4 – 4A3B + 6A 2B2 – 4AB3 + B4
(A ± B)5 = A5 ± 5A4B + 10A 3B2 ± 10A 2B3 + 5AB4 ± B5
Standard form of a Polynomial : A polynomial p(x) is said to be in standard form if the
the powers of ‘x’ are either in increasing or decreasing order.
The power of a binomial can be calculated using the rules given below :
(i) The number of addendi of the development of the power of order n is (x0 = 1).
(ii) The exponent of the letter x start from n and decrease by a single unit to zero.
For a binomial of the type.
An . B0 + An–1 B + An–2 B2 + .... ABn–1 + A0Bn
The exponents of letter A decrease from n to zero and those of letter B start from
zero and increase by one. Hence the first addendum is AnB0 and the last one is A0Bn.
(iii) The coefficients of terms equidistant from the ends are equal.
(iv) The sign of coefficients are always positive if it is a sum and alternately positive
and negative if it is a difference.
(v) To obtain the coefficients, make use of PASCAL’S Traingle
1 n0
1 1 1
1 2 1 2
1 3 3 1 3
1 4 6 4 1 4
1 5 10 10 5 1 5
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 6
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 7
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 8
Note :
(i) In Pascal’s traingle we can observe that every line starts and ends with 1.
(ii) Every other number is obtained as a sum of two numbers immediately above it.


QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
6
An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c are real and a  0 is known as

quadratic equation.
b  b 2  4ac
The two roots of a quadratic equation are given by the formula x 
2a
2
The quantity D = b – 4ac is known the discriminant of the equation.
Sum and Product of the roots. If  and  are the two roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c =
then
b Coeff of x c Contant term
   2 and
   
a Coeff of x a Coeff of x 2
Nature of roots, For a given quadratic equation
if D > 0 then roots are real and unequal
if D = 0 then roots are real and equal and if D < 0 then roots are unreal and unequal.
Formation of quadratic equation, if its roots are given:
If  are the roots of a quadratic equation then the equation will be
x2 – (0
Some Important Hints.
(i) (
(ii) 
(iii) 
(iv) 
Equations Reducible to Quadratic Form
There are some equations which after simplification or suitable substitutions are reduce
to quadratic are as under
(1) Type ax2 + bx2 + c = 0
Hint. Substitute xn = y
b
(2) Type ay + y = c, where y may involve radicals
x 1  x 13  2 x  3   x 1 
For example :    6 7
1 x x 6  x 1   2x  3 
x 2x  3
Note. Put  y or  y respectively
1 x x 1
(3) Type ax  b  cx  d  ex  f such as 2 x  1  3x  2  5 x  3

(4) Type (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) = K such as (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x +4) + 1 = 0
Note. Multiply (x + 1) (x + 4) and (x + 2) (x + 3) and then put x2 + 5x = y.
Graph of the quadratic function
ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a  0)
Let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
Method. (i) Make a table of corresponding values for x and the function.
(ii) Plot these points, on a pair of x, f(x) axis.
(iii) Draw a smooth line joining the plotted points.
A. Complex Numbers
(i) The set of complex numbers is denoted by C.
C = {a + ib; a  R}, where i2 = – 1.
(ii) Given two complex numbers a + ib and c + id, their sum is defined as the complex
number (a + c) + i (b + d).
(iii) Given two complex numbers a + ib and c + id, their product is defined as the
complex numbers (ac – bd) + i (ad + bc).
(iv) For any complex number a + ib, a – ib is called its conjugate complex number.
(v) Any complex number a + ib can be represented by the ordered pair (a, b).
(vi) Properties of complex numbers
(a) The set of complex numbers is a field.
(b) The set of complex numbers is not an ordered field.
(vii) x + iy = r (cos  + i sin ), where r is the modulus and  is the amplitude of the
complex number x + iy.
(viii) z1, z2 C, |z1z2| = |z1| . |z2|
(ix) z1, z2 C, |z1+ z2|  |z1| + |z2|
(x) De Moivre’s Theorem
(cos  + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n, where  R, n  N.
(xi) Every non-zero complex number a + ib has exactly two square roots.

B. Permutation and Combination

(i) Factorial Notation n! = 1.2.3.4 ........(n – 1)n
n! = n(n – 1)!, (n + 1)! = (n + 1) n!
(ii) Permutation. An arrangement or ordering of the elements of a set is called a
permutation of that set of elements.
n
(1) Pr = n(n – 1)(n – 2) .........(n – r + 1)
n!
= ( n  r )! , where r  N and r  n
(2) The number of permutations of n different elements, taken r at a time, repetitions

being permissible is nr.
(3) If there are n elements in a set such that p are alike and of one kind, q are alike and
of second kind, and r are alike and of third kind, then the number of different
permutations is
n!
p! q !r !
(iii) Combination. A selection of elements from a set of given elements in which
ordering does not matter is called a combination.
n
n(n  1)(n  2).......(n  r  1)
(1) Cr =
1.2.3.4......... r
n
(2) Cn = 1, nC0=1, nC1 = n
n
(3) Cr = n Cn – r
(4) If nCx = nCy then x = y or x + y = n
n
(5) Cr + nCr-1= n+1Cr
C. Binomial Theorem
(i) Binomial Expansion
(x + a)n = xn + nC1xn–1a + nC2xn–2a2 + ........+ nCrxn–rar + ........+nCnan
x, a  C and  n N
The number of terms in the expansion = n + 1
The coefficient of (r + 1)th term = nCr
(ii) Binomial Coefficients
(1) Sum of the binomial coefficients = 2n
(2) C0+C1+C2+C3+.........Cn = 2n
(3) C1+C2+C3+......Cn = 2n–1
(4) Sum of the coefficients of odd terms
= Sum of the coefficients of even terms = 2n–1
(iii) The sum of the coefficients in the expansion of (1–x)n is zero.

D. Partial Fraction
Form of the rational function Form of partial fraction
px  q A B
(1) ( x  a ) ( x  b) +
xa xb
px  q A B
(2) +
( x  a)2 ( x  a) ( x  a)2
px  q
(3) 2 No reduction keep it as it is
x  ax  b
(where x2 + ax + b cannot be factorised)
px 2  qx  r A B C
(4) + +
( x  a )( x  b) ( x  c) xa xb xc
where a, b, c are distinct
(5) (a  b) + 2 +
( x  a ) 2 ( x  b) xa ( x  a) ( x  b)
(6) + 2 +
( x  a) 3 xa ( x  a) ( x  a)3
px 2  qx  r Bx  C A
(7) 2 2 +
( x  a ) ( x  bx  c) x  bx  c xa
where x2 + bx + c can not factorised.
Note that there are as many constants to be determined as the degree of the denominator.


MODULE – II
 RELATION AND FUNCTIONS
 TRIGONOMETRY
 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLE
 THE EQUATION OF A LOCUS
 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
 NEWTON’S BINOMIAL
RELATION AND FUNCTIONS
7
7.1 : Differential Calculus (Functions)
Quantity : Quantity is that to which operations of Mathematics are applicable. For example :
Numbers, time, volume, force, velocity etc., are all quantities.
Types of Quantities :
Let D be any set of real numbers and suppose ‘x’ is a symbol that, during any mathematical
discussion, may be made to stand for any number of D, then x is called a variable and ‘D’ is called
the domain of that variable. On the otherhand if a is ‘a’ symbol that can stand precisely for one
element of D, then ‘a’ is called a constant. It is usual to represent variables by the letters, x, y, z and t
etc. and the constants by a, b, c, l, m etc.
(a) Constant : Constant is a symbol which remains the same value through out a set of
mathematical operations.
Constants are of two types :
(i) Absolute constants
(ii) Arbitrary constants
Absolute Constants : Constants do not change whatever operation we may perform and are
known as absolute constants. Example 5, 15, 132, etc.
Arbitrary constants : In the equation y = ax + b, of a straight line are arbitrary constants as
they remain fixed for particular straight line but vary from straight line to straight line, where ‘a’
and ‘b’ are arbitrary constants.
(b) Variable : Variable is a symbol which can take various numerical values.
If a variable can take all the numerical values or numerical values between any two given
numbers, then it is said to be a continuous variable,
Variables are of two types : (i) Dependent (ii) Independent variables.
Consider the equation y = ex in which x can take any value. But for each value of x, there
exists a value of y, Here x is called independent variable and y, Whose value depends upon that of x
is called dependent variable.
Functions :
A function is a special case of relation. Let X, Y be two non-empty sets and ‘R’ be a relation
from X to Y then R may not relate an element of X to an element of Y, Or it may relate an element
of X to more than one element of Y. But a function relates each element of X to a unique element of
Y.
Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. Then a function or mapping ‘f’ assigned from set X to the
set Y is a sort of correspondence which associates to each element x  X, a unique element y  Y
and is written as
f : X  Y (read as ‘‘f maps X into Y’’)
The elements y is called the image of x under f and is denoted by f(x) i.e. y = f(x) and x is
called pre-image of y.
A function can be represented pictorially as shown in the (fig 7.1) given below.
X Y
f
a p
b q
c
d r
(fig 7.1)
It must be noted here (i) that there may be some elements of set Y which are not associated to
any elements of set X (ii) that each element of set X must be associated to one and only one element
of set Y.
Domain : The set ‘X’ is called the domain of the function f.
Co-domain : The set ‘Y’ is called the co-domain of the function f.
Range : The set of all images of the elements of ‘X’ under the mapping f is called the range
of f and is denoted by f(X).
In general, f (X) Y.
Here y = f(x), where x is called independent variable and ‘y’ is called dependent variable.
Real valued function of a real variable : A function whose domain and range are subsets of
the set R of real numbers is called a real valued function. We will confine ourselves to real valued
functions only.
Main features of a function :
(i) To each element x  X, there exists a unique element y Y such that y = f(x).
(ii) Distinct elements of X may be associated with the same elements of Y.
(iii) These may be elements of Y which are not associated with any element of X.
Notation used :
If f : X Y, then domain of f is denoted by Df. Thus Df = {x : x  R s.t f(x)  R} and
range is denoted by Rf.
Thus Rf = {f (x) : x  Df}
Intervals :Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be two distinct real numbers, a  b. Let a < b. Then
(i) [a, b] = {x  R : a x b} is called closed interval from ‘a’ to ‘b’. i.e. including the end
points.
(ii) (a, b) = {x R : a x  b}is called open interval from ‘a’ to ‘b’. i.e. excluding the end
points.

(iii) [a, b) = [x R : a x  b ] is called semi closed and semi open intervals from ‘a’ to ‘b’.
(iv) (a, b] = {x R : a x  b} is called semi open and semi closed intervals from ‘a’ to ‘b’.
(v) [a, ) = {x R : x  a}
(vi) (a, ) = {x R : x  a}
(vii) (–a) = {x R : x  a}
(viii) (–a] = {x R : x  a}
(ix) (–) = {x R }
Value of a function : If y = f(x) be any function of x and x = a is admissible value of x, then
the value of the function at x = a is obtained simply by replacing x by ‘a’ in y = f(x) and is f(a).
Equality of functions : Two functions f and g are said to be equal written as f = g if (i) Df =
Dg (ii) f(x) = g (x) for all x Df (or Dg).
x3  x x2
Example : (i) f(x) = x and g (x) = 2 are equal whereas f(x) = x and g(x) = are not
x 1 x
equal as Dg = R – {0} Df.
Classifications of Functions :
Into function : A function f defined from the set X to the set Y is said to be into function if
range of f is a proper subset of in the co-domain Y.
(Or) The function f : X  Y is called into function if there exist at least one element of Y
which does not correspond to any element of X. (fig 7.2)
X = {1, 2, 3 }, Y = {p, q, r, s, t}
f = {(1, p), (2, q), (3, r)}
1 p
q
2
r
3
s
Into
X t
B
(fig . 7.2)
Onto Function or subjective mapping : A function f defined from the set X to the set Y is
said to be an onto function if f(X) = f(x) = Y i.e. if the range of f is equal to its co-domain. In other
words if every member of Y appears as the image of at least one elements of X, then f is said to be
function of X onto Y or f maps X onto Y, f is an onto function.
(Or) A function f : X  Y is said to be an onto if every element of Y is the image of some
element in X, i.e. Y = range of f (fig. 7.3)
X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a, b, c}
f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (4, c)}

(fig. 7.3)
One-one Mapping : A function f defined from the set X to the set Y is said to be an one-one
function if f(x1) = f(x2),  x1 = x2, x1, x2 X. (fig. 7.4)
or equivalently,
x1  x2  f(x1)  f(x2),  x1, x2 X.
In other words, if distinct elements of X have distinct image in Y, then the function is called
one-one function.
X = {a, b, c}, Y = {x, y, z}
f = {(a, x), (b, y), (c, z)}
a x
y
b
c z
X one to one
Y
(fig. 7.4)
One-One and onto function or Bijection : A function which is such that (i) it is onto and (ii)
it is one-one is called a bijection. In other words, a mapping f : X Y is called one-one and onto
(Bijection) if the following conditions are satisfied.
(i) f(x1) = f(x2)  x1 = x2, x1, x2  X.
(ii) Given any element y  Y, there exists an element x  X, such that y = f(x) i.e. every
element of Y has a pre-image.
(Or) The function f : X  Y is called bijective function if f is one -one and also onto.
(fig. 7.5)
X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {a, b, c} f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}

1 a
b
2
3 c
X
one - one and onto Y
(fig. 7.5)
Note 1 : Every bijective function has it's inverse function.
Note 2 : Every function is a relation but converse is not true.
Many- one Function : A function f from the set X to the set Y is said to be many-one if there
exist atleast one element in Y which has more than one pre-image in X. (fig 7.6)
X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {a, b, c} f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, c)}
1 a
b
2
3 c
X Y
(fig 7.6) Many one function

Inverse Image of an element : Let f be a function defined from the set X to the set Y, then
the inverse image of an element b Y under f is denoted by f –1(b) to be read as f inverse b.  f –1(b)
= {x : x X and f (x) = b} i.e. f –1 (b) is the set of all those elements in X which has b as their pre-
image.
Inverse function : If f is a bijective function defined from X to Y then it's inverse function is
defined from Y to X which is denoted by f –1. (fig. 7.7)
If for x  X and y  Y such that y = f(x) then it's inverse function is given by x = f –1(y)
X = {1, 2, 3 }, Y = {a, b, c}
1 a
b
2
3 c
X
Y
(fig. 7.7)
–1
Here f (a) = 1, f (b) = 2, f –1(c) = 3
–1

A function which possesses an inverse is called invertible.

Some Results based on it :
If f is one-one and onto function then f –1 is also one-one onto (bijective)
Some useful results :
(i) |x|  l – l  x  l
(ii) |x|  l x – l  or x  l
If a and b  R and a < b, then
(iii) (x – a) (x – b)  0 a  x  b
(iv) (x – a) (x – b)  0 x  a or x  b.
Useful points to be remembered for finding Domain of a function :
(i) Take the terms under the square root as non-negative if it is in the numerator and positive
if it is in the denominator.
(ii) Take the denominator as non-zero.
(iii) Take the logarithm of the number as positive.
Domains and Ranges of real functions :
Generally real functions in calculus are described by some formula are their domains are not
explicitly stated. The domain is the set of all real numbers x for which f (x) is a real number.
Example : Find the domain of the function
x
f (x) = 2
x  3x  2
Solution : Clearly, f(x) is not defined, when
x2 – 3x + 2 = 0
Now x2 – 3x + 2 = 0
 (x – 1) (x – 2) = 0
 x = 1, 2
So, f(x) is not defined for x = 1, 2
Hence, it's domain is R – {1, 2}
Working rule of finding the range of a real function.
(i) Put f (x) = y
(ii) End the value of x to obtain x =  (y)
(iii) Find the values of y for which the values of x obtained from x = (y) are in the domain
of f.
(iv) The set of values of y obtained in step (iii) is the range of f.
7.2 : Graphical representation of functions
Graph of a function :
(i) Graph of a function denoted by Gf is {(x, f (x)) : x  Df}
(ii) No vertical line can meet the graph of a function in more than one point.

(iii) A function f is one-one if no horizontal line meet the graph of the function in more than
one point. y
(iv) Graph of f and f –1 are images of each other in the line y = x.
=x
Types of functions : f (x )
Identity Function : The function f defined by f(x) = x 45º
for  x R is called the identity function on R.(fig. 7.8) x x
O
Df = R; Rf = R. Its graph is a straight line passing through
origin and is bisecting the angle between the axes.' fig 7.8
Constant Function : The function f defined by f(x)
y
= c for all x  R, where c is some real number is y
called a constant function, (fig .7.9)
x f(x)=c
Df = R, Rf = {c}. Its graph is a straight line parallel to x-
axis at a distance c from it. If c > 0, then its graph is shown in
c
the figure. x
O
y fig 7.9
Reciprocal Function :The function f defined by f(x)
y
1
= is called reciprocal function. (fig 7.10)
x
f(x)= 1
Df = R – {0}; Rf = R–{0}. Its graph is as shown in the x
figure. x x
Modulus Function : The function f defined by f(x) O
RS x when x  0 fig. 7.10
f(x) = |x| =
T x when x  0 y
is called the modulus or absolute value function.
Df = R; Rf = [0, ) Its graph is shown in the (fig. 7.11)
y
f(x
)=
x
x x
O
fig. 7.11
y
Greatest integer or Integral part of a real number : For every x  R, [x] is the greatest
integer  x.
Let n be an integer.

RSn if x  n
Tn  1 if n  1  x  n
Then x 
For example :
L19 O
[4] = 4; [–3] = – 3, M P = 6, [ 2 ] = 1; [
LM OP
7
N3Q N Q
3 ] =1, [] =3,  2 = – 4, [–e] = –3.
Greatest Integer Function : The function f defined by f(x) = [x], for all x R is called the
greatest integer function.(fig. 7.12)
Df = R; Rf = I. Its graph is constructed with the help of the following table : f(x) = [x]
= k (k I) iff k  x < k + 1.
x ... – 2  x < – 1 –1 x < 0  x < 1 1 x <2 2  x<3
y ... –2 –1 0 1 2
(fig 7.12)
Signum Function : The function f defined by
y
R| | x| , x  0
f ( x)  S x
T|0, when x  0 1
x
x
R| 1, x  0 O
f ( x)  S 0, x  0 1
|T1, x  0
is called the signum function y
Df = R; Rf = {–1, 0, 1} fig. 7.13
Its graph is shown in the (fig. 7.13)
Logarithmic Function : The function f defined by f(x) = logax, where x > 0, a > 0,  x, a R
is called the logarithmic function.

Df = (0, ); Rf = R. Its graph is shown in the (fig. 7.14 (a) fig. (b))
y y
(0<a<1)
f(x)=logax (a>1)
f(x)=logax
x x x x
O O
y y
fig 7.14(a) fig 7.14(b)
Exponential Function : The function f defined by f (x) = ax , where a> 0 and x  R is called
exponential function.
Df = R ; Rf = (0, ). Its graph is shown in the (fig. 4.15 (a) and (b))
y
y
x
f(x)=a
(0<a<1)
x¢ x x x
O
O
y¢ y
fig 7.15(a) fig 7.15(b)
y
Square Root Function : The function f defined by f(x) = x
is called the square root function,
Df = [0, ); Rf = [0, )
Its graph is shown in the (fig 7.16) f(x)= x
Polynomial Function : The function f defined by f(x) x x
= a0 + a1x +a2x2 + ....+anxn, an 0. Where a0, a1, a2.....an are real O
numbers and n N is called a polynomial function of degree
n.
Df = R ; Rf = R y
Fig. 1.16fig 7.16

Polynomial of degree 1, 2, 3, 4 are respectively called linear, quadratic, cubic and biquadratic
polynomials.
(i) f(x) = ax +b , a  0 is called a linear polynomials.
(ii) f(x) = ax2 + bx + c , a  0 is called a quadratic polynomials.
(iii) f(x) = ax3 + bx2 +cx + d, a  0 is a cubic polynomial.
g x bg
Rational Function : The function f defined by f(x) =
polynomial functions and h(x)  0 is called a rational function.
h x bg , where g(x) and h(x) are
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers except those values of x, for which h(x)  0.
Trigonometric Functions : sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x are trigonometric functions.
Also – 1  sin x  1, – 1  cos x  1, for all values of x. Here x is radian measure of an angle. The
following table illustrating the domain and range of each trigonometric function also known as
Circular functions.
Function Domain Range
sin x R [–1, 1]
cos x R [–1, 1]
tan x R – {(2n+1)/2; n  Z} R
cot x R – {n; n Z} R
sec x R – {(2n+1)/2; n Z R – (–1,1)
cosec x R – {n ; n  Z} R– (–1, 1)
Trigonometrical Functions : (Sine Function) : The function that associates to each real
number x to sin x is called the sine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle, (fig 7.17)
The domain of the sine function is R
and the range is [–1, 1] Y
i.e.–1 sin x  1 (0, 1)

   
 2    
X  O   X

2
(0,1)
Fig.1.17
Y
Cosine Function : The function that associates to each real number x to cos x is called the
cosine function. Here x is the radian measure of the angle. (fig. 7.18)
The domain of the cosine function is R and range is [–1, 1] i.e.–1 cos x  1

(0, 1)

   2
X
X   O 
   

(0,1)
Y
(fig 1.18)
sin x
Tangent Function : We have know that tan x = is defined when cos x  0. And cos x
cos x

= 0 when x is an odd multiple of .(fig. 1.79)
2

So tanx is not defined when x is an odd multiple of 2 .
{ 
 Domain = R – (2 k  1) 2 : k  I . }
since tanx may assume any value, its Range = R
Fig. 7.19
1
Secant Function : We know that sec x = is not defined when cos x = 0.
cos x


And cos x  0 when x is an odd multiple of 2 .

 secx is not defined, when x is an odd multiple of 2 . So its domain
{ 
}
= R – (2 k  1) 2 : k  I
As the numerical value of sec x is never less than 1, it follows that its range = R – (–1, 1).
Cotangent Function : We know that
cos x
cot x = is not defined when sinx = 0, x = k, k  z
sin x
 domain = R – {k : k  z}
clearly, its range = R
1
Cosecant Function : Clearly cosecx = is not defined when sinx = 0
sin x
And sinx = 0 x = k, k z
So its domain R = {k, k  z}
and its range = R – (–1, 1)
Inverse Trigonometric Functions : The inverse trigonometric functions are sin–1 x,cos–1 x,
tan x, cosec–1x, sec–1x, cot–1x. These are real functions. The domain and range of (confining only
–1
principal values) of the inverse trigonometric functions are stated below :

Function Domain Range Definition of the function
LM  ,  OP
sin–1x [–1, 1]
N 2 2Q y = sin–1x
x = sin y
–1
cos x [–1, 1] [0, ] y = cos–1 x
x = cos y
FG   ,  IJ
tan–1x (– , ) H 2 2K y = tan–1 x
x = tan y
–1
cot x (– , ) (0, ) y = cot–1 x
x = cot y
RS  UV
sec–1 x (–, –1] [1,) [0, ] –
T2 W y = sec–1 x
x = sec y
LM  ,  OP  {0}
cosec–1x (– , –1] [1,)
N 2 2Q y = cosec–1 x
x = cosec y

Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Function :

LM
  OP
N Q
The equation y = sin–1x and x = sin y are some when y   2 , 2 . Thus the graphs represented
LM
  OP
N
by these two equations are same. Tabulating the values of sines for various values of y   2 , 2 we
Q
represent the graph of x = sin y as shown in (fig. 7.20)
The graphs of y = cos–1x, y = tan–1x, y = cot–1x, y = sec–1x and y = cosec–1x are shown in the
figures Fig 7.21, fig. 7.22, fig 7.23, fig 7.24 and fig 7.25 respectively.
(fig.7.20) (fig. 7. 21) (fig. 7.22)
(fig 7.23) (fig 7.24) (fig 7. 25)

Even Function : A Function f(x) is said to be an even function if f (–x) = f(x), for all x. All
even powers of x are even function.
Example : f (x) = cos x is an even function as f (–x) = cos (–x) = cos x = f (x).
Odd Function : A function f (x) is said to be odd function if f (–x) = –f (x), for all x. All odd
powers of x are odd function.
Example : f (x) = sin x is an odd function as f (–x) = sin (–x) = – sin x = – f (x).
The graph of an even function is always symmetrical about y-axis. The graph of an odd
function is always symmetrical in opposite quadrants.

Explicitly Function : A function which is expressed directly in terms of independent variable

is called an explicit function. e.g. y = x2 – 2x + 5
Implicitly Function : If a function is not expressed directly in terms of independent variable,
it is called an Implicit function. In such a case, the relation between dependent and independent
variable is expressed in the form f (x, y) = 0 and either of the variable is said to be implicit function
of the other. e.g. y = x2y + xy2 = 3
Single valued Function : A function y = f (x) is said to be single valued function if there is
one and only value of y corresponding to each value of x.
Periodic Function : A function f (x) is said to be a periodic function if there exists a positive
real constant T such that f (x + T) = f (x), for all x  R. If T is the smallest positive real number such
that f (x + T) = f (x), for all x R, then T is called the fundamental period of f (x).
Example : sin x is periodic function and its period is 2, whereas tan x is also a periodic
function but its period is .
Some Standard functions and their periods
Function Period Function Period
sin x 2 x – [x] 1
cos x 2 sin2x , cos2 x 
tan x  |sin x|, |cos x| 
cot x  sin4 x + cox4x /2
sec x 2
cosec x 2
Some Important Results based on periodic function :

(i) If f (x) is a periodic function with period T and a, b R such that a > 0, then f (ax + b)
T
is periodic with period .
a
(ii) If f1(x), f2(x) and f3(x) are periodic functions with periods T1, T2, and T3 respectively, then
a1 f1 (x) + a2 f2(x) + a3 f3(x) is a periodic function with period equal to L.C.M. of T1, T2, T3,
where a1 , a2, a3 are nonzero real numbers.
(iii) If f (x) is periodic function with period T and g(x) is any function such that domain of f is
a proper subset of g then gof is periodic with period T.
Continuous and Discontinuous Functions : The function y = f (x) is said to be a continuous
function of x, if there is no break in its graph, if on the other hand, there is some break in the graph
of y = f (x), then it is called discontinuous function of x.
Undefined Functions or Indeterminate forms : Let y = f(x) be a function of x i.e. y = f (x)
bg
g x
=
bg
h x
(say). Let x = a be any value of x such that.
0
Case I : g(a) = 0, h(a) = 0, then the value of y at x = a is of the form .
0

Case II : g(a) = b, h(a) = 0. Then the value of y at x = a is of the form b/0. The value of the
0 b
form or as in case I and case II have no meaning. These are known as indeterminate forms.
0 0
Operations on Functions : Let f and g be two real valued functions with domains Df and Dg
respectively and let D = Df Dg  0, then
(i) Sum of f and g denoted by f + g is the function defined by (f +g) (x) = f (x) + g(x) with
domain D.
(ii) Difference of f and g denoted by f – g is the function defined by (f – g) (x) = f(x) – g(x)
with domain D.
(iii) Product of f and g denoted by fg is the function defined by (fg) (x) = f (x)g(x) with
domain D.
FG f IJ (x) = f b xg with
(iv) Quotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the function defined by
H g K gb x g
domain D where D = {x : x D, g(x) 0}.
LM 1 OP is defined as 1 1
(v) Multiplicative inverse of f written as
Nf Q f
(x)=
bg
f x
, for all x  Df
excluding those points where f (x) = 0.
(vi) Scalar Multiple of f : Let c be any real number, c f is called scalar multiple of f by ‘c’
and is defined as (cf ) (x) = cf (x) with domain = Df.
Remark The above operations are defined here only for real functions. For general function
from one set to another, these don't make sense.
Composition of functions : Let f and g be two real valued functions and let D = {x : x Df
and f (x)  Dg} , then the composite of f and g denoted by (gof) (x) = g (f (x)) with domain D.
Composite of two functions is also called resultant of two functions or function of a function.
Note that if Rf D then Dgof = Df . Similarly fog is defined by (fog) (x) = f[g(x)] with domain D. If
Rg Df, then Dfog = Dg.
Example :If f (x) = sin x, g(x) = x2, then (gof)(x) = g[f (x)] = g(sin x) = sin2x, (fog) (x)
= f ([g(x)] = f(x2) = sin x2.


TRIGONOMETRY
8
Definition of Trigonometry : The word trigonometry means the measurement of their

sides, angles and various relationship that exists between them.
Angle. An angle is thought of as traced out by the rotation of a revoving line from the
initial position OX to the terminal position OP.
The point O is called the vertex.
The line Ox is called the initial line.
OP is called terminal side.
If the line side OX is called the initial line and OP is called revolving or terminal side.
If the line side OX moves anticlockwise to the terminal side OP from the vertex O, then the
angle XOP as shown in Figure (i) is called a positive angl. But if the initial side OX moves in
the clockwise direction then the angle XOP is called a negative angle.
P P
e
id id e
als s
in i al
r m n it
Te Positive angle I
Negative angle
O X  X
(Vertex) initial line or side Terminal side
Quadrants.
The two axes X OX and YOY divides the plane into four quadrants.
(i) In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive.
II Quad I Quad
(90º180º) (0º0º)
X X
III Quad IV Quad
(180º0º) (270º0º)
(ii) In second quadrant, only sinand cosec are positive.

(iii) In third quadrant, only tan and cot are positive.
(iv) In fourth quadrant, only cos and sec are positive.
Units of Measurement of Angles

(1) Sexagesimal system (English system)
(1) 1 Right angle = 90 degrees (written as 90º)
(2) 1 Degree = 60 minutes (written as 60.
(3) 1 minute = 60 seconds (written as 60
(2) Centesimal system (French system)
1 right angle = 100 grades (written as 100g)
1 grade = 100 minutes (written as 100
1 minute =100 seconds (written as 100
(3) Circular system
In this system the fundamental unit of measurement is a radian.
Radian. An angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the
radius of the circle.
 radian = 180º = 2 rt. angles
O
r
180º
ius
1 radian =  57.2958º nearly
d
Ra
 A
[Radian measures of some commonangles, B
Angle in degree 30º 45º 60º 90º 180º 270º 360º Arc AB =r
Angle in radians 6 4 3 2 3 2 2
Relation between the three systems of measurement of an angle,  radians = 180º =
200º.]
Trigonometric Ratios or Functions
Perpendicular Hypotenuse
sin   cosec 
Hypotenuse Perpendicular
Base Hypotenuse
cos  sec  
Hypotenuse Base
Perpendicular Base
tan   cot  
Base Hypotenuse
Trigonometric Ratios
Reciprocal of Six Trigonometric Ratios
}
Trigonometric Identites
Trigonometric Ratios of the angles 90º – 
Trigonometric Ratios of 90º +  More practice see Chapter – 6
Trigonometric Ratios of 180º – 
Trigonometric Ratios of 180º + 
Trigonometric Ratios of Some Specific Angles
Note : No mistake should be committed by regarding sin  as (sin ×  , sin  is correctly
read as the sine of the angle.
(sin n is wirtten as sinn  if n  –1

(sin 2 = sin2 , (cos 3 = cos3

1
But (sin  –1  sin–1 sin–1
sin 
1. sin cos sin – cos2 cos2 1 – sin2 
2 2 2
2. 1 + tan2 sec2 tan2 sec2 

 cot2 cosec2 cot2 cosec2 – 1
The signs of t– ratios can easily be remebered with the help of the rhymes.
‘all – sin – tan – cos’ or ‘all silver tea cups’
4. = 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º
0 1 1 2 1 3 3 4
sin  0    1
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
4 3 3 2 1 1 1 0
cos  1    0
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
5. (A)
(– ) (90º ) (180º ) (360º  )
sin – sin  cos   sin   sin 
cos cos   sin   – cos cos
tan – tan   cot   tan  tan
cot – cot   tan   cot  cot
sec sec   cosec   – sec sec
cosec – cosec  sec    cosec  cosec
(B) When n is any integer , n  z
sin (n) = (–1)n sin 
cos (n) = (–1)n cos 
tan (n) = tan 
When n is odd
FG n  IJ  ( 1) cos 
n 1
sin
H2 K 2
cos G
F n  IJ  ( 1) sin 
n 1
H2 K 2
F n  IJ = –cot 
tan GH
2 K
6. Addition Formulae :
(i) sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

(ii) cos (A+B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

tan A  tan B
(iii) tan (A + B) = 1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A.tan B. tan C

(iv) tan (A + B + C) =
1  tan A . tan B  tan B. tan C  tan C .tan A
7. Subtraction Formulae :
(i) sin (A–B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B
(ii) cos (A–B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
(iii) tan (A – B) = 1  tan A tan B
8. sin (A+B) sin (A – B) = sin2 A – sin2 B

9. cos (A+B) cos (A – B) = cos2 A – sin2 B
3 1 3 1
10. (i) sin 75º = = cos 15° (ii) sin 15º = = cos 75º
2 2 2 2
(iii) tan 75º = 2 + 3 = cot 15º (iv) tan 15º = 2 – 3 = cot 75º
11. The products of sine -cosine ratios as their sum and difference :
(i) 2 sin A cos B = sin (A+B) + sin (A–B)
(ii) 2 cos A sin B = sin (A+B) – sin (A–B)
(iii) 2 cos A cos B = cos (A+B) + cos (A–B)
(iv) 2 sin A sin B = cos (A–B) – cos (A+B)
12. Product Formulae :
FG C  DIJ cosFG C  D IJ
(i) sin C + sin D = 2 sin H 2 K H 2 K
F C  D IJ sinFG C  D IJ
(ii) sin C – sin D = 2 cos GH
2 K H 2 K
(iii) cos C + cos D = 2 cos GH

F C  DIJ cosFG C  D IJ
2 K H 2 K
(iv) cos C – cos D = 2 sin GH

F C  D IJ sinFG D  C IJ
2 K H 2 K
13. Trigonometrical Ratios of Multiple Angles :
(i) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
(ii) cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2A = 2 cos2 A – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 A
2 tan A 2 tan A
(iii) tan 2A = 2 (iv) sin 2A =
1  tan A 1  tan 2 A

1  tan 2 A A A
(v) cos 2A = 2 (vi) sin A = 2 sin cos
1  tan A 2 2
A A A A
(vii) cos A = cos2 – sin2 = 2 cos2 2 – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2
2 2 2
2 tan A 2 2 tan A 2
(viii) tan A = 1  tan 2 A (ix) sin A = 1  tan 2 A
2 2
1  tan 2 A 2
(x) cos A = 1  tan 2 A (xi) sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A
2
3
3 tan A  tan 3 A
(xii) cos 3 A = 4 cos A – 3 cos A (xiii) tan 3A =
1  3 tan 2 A
A 1  cos A A 1  cos A
14. (i) sin  , (ii) cos 
2 2 2 2
A 1  cos A A A
(iii) tan  , (iv) sin  cos   1  sin A
2 1  cos A 2 2
A A
(v) sin  cos   1  sin A
2 2
2 2 2 2
15. (i) sin 22½º= , (ii) cos 22½º =
2 2
(iii) tan 22½º = 2 1
51 1
16. (i) sin 18º = = cos 72°, (ii) cos 18º = 10  2 5 = sin 72°
4 4
5 1 10  2 5
17. (i) cos 36º = = sin 72º, (ii) sin 36º = = cos 54º
4 4
18. Trigonometrical Equations :
(i) If sin  = 0, then  = n n  z

(ii) If cos  =0, then  = (2n + 1) , n  z
2
(iii) If tan  = 0, then  = nn  z
(iv) If sin  = sin , then  = n + (–1)nn  z
(v) If cos  = cos , then  = 2n, n  z
(vi) If tan  = tan , then  = n + n  z
(vii) If sin2  = sin2  ; or cos2 = cos2  or tan2  = tan2 , then  = n ±n  z

19. Sine Formulae :

sin A sin B sin C
 
a b c
20. Cosine Formulae :
b2  c2  a 2 c2  a 2  b2
(i) cosA  , (ii) cos B =
2bc 2ca
a 2  b2  c2
(iii) cos C =
2ab
21. Napier’s Analogies :
FG A  BIJ  a  b cot C FG B  C IJ  b  c cot A
(i) tan H 2 K a b 2 (ii) tan H 2 K bc 2
tan GH
F C  A IJ  c  a cot B
2 K ca
(iii)
2
22. Sines of half the angles in terms of the sides :
A ( s  b)(s  c) a b  c
(i) sin  , i.e. s =
2 bc 2
B ( s  c)(s  a ) C ( s  a )(s  b)
(ii) sin  (iii) sin 
2 ca 2 ab
23. Cosines of half of the angles in terms of the sides :
A s( s  a ) B s(s  b)
(i) cos  (ii) cos 
2 bc 2 ca
C s( s  c)
(iii) cos 
2 ab
24. Tangents of half the angles in terms of the sides ;
A ( s  b)( s  c) B ( s  c)( s  a )
(i) tan  , (ii) tan 
2 s(s  a ) 2 s( s  b)
C ( s  a )(s  b)
(iii) tan 
2 s(s  c)
25. Properties of triangles;

(i)  = ½ab sin C = ½bc sin A = ½ ca sin B
a b c
(ii)   s(s  a )(s  b)(s  c) (iii) R =  
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C
abc
(iv) R 
4
 A B C
(v) r=  ( s  a ) tan  ( s  b) tan  (s  c) tan
s 2 2 2
 A
(vi) r1= (vii) r1= s tan
sa 2
 B
r2 = r2= s tan
sb 2
 C
r3 = r3 = s tan
sc 2
26. Trigonometrical Inverse Functions :
1 1
(i) sin–1 x = cosec –1 x ; cosec–1 x = sin–1
x
1 1
cos–1x = sec–1 x ; sec–1 x = cos–1
x
1 1
tan–1 x = cot–1 ; cot –1 x = tan–1
x x

(ii) sin–1 x + cos–1 x =
2

tan–1x + cot–1x =
2

cosec–1x + sec–1x =
2
(iii) sin–1 (sin ) = , cos–1 (cos ) = , tan–1 (tan ) = 
cosec–1 (cosec ) = , sec–1 (sec ) = , cot–1 (cot ) = 
FG IJ xy
(iv)
H K
tan–1x + tan–1 y = tan–1
1  xy
tan x – tan y = tan FG x  y IJ

–1 –1 –1
(v)
H 1  xy K
tan x + tan y + tan z = tan G
F x  y  z  xyz IJ
(vi) –1 –1 –1
H 1  xy  yz  zx K
–1


LINEAR EQUATIONS
IN TWO VARIABLE
9
(1) The system of linear equation

a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
a1 b1
is (a) consistent, if a  b
2 2
a1 b1 c1
(b) inconsistent, if  
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(c) dependent, if a  b  c
2 2 2
(2) The solution of the system of linear equation

a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
is given by
b1c2  b2 c1
x
a1b2  a2b1
b1c2  b2 c1
y
a1b2  a2b1
(3) A number of two digits is given by
10 (digit at ten's place) + (dight at units place)
Distance
(4) Time =
Speed
Distance
(5) Speed =
Time
Linear Equations : An equation in-volving two any unkown in the first degree is called
a linear equation.
HOW TO SOLVE A SET OF LINEAR EQUATIONS GRAPHICALLY
Draw the graph of the first eqwuation then first on the same axis, draw the graph of the
second equation and to find the solution read the coordinates of the points of intersection of the
two graphs.
Points to note
1. If the lines meet in a point, there is only one solution and the given system of equation
is known as consistent.
2. If the lines of the equation are coincident then the equation is called dependent.
Method of solving two simutaneous linear equation in two unkonw.
Algebraic methods of solving systems of solving systems of eqsuations.
1. The method of Substitution
Step I. Find the value of one of the variable in terms of the variable in terms of the other
from any one of the given equation.
Step II. Substitue the values of the variables so obtained in the other equation.
Step III. Solve the simple equation thus got and find the value of one of the variables.
Step IV. Put the value of the variable so obtained in any one of the given equation and
find the value of the order variable.
The Method of Equalising Coefficients
Multiply the equations so as to make the coefficients of the variable to the eliminated
equal.
Add the equations if the terms having the same coefficient are opposite signs and subtract
if they are of the same sign.
Solve the simple equation thus obtained.
Substitute the value found in any one of the given equations and find the value of the one
variable.
To solve a word problem, the following points should not be avoided.
(1) Make assumptions, using two variables say x and y.
(2) Express the conditions of the problems in symbolical language and form two
equations in the terms of x and y.
(3) Solve the equations simultaneously and verify the results.
G.C.D. and L.C.M. of Polynomials
(1) H.C.F. of two or more polynomials is the ‘common factor of highest degree’.
(2) L.C.M. of two or more polynomials is the
Ist Polynomial  IInd Poynomial
(3) L.C.M. =
H.C.F.

(4) L.C.M. × H.C.F. = Product of two polynomials.

(5) x3 – y3 = (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2)
(6) x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2)
x3 + y3+ z3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2)
(7) (x2 + y4 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
(8) x4 + y4 = (x – y) (x + y) (x2 + y2)
(9) If x + y + z = 0, then x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz
Highest Common factor
Following methods should be followed.
(1) By using factorisation :
(a) Find the factors of the given polynomials.
(b) Find the set of their common factors.
(c) The common factor with the highest degree or power is the H.C.F. of the given
polynomial.
(2) By using successive division :
(a) Take out the common factor, if any from the given polynomials and find their H.C.F.
(b) Write the polynomials in descending order of their powers or degree.
(c) By taking the polynomial of higher degree as dividend and one with lower degree
as divisor perform division.
(d) If there is any remainder then take it as the divisor and the divisor of the previous
step as dividend. Again perform division.
(e) Continue this process till the remainder is zero.
The last divisor is the H.C.F. of the given polynomial.
e.g. H.C.F. of 480, 360, 600 can be found as under :
480 = 25 × 3 × 5
360 = 23 × 32 × 5
600 = 23 × 3 × 52
Thus H.C.F. = 23 × 3 ×5 = 8 × 3 × 5 = 120
Point to note
(1) If at any stage, the remainder contains common factor, take it out.
(2) If the first turn of the remainder is negative then take out (–1) as common factor.
(3) If at any stage of division, the quotient-exists as a fraction, then multiply the dividend by
a suitable number to avoid fractional quotients.
Least Common Factor
(1) About the following methods
By using factorization

(a) Find the factors of the given polynomials.

(b) Write all different factors from the given polynomial taking a factor once only.
(c) If numerical coefficients of polynomial exist, then take their L.C.M. separately.
The product of all the factors [from (a) & (b) is the L.C.M. of the given polynomial.
(2) By using division method
(i) Find the H.C.F. of the given polynomials.
(ii) Use the following formula for finding L.C.M.
Product of two polynomial
L. C. M .
H.C.F of two polynomials
e.g. the L.C.M. of 480, 360, 600 can be found as under :
480 = 25 × 3 × 5
360 = 23 × 32 × 5
600 = 23 × 3 × 52


ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
10
Formulae :
1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
2. (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
3. (a + b)2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab
4. (a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab
5. (a – b) (a + b) = a2 – b2
6. (a + b)3 = a2 + b3 + 3ab (a + b) = a3+ b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2
7. (a – b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a – b) = a3 – b3 – 3a2b + 3ab2
8. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b)
9. a3 – b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b)
10. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
Factorisation
1. a2 – b2 = (a – b) (a + b)
2. a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
3. a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a + ab + b2)
4. a4 + a2b2 + b4 = (a2 + ab + b2) (a2 – ab + b2)
5. an – bn = (a – b) (an –1– an–2 b + an–3 b2 + ... + bn–1); where n  N
6. an + bn = (a + b) (an–1– an–2 b + an–3 b2 + ...+ bn–1); where n is an odd integer
Cyclic Factors
1. a (b2 – c2) = (a – b) (b + c) (c – a)
2. a2 (b – c) = – (a – b) (b – c) (c – a)
3. a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a + ab + b2)
4. ab (b – c) = – (a – b) (b – c) (c – a) (a + b + c)
5. a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = [a + b + c] × (a2 + b2 + c2 – bc – ca – ab)
6. If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
Cyclic Expressions
1. a (b – c) = 0
2. a2 (b2 – c2) = 0
3. a3 (b3 – c3) = 0
4. an (bn – cn) = 0

NEWTON’S BINOMIAL
11
Binomials can also be obtained by using Newton’s formula

FG n IJ A  FG n IJ A FG n IJ AB FG n IJ B
H 0K H 1K H n  1K H nK
n n 1 n 1 n
(A + B)n  B ... 
Note :
FG n IJ  n! binomial Ceofficients in whcih n and k  N
H k K k !bn  k g!
n ! = 1, 2, 3 ..... (n –1), n, It is called n factorial.
k ! = 1, 2, 3 .... (k –1), k
1!=1
0!=1
FG IJ FG IJ
n n FG IJ FG
n n IJ
0HK HK

n
1,
kHK H

nk K
Remainder Theorem : If a polynomial p(x) of degree  1 be divided by x – a, then the
remainder is f (a), where a is a real number.
Proof : Let q(x) be the quotient and r(x), the remainder when p(x) is divided by x –a.
Then by division algorithm, we have
p(x) = (x – a) q (x) + r(x)
where r (x) = 0 or degree r (x) < degree (x – a)
since degree of (x – a) is 1, either
r(x) = 0 degree of (x – a) is 1, either
r(x) = 0 or degree r(x) = 0 (<1)
So r (x) is a constant, say r.
Factor Theorem : Let p(x) be a polynomial and a be a real number. Then (x – a) is a
factor of f (x) if and only if p (a) = 0
i.e. (i) If (x – a) is a factor of p(x), the n p(a) = 0
(ii) If p(a) = 0 then (x – a) is a factor of p(x).
Proof : By division algorithm, we have,

p(x) = (x – a) q (x) + r ...(i)
where q(x) is the quotient and r, the remainder.
By remainder theorem r = p(a)
(i) If (x – a) is a factor of p(x), then r = 0 ...(ii)
 p(a) = 0 [from 2]
(ii) If p(a) = 0, then r = 0
So that p(x) = (x – a) q(x)
Hence (x – a) is a factor of p(x)
A Binomial Expression Simplified into Factors
A2 – B2 = (A – B) (A + B)
A3 – B3 = (A – B) (A2 + AB + B2)
A4 – B4 = (A – B) (A3 + A2B + AB2 + B3)
An – Bn = (A – B) (An–1 + An–2B + An–3)
B2 + .... + ABn–2 + Bn–1)
A2 – B2 = (A + B) (A – B)
A4 – B2n = (A + B) (A3 + A2B + AB2 + B3)
A2n – B2n = (A + B) (A2n–1 – A2n–1.B + A2n–3 B2 + .... + AB2n–2 – B2n–1)
(Note : Alternate signs or minus sign if the exponent of B is odd)
A3 + B3 = (A + B) (A2 + AB + B2)
A5 + B5 = (A + B) (A4 + A3B + A2B2 + AB3 + B4)
A2n +1 + B2n + 1 = (A + B) (A2n – A2n–1B + AB2B2n+1 + B2n)
(Note : Alternate sign or minus sign if exponent of B is odd)
It may be remembered that it is not possible to simplify (A2n + B2n)
Linear Polynomial : A polynomial of degree 1 is called linear polynomial.
e.g. 3x + 7, 2x – 5 etc.
Quadratic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial e.g.,
2x2 + 3x + 1 ; x2 – 5x + 6 etc.
Cubic Polynomial : Polynomial of degree 4 is called biquadratic polynomial.
Points to remember
(1) Finding factors of a polynomial means finding factors of positive degree, that is of degree
n  1.
(2) To factorse a polynomial means to obtain two or more polynomials whose product be the
given polynomial.
Linear Equations in one Variable
Linear Equation : An equation involving only linear polynomials is called is linear
equation.

e.g. (i) 5x + 2 = 12
(ii) 12x + 4 + 4x + 28
Solution of a Linear Equation : The value of variable or unknown that satisfy the
equation is known as the solution of the equation.
Consider the linear equation.
5x – 2 = 18
If we substitute x = 4, we get
L.H.S. = 5x – 2
= 5 × 4 – 2 = 20 – 2 = 18
R.H.S. = 18
 L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Thus 4 is a solution of 5x – 2 = 18
Solving an Equation : Solving a linear equation means finding a value of variable which
satisfy the equation.
By any of the following operations : an equation remains uneffected.
(1) Adding the same quantity to both sides of the equality.
(2) Subtracting the same quantity to both sides of the equality.
(3) Multiplying both side of an equality by the same non-zero number.
(4) Dividing both sides of an equality by the same non-zero number.


MODULE – III
 DIFFERNTIAL CALCULUS
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
 COORDINATE GEOMETRY
DIFFERNTIAL CALCULUS
12
Calculus is a study of infinitesimally small (very very small) quantities which are so
small that they cannot be measured or calculated by ordinary means and methods.
Differential calculus. The branch of calculus which deals with the rate of change of one
quantity relative to the other at some point (instant) is called.
Differential Calculus.
0
Indeterminant form . We know 0 × anything = 0,
0
0
 = Any thing.
0
0
This show is not unique, but may be any number and is therefore indeterminant.
0
[Note. The division by zero is meaningless and undefined].
The expression x tends to a, means, the set of inifinite (real) values of x which are very
close to a and are slightly less than a but x  a.
Limit of a function. Let
b g xx 11 when x  1
2
f x 
b x  1gbx  1g  x  1

bx  1g
Let x approach 1 through values less than 1,
Putting x = 99, 99, 999
f (x) = 1.9, 1.99, 1.999 ...... ...(i)
Let x approach 1 through values less than 1,
Putting x = 1.1, 1.01, 1.001, ....
f (x) 2.1, 2.01, 2.001,.... ...(ii)
X takes values nearer and nearer to 1, remaining always less than 1 [as in (i)] or greater
than 1 [as in (ii)] f (x) takes values nearer and nearer to 2. The difference between f (x) and 2 i.e.
|f (x) 2| can be made small as we please by giving to x values close to 1. We say f (x) and 2 i.e.,
| f (x) –2| can be made as small as we please by giving to x values close to 1. We say f (x) tends
to the limit 2 as x tends to 1.
(i) Left handed and right handed limits.
The limiting value of f (x) as x  a – is called the left-hand limit of f (x) and is written as
bg
Lt f x .
x a 
The limiting value of f (x) as x  a – is called the left-hand limit of f (x) and is written as
bg
Lt f x .
x a 
(ii) Existence of the limit of a function. xLt

a
bg
f x is said to exists and are equal.
Thus if
x a 
bg x a 
bg
Lt f x  Lt f x = f (x) = 1, only then we say that Lt f x exists and is
x a
bg
= I.
Distinction between the value an the limit of a function. The value of a function f (x) at
x = a is obtained by putting x = a. The limit of the function f (x) as x  a is obtained by
considering the values of x very close to a. Thus xa 
bg
Lt f x may exist even if the function is not
defined at x = a.
THEOREMS ON LIMITS
Theorem – 1. The limit of a constant quantity is the constant itself.
i.e. Lt  c  a
xa
where c is a constant.
2. The limit of the sum of two (or more) function is equal to the sum of their limits.
i.e. xLt
a
[ (x) +  (x)] = xLt
a
 (x) + xLt
a
(x).
3. The limit of the difference of two functions is equal to the difference of their limits.
i.e. xLt
a
[ (x) –  (x)] = xLt
a
 (x) – xLt
a
(x).
4. The limit of the product of two functions is equal to the product of their limits.
i xLt
a
bgbg
 x  x  Lt  x
x a
bg Lt  x
xa
bg
5. The limit of the quotient of two function is equal to the quotient of their limits,
provided the limit of the denominator is not zero.
bg
 x Lt  x bg
Lt
bg
x a  x
 x a
Lt  x
x a
bg
provided xLt
a
 x  0. bg
6. The limit of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product of the
constant and limit of the function.
i.e. xLt
a
[c. (x)] =c [ xLt
a
 (x)]
where c is a constant and  (x) is any function of x.
Methods for finding the limits of a function 1st method (By factorization).
bg
g x
When f (x) is of the form
bg
h x
.
(i) Factorise g(x) and h (x) and cancel the common factors.
(ii) Put the value of x.
Example Evaluate
x a
Lt
x a xa
x a x a
Sol. xLt  Lt
a xa xa
e x a je x a j [Factorising]
1
Lt
x a 
x a
[ x  a  x a  0]
1 1
 
a a 2 a
2nd Method (by substitution)
g x bg
To evaluate xLt
a h x bg
(i) Put x = a + h, where (h  0) is very small As x  a then h  0.
(ii) Simplify the numerator and denominator so as to cancel through-out as h  0.
(iii) Put h = 0 and get the required limit.
xn  1
Example : Evaluate Lt
x a x  1
Solution : Put x = 1 h, where h is very samll.

Since x  1  1 + h  1 i.e. h  0
xn  1 b g
1 h 1
n
Lt
 x  a  Lt
b g
x  1 xa 1  h  1
LMF1  nh nbn  1g h ....I  1OP

M
NGH 2!
2
JK PQ
Binomial theorem]
Lt
x a b1  hg  1
nh
b g
n n 1 2
h ....
 Lt 2!
x a 2
n n 1
n
b gh ....
 Lt 2!
x a 2!
[Cancelling h as h  0]
= n + 0 + 0 + .....
= n.
Derivative of differential co-efficient of a function. If y = f (x) is a function of x and x, a
small change in the value of x, then  Lt

y
 Lt
b g bg
f x  x  f x
if it exists, is called
x  a x x a x
dy
the differential coefficient or derivative of y = f (x) and is denoted by or f (x).
dx
dy
is read as ‘dee y be dee x’
dx
d
The symbol stands for the operation of differentiation with repect to x.
dx
Thus
d

d
dx dx
y bg
dy
The process of finding is called differentiation.
dx
The process of finding the derivative of a function by using the definition of derivative
as a limit is called differrentiation from first principles or differentiation ab-initio or
differentiation by delta method.
Working rule.
(1) Denote the given function by y i.e. let y = f (x).
(2) Let x be a small change in x and y the corresponding change in y, to that
y + y = f (x + x).
(3) Find y by subtracting y from v + y. Thus
y + f (x + x) – f (x)
(4) Divide both sides by x to obtain the difference quotient.
b g bg
y f x  x  f x
 .
x x

y
(5) Find the limit of as z  0
x
dy y
 Lt
dx  x a x
Derivative of xn, where n  R
dy
dx
d i
 x n  nx n1
[Write power before x and subtract one from the power]
e.g.
d
dx
d i
 x 8  8 x 81  8 x 7
d
dx
bg
x  1 i.e. rate of change of any variable w..r.t. itself is 1.
d
Be careful
dx
y is
d
bg
dx
a d not 1.
Fundamental theorems on differentiation
Theorem 1. Derivative of a constant is zero.
i.e.,
d
dx
bg
c 0
e.g.,
d
dx
bg
 0;
d
dx
9 0. bg
Theorem 2. The derivative of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the
product of the constant and the derivative of the function.
d d
i.e., [cf (x)] = c [f (x)]
dx dx
e.g.
d
dx
d i
5x 7  5
d 2
dx
d i d
x  5 7 x 71 i
= 5(7x6) 35x6.
Theorem 3. The derivative of the algebraic sum of any finite number to functions is the
algebraic sum of the derivatives.
d
i.e., [f (x) + g (x) – (x) + .......]
dx
d d d
d= f (x) + g (x) – h (x) + .....
dx dx dx
d d d d
e.g. = (x2 – 4x + 8) = (x2) – (4x) + (8)
dx dx dx dx

Theorem – 4. An additive constant disappears in differentation

d d
i.e. [f (x) + c] = [f (x)]
dx dx
where c is a constant
d 19 d 10
e.g. [x +16] = x = 109.
dx dx
Theorem – 5. Derivative of product of two functions : the differential coefficient of the product
of two functions is the sum of the products of each function with the derivative of
the other.
d d d
e.g. = (u.v) = u +v
dx dx dx
where u and v are differentiable functions of x.
Working rule. The differential coefficient of the product of two functions = first function
× differentail coefficient of the second + second function × the differential coefficient of the
first.
d dw dv du
Cor. (uvw) = ur + uw + vw
dx dx dx dx
where u, v, w are functions of x and their derivative exists.
Thorem – 6. The differential coefficient of the quotient of two functions is.
du dv
d u FG IJv u
 dx 2 dx
dx v H K v
where u and v are derivable functions of x.
In words
Denom. DerivativeofNum 
Num. Derivative of Denom

bDenomg 2
Important Definitions
ds
(1) Velocity, v = where s is the displacement in time t seconds.
dt
dv
(2) Acceleration = i.e. Rate of change of velocity..
dt
dC
(3) Marginal cost i.e. where C is the cost of producing x units of quantity..
dx
dR
(4) Marginal Revenue  , where R is the revenue obtained by selling x units of
dx
commodity.

dP
(5) Marginal Profit  , where P is the profit obtained by selling x units of a
dx
commodity.
Funcation of a function. If y is a function of u and u in turn is a function of x then y is
called a function of a function or a composite function.
Theorem. If y is a function of u and u in turn is a function of x, then y is a function of x
and
dy dy du dv
 . . .
dx dx dv dx
Note 2. If y = un and u = g (x) = a function of x.

dy
dx
 nu n1
d
dx
u bg
dy
Remember [A function of x]n = n (function)n–1× diff.coeff. of the function w.r.t.x.
dx
dy dx
Theorem.   1.
dx dy
Diffparametric equations. If x and y be expressed in terms of any variable parameter t
then
dy
dy dt

dx dx
dt
Geometrical meaning of the derivative
The derivative at a point P of a curve is the role slope of the tangent to the curve at the
point P.
The slope of the path or curve at any point P is defined at the slope of the tangent at P
LM d IJ
N dx K at P
If the tangent to the curve at a point is parallel to the axis of x, then  = 0º.
d
 = tan y = tan 0º = 0
dx
If the tangent to the curve at a point is perpendicular to the axis of x (or parallel to the
axis of y.) then  = 90º.
d
 = tan  = tan 90º = .
dx
Equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve below the equation of the
curve is
y = f (x)

d
= slop of tangent at (x, y)
dx
 Slop of tangent at P(x1, y1)
FG dy IJ
H dx K b
at x1 , y1 g
m
The equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is
No y=f(x)
rm
al L
in e
p( x1,y1)
nt
ge
n
Ta
Slope of normal line at a given point is the negative of the reciprocal of the slope of the
tangent line at that point.
1
Slope of normal at P(x1, y1)   (m  0).
m
The equation of the normal at (x1, y1) is
1
(y – y1)   (x – x1).
m


INTEGRAL CALCULUS
13
Integration is the inverse operation of differentiatio.
In differential calculus, we are given a function and we are required to differentiate it. In
integral calculus we are required to find a function whose differential coefficient (or derivative)
is given.
If the differential coefficient of a function f(x) w.r.t. x is F(x) then we say that the integral
(or primitive) of F(x) w.r.t. x is f(x).
d
Symbolically. If  f  x   F  x  then  F(x)dx = f(x) and is read as “integral of F(x)
dx 
w.r.t.x is f(x)”.
The symbol  (elongated S) is called the sign of integration, f(x) is called the integrand
and the process of finding f (x) is called integration.
d
Constant of integration. If [f(x)] = F(x), then F(x) dx = f(x) + c where c is an
dx
arbitrary constant.
The constant c is called the constant of integration. The constant of integration is generally
omitted.
[Note. Different methods of integrating a function may give different answers apparently,
but any two such answers differ only by a constant.]
Standard Forms
xN  1
(i)  x n dx   n  
n 1
i.e., increase the index of x by 1 and divide by the new index.
1
(ii)  dx  log x
x
1
[Note: In (i) if n = – 1  xn dx =  x–1 dx =  dx = log x [  of (ii)]
x
ax e ax
(iii)  e dx  ; fe x dx  e x
a
mx a mx ax
(iv)  a dx  ;  a x dx 
m log a
(v)  sin x dx = – cos x
(vi)  cos x dx = sin x
(vii)  sec2 x dx = tan x
(viii) cosec2x dx = – cot x
(ix)  sec x tan x dx = secx
(x)  cosec x.cot x = – cosec x
0 x 01
(xi) dx   x dx   x. [as a special caseof form (i)]
0 1
Important extension of elementary forms
(i) All the results of the above list hold good when x is replaced by x + a [a being a
constant] in any formula.
n 1
i.e.,   x  a 
n
dx 
 x  a
[ n  
n 1
 sec (x + 6) tan (x + 6) dx = sec (x + 6)
(ii) If x be replaced by ax + b [a and b being constants] on both sides of any standard
result of the above table of integrals, the standard form remains true, provided the result of
R.H.S. is divided by ‘a’ the coefficient of x
n 1
i.e.,  (ax  b) n dx   ax  b  [n  1]
 n  1 a
cot  8 x  3
 cos ec 2 (8 x  3) dx  
8
THEOREMS ON INTEGRATION
Theorem – 1 : The processes of differential and integration neutralises each other
d
i.e.   f  x  dx   f  x 
dx 
Theorem – 2 : The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product
of the constant and the integral of the function.
i.e. cf(x) dx = c  f(x) dx
5 x 31 5 4
3 3
e.g. 5x dx = 5x dx =  x
3 1 4

Theorekm – 3 : If u, v, w..... (finite number) are functions of x, then

 (u + v – w + ....)dx = udx + vdx – wdx
 b c   
e.g.   a   2  dx = a dx  b  dx  c  2 dx
 x x  x x
x 21 c
= ax + b log x + c = ax + b log x –
2  1 x
[If the degree of the numerator of the integrand is equal or greater than that of denominator,
divide the numerator by the denominator until the degree of the remainder is less than that of
denominator, e.g.
x3  1  x3 x2
 dx    x 2  x  1   dx    x  log  x  1
x 1  x 1 3 2
x +1) x3 (x2 x+1

x3+x2
 x2
x2x
x
x+1
1
Definite Integral. If  (x) be an integral of f(x) then the quantity  (b) –  (a) is called
b
the definite integral of f(x) between the limits a and b is written as  f  x  dx . It is real as
a
integral from a to b of f(x) dx. ‘a’ is called the lower limit and b the upper limit b(a) is
b
  x   a
written as 
b
b
Thus  f  x  dx  [  x ]
a
a   b     a  .
Rule to evaluate  f  x  dx
a
1. Integrate  f(x) dx.

2. In the result first put x = upper limit (b), and then x = lower limit (a).
3. Subtract the second result from the first.
4
dx 4  m
e.g.,   [log x]34  log 4  log 3  log  log m  log n  log n 
3
x 3

Integration by substitution. Integration of many functions become simple by the

substitution of a new variable. In other words, many integrals can be evaluated in a simple way
by changing the variable of the given integrand say from the given variable x to the new variable
z, the two variable x, z being connected by some relation.
This process of integration is called integration by substitution.
For example . Let I =  sin3x cos x dx
dt
Put sin x = t, then cos x = [Differentiation w.r.t x]
dx
or cos x dx = dt
t4 1 1
 c = sin 4 x  c  sin 4 x.
 I =  t3, dt =
4 4 4
Two important forms of integrals
f  x  dx
Theorem – 1.   log  f  x 
f  x
The integral of a fraction whose numerator is differential co-efficient of the denominator
is log [denom.]
2x  3
e.g.  2
dx
x  3x  7
d 2
dx

x  3x  7  2 x  3 
x  3
  2 dx  log( x 2  3x  7)
x  3x  7
 f  x 
 dx  log  f  x   
 f  x  
n 1
 f  x  
Theorem – 2.   f  x   f  x  dx  
n
n 1
(Provided n  –1)
Thus if the integrand is the product of power of a function f(x) and its derivative f(x)
then the integral is obtained by increasing the index of f(x) by a and dividing the result by the
new index.
e.g., (ax2 + bx + c)5 (2ax + b) dx [Form f {f(x)n f(x) dx]
5 1

 ax 2
 bx  c  [Here f(x) = (ax2+ bx + c) f(x) = 2ax + b]
5 1
6

 ax 2
 bx  c 
6
The following notes should not be forgotten

(1)  tan x dx = – log cos x = log sec x.
(2)  cot x dx = log sin x.
x
(3)  cosec xdx = log tan
2
(4) cosec x dx = log (sec x – cot x).
 x
(5) sec xdx = log tan   
 2
(6) sec xdx = log (sec x + tan x).
Five standard forms
dx x
(i)   sin 1
a2  x2 a
dx 1 x
(ii)  2 2
 tan 1
a x a a
dx 1 x
(iii)   sec 1  
x x2  a2 a a
(iv)  dx1 x

 sinh 1  
a x2 a 2
a
dx x
(v)   cosh 1  
x a 2 2
a
To integrate a fraction whos numerator is 1 and denominator is homogeneous function
of the second degree in cos x and sin x.
1. Divide the numerator and denominator by cos2x.
2. Put tan x = z.
d
e.g.  (Dividing nur and denom. by cos2)
a sin   b cos 2 
2 2
sec 2  d  1 dz
 2 2 2
 2 put tan z = 
a tan   b a b2 2
z  2
a
2
[Note. To make the coeff. of z unity]
1 dz
 
a2 2 dx b
d [From  2 Here ‘a’
 ]
z2    2
x x a
a

 
1 1 z 1 a 
 2  tan 1    tan 1  z 
a b  b  ab b 
a a
1 a 
 tan 1  tan     z  tan 
ab  b 
Integration by parts
If u and v be two functions of x, then
 uv dx = u  v dx   du  vdx dx
 
dx
In words. Inegral of the product of two functions = 1st function × integral of 2nd-integral
of [Diff. Coeff. of 1st × Integral of 2nd].
Rule to choose the factor of differentiation or the first function. If one factor of the
product is a power of x take it as the first function provided the integral of the second function
is handy. If however the integral of the second function is not readily available [in case of
inverse circular function or inverse hyperbolic functions or a logarithmic function] in that case,
take that factor as the first function.
If the integrand is a single inverse circular function (or hyperbolic function) or a single
logarithm, take that functions the function).
(1) as the second function.
 en [f(x) + f  (x)] dx = ex f(x)
e.g.,  en [(sin x + cos x) dx [Here f (x) = sin x, f  (x)= cos x = ex sin x
x a2  x2 a 2 x
 a 2  x 2 dx   sin 1
2 2 a
x x2  x 2 a2 x
 a 2  x 2 dx   sin h1
2 2 a
x x2  a2 a 2 x
 x 2  a 2 dx   sin 1
2 2 a
i.e., for  a 2  x 2 dx,  a 2  x 2 dx,  x 2  a 2 dx
x  integrand +a 2 or  a 2 as int egrand

Integral =  × integral of [reciprocal of integrand]
2 2
Two standard integrals
eax 
 e ax sin bxdx 
2 2
(a sin bx  b cos x) 
a b  1st Form
ax e ax 
 e cos bxdx  2 2
( a cos bx  b sin x ) 
a b 
e ax
 b
 e ax sin bx dx  sin  bx  tan 1 
a b 2
 2 a
e ax
 b  2nd Form
 e ax cos bx dx  cos  bx  tan 1 
a 2  b2  a 
Important Note. elog f(x) = f(x).
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Two standard forms
dx 1 xa
(i)  2
 x 2  a 2  
2 
log
x a 2a xa
dx 1 ax
(ii)  2
 x 2  a 2  
2 
log
a x 2a ax
dx
 2 (a be + ve then).
ax  bx  c
Case I. When b2 > 4ac then
1 2ax  b  b 2  4ac
 log
b 2  4ac 2ax  b  b 2  4ac
1  2ax  b 
Case II. When b2 < 4ac then  tan 1 
 4ac  b 
2 2
4ac  b
dx
To integrate 
Quadratic
1. Make the coefficient of x2 unity by taking the numerical coefficient of x2 outside.
2. Complete the square in terms containing x by adding and subtracting the square of
half the coefficient of x.
3. Use the proper standard form.
[Note. If in a numberical problem, the discriminant of quadratic in denominator [b2–
4ac] is +ve and a perfect square, factorise the denominator and resolve it into partial fractions
then integrate.
dx 1 dx 1 dx
e.g.     
2
2x  2x  1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1
x x x x  
2 4 4 2
1
x
1 dx 1 dx 1 1 1 2
  2
  2 2  tan = tan–1 (2x – 1).
2  1 1 2  1 1 2 1 1
x   x    2 2
 2 4  2 2

Linear
Method to integrate  Quadratic dx.
d
1. Put linear =  (quadratic) + 
dx
2. Equate the coefficient of x and constant terms on both sides to find  and 
The above two steps are taken to break the given fraction into two fraction such
that in one the numberator is the derivative of denominator and in the other,
numerator is a constant.
2x
e.g.  2
dx
x  2x  2
d 2
Let 2 x  
dx

x  2x  2   
i.e, 2x =  (2x + 2) + 
Equating coeffi. of x, 2 = 2  = 1
Equation constant term, 0 = 2 + 
 = 2
2x   2x  2   x  2 dx
  2
dx   2 dx    2 dx    2 dx
x  2x  2 x  2x  2 x  2x  2 x  2x  2
dx

2

=  log x  2 x  2   
 x  12  1
= log (x2 + 2x + 2) – 2 tan–1 (x + 1) [   – 2]
Integration of irrational functions
dx
Rule to integrate  or  Quadraticdx
Quadratic
1. Make the coeff. of x2 unity by taking its numerical coeffi. outside the square root
sign.
2. Complete the square in terms containing x by adding and subtracting the square of
half the coeffi. of x.
3. Use proper standard form.


COORDINATE GEOMETRY
14
Ordered Pairs
Most of the equations we shall be considering represent a relation between the two
variables x and y, so that any numerical value for x leads to one or more numerical values of y.
Thus, if the relation is given by the equation y – x = 5 or y = x + 5 then the replacement of x byn
2 means that y must be replaced by 7 we can represent this result or solution by writing it out in
full as x = 2, y = 7, or we may adopt an abbreviated form (2, 7) called an ordered pair, so that
whenever we write (p, q) this means x
2nd Quadrant Y + 1st Quadrant

y axis
x positive x positive
y positive y negative
origin
x-axis x-axis
X X+
O
3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant
y axis
x positive x positive
y negative y negative
Y
fig.(a)
= p and y = q, for example, another solution of the same equation y = x + 5 is given by x = –1,
y = 4, which may be written as the ordered pair (–1, 4). By suggesting more and more values of
x we build up a set of solutions, or ordered pairs, that will also satisfy the equations y = x + 5.
We now seek to give a diagrammatical representation of the complete relation between x
and y, which avoids the need to find so many of the ordered pair solutions. For example, if y =
x + 5can be represented by a straight line (and it can), then we shall only need to find two poins
in order to obtain the whole line which represents the relation. As we did last time with regard
to the number and type of solutions of the simultaneous equations, such diagrams will clarify
that which algebra tends to obscure.
Rectangular Coordinates
We can associate an ordered pair with a point in a plane, such as a piece of paper, by
choosing two perpendicular reference lines in the paper and taking measurements from these
lines, with then usual convention that measurements on each side of the reference lines
correspond to positive or negaive values. Consider Fig (a), in which the two perpendiculare
reference lines are X – OX + and Y– OX+ is the x axis and Y – OY+ is the y axis.
Y+
D 5 B
4
3
2
1
X 4  3 2 1 1 2 X+
O
C A
Y
fig.(b)
Graduating the axes to some choosen scale leads to the marked diagram of Fig (b).
(Throughout coordinate geometry it is assumed that the reader uses A4 size metric graph paper).
Observe that the same scale has been chosen for both axes. This may not always be convenient
and, consequently, it is very important to understand that when we measure a lihne on the paper
we must be aware of the scales in use. The axes divide the plane into four regions called
quadrants which are numbered from 1 to 4 anti-clockwise. The point of intersection of the
axes is the point from which all the graduations start so we call this point O, the origin.
Now consider the line AB in Fig. (b) which is parallel to Y– OY+. Every point on the line
AB is 3 unit from Y– OY+ because AB has also been drawn through the point marked 3 on the
x axis. The line CD is likewise parallel to Y– OY+ but, since it has been drawn through the point
marked –4 on the x axis, we say that every point on CD is 4 units from Y– OY+ and on the left;
or alternatively – 4 units from Y– OY+.
In order to fix a particular point on the line AB we refer to its distance from X– OX+ and
these distances will be given by drawing lines of rank (i.e. ordinates) parallel to X– OX+, which
leads us to Fig (c), where we have two such lines, PQ and RS, which inersect AB and CD in the
points K, L, M and N as shows. Thus every point on PQ is 5 units from X– OX+ because it has
been drawn through the point marked 5 on the y axis.
Now the point L lies on PQ and AB, which means that its position may be associated
with the ordered pair (3, 5) that is, 3 units measured in a direction parallel to the x axis and 5
units measured in a direction parallel to the y axis. Since these measurements are obtained
from the ordinate lines (lines of rank) parallel to the two axes we call the two measurements the
coordinates of the point. Thus the point L has an x coordinate of 3 and a y coordinate of 5.
Similarly the coordinates of the point K are given by the ordered pair (–4, 5) i.e., K is the point
which is –4 units measured in a direction parallel to the x axis and 5 units measured in a
direction parallel to the y axis. The x coordinate of the point K may also be described as 4 units

meaured in the negative direction parallel to the x axis. Similary, the point N is (–4, –2) and M
is the point (3, –2)
Inequalities
Figs. (b) and (c) concentrated on points on a straight line or the point of intersection of
two lines, i.e., K, L, M and N. However, the straight line AB, for example, did much more than
harness a set of points onto the line; it also divided then plane of the paper. The set of all points
on the squared paper is called the coordinate plane, and this plane is divided into three sets by
the straight line AB: the set of points on the half plane on the left; the set of points on the line
itselfl; and the points on the half plane on the right. Thus all the points to the left of AB have
an x coorddinate less than 3, i.e., x < 3, and all the points to the right of AB have an x coordinate
greater then 3, i.e., x > 3. We cannot make a similare statement about the y coordinate of these
points because this is not restricted by the line AB.
If we now consider the effect on the coordinate plane of the straight line RS we see that
the y coordinate of any point on this line is always – 2; indeed, we may say that y =–2 is the
equation of the line R. However, the line also divides the coordinate plane into two other sets of
points; namely, those for which y > –2, i.e. all points above the line; and those for which y < –
2, i.e., all points below the line.
D Y+ B
5 Q
P K 4 L
3
2
1
X 4  3 2 1 1 2 3 X+
O
N  M

R C A S
Y
fig.(c)
If we combine the effects of drawing the lines AB and RS then we see that they partition
the coordinate plane into several
D Y+ B
5 Q
P K 4
L
3 x > 3 and
2 y > 2
1
X 4  3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 X+
O
N 
M
 A
R S
Y
fig.(d)
regions. The shaded region in Fig (d) corresponds to x > 3 and y > 2 or, to put it another way,
the shaded region corresponds to the set of all points with an x coordinate greater then 3 and a
y coordinate greater than –2. Examples of such points are (6, –1), (10, 7), (3.01, – 1.93), etc.
Perhaps the reader can now see how the inequalities will be dealt with. Similarly the interior
region of the square KLMN corresponds to x > – 4, x < 3, y > –2, y > 5, all four inequalities
being applied at the same time. We can shorten this statement by writing –4 < x < 3 and –2 < y
< 5. Typical points which belong to this region are (2, 4), (2.9, –1.9), (–3, –1) and so on.
The Distance Between Two Points
We have so far referred to particular points by giving their coordinates, such as (3, 5) or
(–2, 1). The general point in the coordinate palne has been referred to as the point (x, y); that is,
we make (x, y) represent the general point in the plane and we then make it a particular point by
giving numerical values to x and y. There are some occasions when we wish to discuss one two
or more points without giving their coordinates numerical values. We could refer to these
points as (a, b); (c, d); (p, q); etc. but, rather than use so many different letters, we choose a
subscript notation illustrated by referring to the points as (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) and so on. This
way we always know not only which coordinate is being referred useful to extend this economy
to the point letters themselves so that instead of referring to points. A, B.... we refer to the point
P1 with coordinates (x1, y1) the point P2 with coordinates (x2, y2) and so on. Now it follows that
since the position of two points is indicated by their coordinates then the distance between the
points should be expressed in terms of these coordinates. Indeed, we may go so far as to define
the distance d between two points without referring to any diagrams as follows :
Definition. The distance d between two points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) is defined by
d = [(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2], and this distance will be called the length P1P2 or the length of the
straight line segment P1P2.
Note that this definition applies only when we are using a rectangular coordinate system,
i.e. the axes are perpendicular.
Example. Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle formed by joining the points P1(4, 3),
P2(7, –2), P3 (–1, –5).
Solution : P1 P2  [(7  4) 2   2  32 ]  [(9  25)  34

= 5.83 (correct to 2 decimal places)
P2 P3  [( 1  7) 2  (5  (2)) 2 ] = (64 + 9) = 73
P3 P1  [(4  ( 1)) 2  (3  ( 5)) 2 ] = (25 + 64) = 89
The lengths of the sides of the triangle are 5.83, 8.54, 9.43 units (correct to 2 decimal
places).

We again make the observation as we did last that the distance between two points P1
and P2 or the length P1P2 is dependent only upon the coordinates of the points P1 and P2 and not
the scales we choose for the x and y axes. This is why we chose to give a definition for distance,
before discussing the same result from a diagram as follows.
Consider finding the length of the line segment AB joining the points A (2, 1) and B (5,
7) given in Fig. (a). We see that the line through A and B parallel to the axes from a right-angled
triangle ACB. Further more, C is the point (5, 1).
From Pythagora’s Theorem we have
AB2 = AC2 + CB2
 AB2 = (5 – 2)2 + (7 – 1)2 = 9 + 36
 AB = 45 =6.71 units (correct to 2decimal places).

Now consider fig. (b) where the scale for the x axis is 6 mm to 2 unit. Again we have the
result AC = 3 units, CB = 6 units, that is, CB and AC are calculated in units, not mm. In
consequence the length of AB is still 6.71 units. Furthermore, it must also be understood that
halving the scale along the y axis does not result in halving distances such as AB; indeed, only
when both the x and y scales are halved together would a distance like AB be halved. Finally, to
find the angle of inclination of the line AB to the x axis, the angle CAB is measured by using a
protractor only when the x and y scales are the same, otherwise we must work from the result
8 B (5, 7)
7
6 B (5, 7)
8
5 6
4 4
3 2
2
1 A (2, 1) C(5,1)
A (2, 1) C(5,1)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig (a) Fig(b)

7 1 6
tan CAB   2
52 3
We then consult tangent tables to reveal that  CAB = 63º26 and we note that that this
is the result for both Fig. (a) and (b).
Observe further that if we write tan CAB = CB/AC then we mean that CB is the
distance 6 units and AC is the distance 3 units, i.e., not the actual measurement in terms of
millimeters in Fig. (a) or (b). Tan CAB is called the gradient of the line AB and we usually
denote this by the letter m, i.e. m = tan CAB for the line AB.

The Midpoint of a Straight Line Segment

Again we could define this without the aid of a diagram by saying that the midpoint M
1 1
(x, y) of the line segement joining P1(x1, y1) and P1(x1, y1) is given by x = (x1+ x2), y =
2 2
(y1 + y2). However, since we are now aware of the meaning of length on a graph irrespective of
the scales, we shall consider obtaining the required midpoint from the diagram in Fig.(a).
We first observe the simply cases of the straight line segment being parallel to one or
other of the axes. In Fig (c) the coordinates of the point C are (4, 2), and therefore the point E
1   1
has coordinates  1  4  , 2  or  2  . Similary the x coordinate of F is obviously 4 and its y
2   2
1 1
coordinate (7 +2) = 4 i.e. F is the (4, 4 ).
2 2
Now M has the same x coordinate as E and the same y coordinate as F son M is the point
1 1
(2 , 4 ).
2 2
Alternatively, suppose M is the point (u, v) then, because E is the midpoint of AC, we
have AE = EC in the form u –1 = 4 – u, an equation which has the solution u = (4 + 1) / 2 = 2–
Similarly, becuase F is the midpoint of CB we have CF = FB is the form v – 2= 7 – v, which has
1
the the solution v = (7 + 2)/2 = 4 .
2
7 B(4,7) y
P2(x2,y2)
6 y1
M (u, v)
5 y2 M
v
4 (u,v)
3
2 v C(x2,y1)
1 E C(4,2) P1(x1,y1) E
O 1 2 3 4 5 O x1 u x2
Fig. (c) Fig(d)

1 1
Finally, M is the point (2.
, 4 ) as before.
2 2
As another numberical examples, the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (–
 2  4 3  7 
2, 3) and (4, 7) is  ,  i.e., (1, 5).
 2 2 

If we now move to the general example of Fig. (D), and once again let the point M (u,v)
be the midpoint of the line segment joining P1(1, y1) and P2(x2, y2), then with C(x2, y1) and E the
midpoint of P1C we get
P1E = u – x1 = EC = x2 – u.
 u – x1 = x2 – u.
2u = x1 + x2
1
u= (x + x2)
2 1
Similarly from CF = FP2 we have v – y1 = v2 – v
1
2v = y1 + y2, v = (y + y )
2 1 2
1 1
Hence the midpoint of P1P2 is the point ( (x1 + x2), (y1 + y2))
2 2


MODULE – IV
 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
 VECTORS
 DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES
 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

THREE DIMENSIONAL
GEOMETRY
15
1. Distance Formula
The distance between the points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) is given by
d bx 2  x1 g  by
2
2  y1 g  bz
2
2  z1 g 2
2. Division Formula
If R (x, y, z) divides join of
P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2)
internally in the ratio K : 1, then
Kx 2  x1 Ky2  y1 Kz2  z1
x ,y ,z
K 1 K 1 k 1
If R (x, y, z) divides join of P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) externally in the ratio K : 1, then
Kx2  x1 Ky 2  y1 Kz 2  z1
x , ,z
K 1 K 1 K 1
The mid point of the line segment PQ is
FG x  x y1  y2 z1  z2 IJ
H 2 K
1 2
,,
2 2
3. Direction cosines and Direction ratios
If a line L makes angles ,   with + ve direction of X–, Y–, Z–axes respectively, then
,   are called he direction angles of L.
cos , cos , cos  are the direction cosine of L.
l = cos , m = cos , n = cos 
The numbers which are proportional to the d.c. of a line are called its direction ratios. i.e.
a b c
if   , then a, b, c are called the d.r.s, of L.
l m n
Note.
(i) l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
(ii) D.C.s. of a line are unique.
(iii) D.r.s. of a line are infinitely many.

(iv) If < a, b, c > are direction ratios of a line then its direction cosines are
a b
 , ,
2 2 2
 a b c  a  b 2  c2
2
c

 a  b2  c2
2
(v) If P (x, y, z) is any point on the line OP whose dcs are <l, m, n > and |OP| = r then x
= lr, y = mr, z = nr.
(vi) The d. r. s of the line joining P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) are <x2–x1, y2–y1, z2 – z1>.
Angle between two lines
Angle between two lines whose dcs are
<l1, m1, n1> and <l2, m2, n2> is given by
Cos  = l1l2 + m1m2+n1n2
If <a1, b1, c1> and <a2, b2, c2> are their d.r.s, then
a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
cos 
a12  b12  c12 a22  b22  c22
l1 m1 n1 a1 b1 c1
Note. (i) Two lines are|| el  l  m  n or a  b  c
2 2 2 2 2 2
(iii) Two lines are  r  l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0

or a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
THE PLANE
Definition
A plane is a surface where the line joining any two points on it lies totally on the surface.
Equation :
1. One point form
The equation of a plane through (x0, y0, z0) whose normal has dcs, <l, m, n> is
l (x–x0) + m (y–y0) + n(z–z0) = 0. If <a, b, c> be drs of normal then the equation is
a(x–x0) + b (y–y0) + c(z–z0) = 0
2. Three point form
The plane through (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) has equation
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1  0.
x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1

3. Normal form
Theequation of plane in normal form is lx  my  nz  P.
Where <l, m, n> be dcs of normal and P is the perpendicular distance of the plane
from origin.
4. Intercept form
x y z
The equation of plane in intercept form is    1 . Where a = x– intercept,
a b c
b = y – intercept, c = z – intercept.
5. General form
The general form of equation of a plane is Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
Where < A, B, C > are drs of normal to the plane.
Properties
6. Angle between two planes.
A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 = 0
A2x + B2y + C2z + D2 = 0 is  which can be found out from
A1 A2  B1 B2  C1C2
cos 
A12  B12  C12 A22  B22  C22
A 1 B1 C1
Note: These two planes are parallel if   , r ifA 1A 2  B1B2  C1C 2  0 and identical
A 2 B2 C 2
A 1 B1 C1 D1
if A  B  C  D
2 2 2 2
A
7. The normal form of Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is x
 A 2  B2  C 2
B C
 y z
 A2  B2  C2  A2  B2  C2
D
=
 A2  B2  C2
Where one of signs + or – will be taken to make R.H.S. (+ve).
8. Distance of a plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 from any point (x0, y0, z0) is
|Ax 0  By 0  Cz 0  D|
d
 A 2  B2  C 2
One will choose sign to make d (+ve).
9. Equation of planes bisecting the angle between two planes A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 =
0 and A2x + B2y + C2z + D2 = 0 are given by

A 1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1 A 2 x  B2 y  C 2 z  D 2

A 12  B12  C12 A 22  B22  C 22
The straight line
A straight line in space is the set of all points of intersection of two planes.
Equation
1. General equation
The equation of line obtained by intersection of two planes is the joint equation of
these planes i.e. a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
a2x + b2y + czz + d2 = 0
2. Symmetrical form (one point form)
The equation of line through (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) whose drs are <a, b, c> is
x  x 0 y  y 0 z  z0
 
a b c
3. Two point form
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
The equation of line through (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is x  x  y  y  z  z
2 1 2 1 2 1
Properties
x  x 0 y  y 0 z  z0
1. The line   will lie on the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 if
a b c
(i) Aa + Bb + Cc = 0
(ii) Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D = 0
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
2. Two lines  
a1 b1 c1 and
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
x  x 2 y  y 2 z  z2 a1 b1 c1 0
 
a2 b2 c2 are coplaner if a2 b2 c2


VECTORS
16
Vector is a physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction.
Scalar is a physical quantity which has only magnitude.
Types of vectors
Unit Vector : A vector whose magnitude is unity is called unit vector.
Zero Vector : A vector whose magnitude is zero and direction is arbitrary is called a zero

vector or a null vector. It is denoted by 0
Proper vector : A vector whose magnitude is not zero is called a proper vector.
 
Parallel vectors : Two vectors a and b are said to be paralle if there exists a scalar k
 
such that a = k b .
Like vectors : Two vectors are said to be like vectors if they are parallel and have the
same direction.
Unlike vectors : Two vectors are said to be unlike vectors if they are parallel and have
the opposite directions.
Collinear vectors : Two vectors are said to be collinear if they lie on one line.
coinitial vectors : Vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors.
Coplaner vectors : Vectors are said to be coplanar if they lie on one plane.

Negative of a vector : A vector which has the same magnitude as the vector a but
 
opposite direrction is called the negative of a . It is denoted by – a .
Position vector of a point : If 0 be a fixed point and P be any other point, then the vector

op is defined as the position vector of P with respect to 0.
Note : If P and Q are two points whose position vectors are  

a and b respectively then
    
PQ  OQ  OP  b  a .
Note
m R n
P Q
a
b
O
If P and Q are two points whose position vectors are  
a and b respectively, then the
position vector of a point R which divides the line segment joining P and Q internally in the
 
mb  na 
ratio m : n is given by OR 
m n
Note : If R is the middle point of PQ then the position vector of the point R is given by
 
 a b
OR =
2
Note :
1. Position vector of a point p (x,y) w.r. to origin in coordinate plane is given by

OP  xi  yj
Where i  j are unit vectors along x-axis, y-axis, respectively..
2. Position vector of a point P (x, y, z) w.r. to origin in space in given by

OP  xi  yj  zk
Where i , j , k are unit vectors along x-axis, y-axis, z-axis respectively..

3. If P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) are two points, then

PQ  ( x 2  x1 ) i  ( y2  y1 ) j  ( z 2  z1 ) k

Magnitude and Direction of a Vector : Let a  a1i  a 2 j  a 3 k be a vector. Then magnitude
 
2 2 2
of a is defined by a  a1  a 2  a 3
Direction cosines of 
a are given by
a1 a2 a3
cos   ,cos   , cos  
a 12  a 22  a 23 a 12  a 22  a 23 a 12  a 22  a 23

a
Note : Unit vector along a vector  a  
a is denoted by a and is given by
|a|

Algebra of vectors :
1. Addition
[a1, a2, a3] + [b1, b2, b3] = [a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3]
2. Subtraction
[a1, a2, a3] – [b1, b2, b3] = [a1 – b1, a2 – b2, a3 – b3]
3. Multiplication
(I) Scalar Multiplication
K [ a1, a2, a3 ] = [ka1, ka2, ka3]
(II) Scalar Product or Dot product
   
Definition : The scalar product of the vectors a and b is denoted by a . b and is defined by
   
a . b = | a | | b | cos 
 
Where is the angle between a and b .
   
Note : a is  r to b  a . b = 0
i . i  1 i . j  0
Note j . j  1 j. k  0
k . k  1 k . i  0
Properties of dot product
1. Dot Product is Commutative.
   
i.e. a . b  b . a
2. Dot product is distributive over vector addition.
    
i.e. a .( b  c )  a . b  a . c

Note : If a  a1i  a 2 j  a 3k and
 
b  b1i  b 2 j  b 3 k then a . b
= a1b1+a2b2+a3b3.

  a.b
Note: 1. Scalar projection of a on b = 
| b|
F a .b I
2. Vector projection of a on
  G J
b =G  J b
H | b| K

  a.b
3. Scalar projection of b on a = 
|a|
F a .b I
4.

Vector projection of b on
 G J
a = G  Ja
H |a| K
Note : Component of a vector along and perpendicular to a vector.
  
1. Component of a vector a along b and  r to b
A

a
O M B

b
   
Let a and b are represented by OA and OB respectively..
 
Let  be the angle between a and b .
AM  r to OB is drawn.
  
OM is component of a along b .
  
MA is component of a  r to b .
 
OM  | OM| b
= OM b
FG cos   OM IJ
= OA cos  b H OA K

 | a | cos  b
 
| a | | b | cos  
 
b
| b|

F a . bI 
 
G
GH | b | JJK b

F a . bI 
 
G
GH | b | JJK b
 
So, component of a along b

  
MA  OA  OM
F a . bI 
 
 a G
GH | b | JJK b


 
So, component of a r to b
F a . bI 
 
 a G
GH | b | JJK b


F a . bI  
Note Component of b along a  G

GH | a | JJK a
 

F a . bI  
Component of b r to a  b  G
GH | a | JJK a
  

2  
Note : a  a . a | a |2
(III) Vector Product or Cross Product
Definition :
   
The Vector product of the vectors a and b is denoted by a  b and is defined by
   
a  b | a || b |sin  n
 
Where  is the angle between a and b n is the unit vector r to the plane containing
 
a and b .
    
Note : a is parallel to b  a  b  0

Note :

i  i  0 i  j  k j  i   k

j  j  0 j  k  i k  j   i

k  i  j i  k   j
k  k  0
 
Note : If a  a1i  a 2 j  a 3 k and b  b1i  b 2 j  b 3 k then
i j k
 
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Properties of Cross Product
1. Cross Product is not Commutative.
i.e.    
a  b   b a
2. Cross Product is distributive over vector addition. i.e.
      
a  (b c )  a  b a  c
      
( a  b)  c  a  c  b  c
   
Note : Area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a and b = | a  b |
Note : Area of a triangle ABC

1  
= |AB AC|
2
a
 
a b  
Note : The unit vector perpendicular to the vectors a and b =  
|a b|

B C
(IV) Scalar Triple Product

        
Definition : The scalar triple product of [ a , b , c ]  a .( b  c )  ( a  b ). c
    
Note : a , b , c are coplaner  [ a , b , c ]  0
 
Note : If a  a1i  a 2 j  a 3k , b  b1i  b 2 j  b3k
a1 a2 a3
  
 [ a , b , c ]  b1 b2 b3
c  c1i  c 2 j  c 3 k then
c1 c2 c3
     
Note : Volume of a parallelopiped whose edges are a , b , c  [ a , b , c ]
b
a
   1   
Note : Volume a tetrahedron whose sides are a , b , c  [ a , b , c ]
6

Properties :
    
(i) If any two of the three vectors a , b , c are equal, then [ a , b , c ]  0
    
(ii) If any two of the three vectors a , b , c are parallel, then [ a , b , c ]  0
         
(iii) [ a , b, c  d ]  [ a , b, c ][ a , b, d ]
     
(iv) [ a , k b , c ]  k[ a , b , c ]
(v) Vector Triple Product :
      
a ( b  c )  ( a . c ) b  ( a . b ) c
12. The vector equation of a straight line :
(i) The vector equation of a straight line passing through a point with position
    
vector a and parallel to a vector b is r  a  tb , where t is a parameter..

(ii) The equation of a straight line through two points with position vectors a
    
and b is r  a + t ( b  a ) .

(iii) Equation of a straight line through a point with position vector a and
     
perpendicular to two non-parallel vectors b and c is r  a  t ( b  a ) .
13. The vector equation of plane :

(i) The vector equation of plane through a point a and perpendicular to n is
 
( r  a ).n  0 .
 
(ii) The equation of plane through a point a and parallel to non-parallel vectors b
    
and c is r  a  tb  sc , where t and s are parameters.
 
(iii) Equation of the plane passing through the points a , b and parallel to c is
   
r  ( 1  t ) a  tb  sc

(iv) Equation of the plane through three non collinear points a , b , c is
   
r  ( 1  s  t ) a  tb  sc

DETERMINANTS AND
MATRICES
17
Determinants
|a| = a
a b
 ad  bc
c d
a1 b1 c1
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
a2 b2 c2  a1  b1
b3 c3 a3 c3 c1 a b
a3 b3 c3 3 3
= a2(b2c3–b3c2) – b1 (a2c3–a3c2) + c1 (a2b3–a3b2)

Properties
1. The values of determinant remains unchanged by changing rows to columns and
columns to rows.
2. The inter change of two adjacent rows or columns of a determinant changes the
sign of determinant without changing numerical value.
3. If two rows or columns of a determinant are identical then the value of the
determinant is zero.
4. If every element of any row or column is multiplied by a factor, then the determinant
is multiplied by that factor.
5. A determinant remains unchanged by adding K times the elements of any row (or
column) to corresponding elements of any other row (or column), where K is any
number.
6. If every element of any row (or column) of a determinant be expressed as sum of
two numbers then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two determinants.
Minors and Cofactors
a 11 a 12 a 13
a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
Minor of aij = mij = Determinant obtained by omitting ith row and jth column.
Cofactor of aij = cij = (–1)i+jmij
Crammer's Rule
To solve the following system of linear equations :
a1x + b1y + c1z = K1
a2x + b2y + c2z = K2
a3x + b3y + c3z = K3
a1 b1 c1 K1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 K2 b2 c2
Let D = , Dx =
a3 b3 c3 K3 b3 c3
a1 K1 c1 a1 b1 K1
a2 K2 c2 a2 b2 K2
Dy = Dz =
a3 K3 c3 a3 b3 K3
Dx Dy D
Then x = ,y  , z  z where D  0
D D D
Notes.
1. If D then the system has one solution.
2. If D = 0 and atleast one of D1, D2, D3 is not zero then the system has no solution.
3. If D = Dx = Dy = Dz = 0, then the system has infinite number of solutions.
Consistent system of equations. A system of equations is said to be consistent if it has
solution.
In consistent system of equation. A system of equations is said to be inconsistent if it
has no solution.
Matrix. A matrix is an arrangement of elements in certain number of rows and in certain
number of columns.
Order of matrix. No. of rows X No. of columns is called the order of a matrix
Row matrix. A matrix with a single row is called a row matrix.
Column matrix. A matrix with a single column is called a column matrix.
Square matrix. A matrix in which number of rows is equal to number of columns is
called a square matrix.
Diagonal matrix. A square matrix in which the nondiagonal elements are all zero, is
called a diagonal matrix.
Scalar matrix. A diagonal matrix in which the diagonal elements are all equal is called
a scalar matrix.
Unit Matrix (Identity Matrix). A diagonal matrix in which the diagonal elements are
all unity is called a unit matrix.
Zero matrix. A matrix in which the elements are all zero is called a zero matrix

Singular matrix. A square matrix whose determinant value is zero is called a Singular
Matrix.
Non-Singular matrix. A square matrix whose determinant value is not zero is called a
non-singular matrix.
Transpose of matrix. The transpose of a matrix A is the matrix obtained from A by
changing its rows into columns and columns into rows. It is denoted by A' or AT.
Algebra of Matrices
1. Addition If A = (aij)m nand B = (bij)m nthen A+B = (aij+bij)m n
2. Subtraction. If A = (aij)m nand B = (bij)m n then A–B = (aij–bij)m n
3. Multiplication
(i) Multiplication of matrix by a scalar
If A = (aij)m n and K is a scalar, then KA = (kaij)m n
(ii) Multiplication of a matrix by a matrix
If A = (aij)m nand B = (bij)np then
n
AB = (cij)m p where Cij = a

k 1
ik bkj
Equality of two matrices

Two matrices A and B are said to be equal 
 Order of A and B are the same.
2. Each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B.
Adjoint of matrix
The transpose of matrix of cofactors of a matrix A is called the adjioint of A. It is denoted
by adj.A.
Inverse of matrix
If A is a non singular matrix, then its inverse matrix
1
A–1is defined as A–1 = adj.A.
| A|
Where |A| is the determinant of matrix A.
Solution of a system of linear equations
Let the system of linear equations is
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
LMa1 b1 c1 OP LM x OP LMd OP
1
MMa b2 c P M y P  Md P
c PQ MN z PQ MNd PQ
 2 2 2
Na
3 b3 3 3

 AX = b
 X = A–1b
1
 X= adj. A b
| A|
Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix A is said to be a symmetric matrix if A = A
a h g 
 
Example :  h b f 
 g f c 
Skew Symmetric Matrix :
A square matrix A is said to be a Skew Symmetric matrix if A = – A
 0 h g

Example : h 0 f
 
 g  f o 

Note:Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of symmetric and a skew
symmetric matrix.
1 1
i.e., A  (A  A)  (A  A)
2 2
Elementary Row Operations:
1. Interchanging two rows.
2. Multiplying a row by a non zero scalar.
3. Adding to a row a scalar times another row.
Note:We can find inverse of a non-singular matrix by using elementary row operations.


PROBABILITY AND
STATISTICS
18
Random experiment : An experiment is called random experiment if its outcomes are
uncertain.
Out come : The results of an experiment are called out comes.
Sample space : The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the sample
space. It is denoted by S.
Sample points : An element of a sample space is called a sample point.
Event : Any subset of a sample space is called an event.
Simple event : An event containing only one sample point is called a simple event.
Compound event : An event containing more than one sample point is called a compound
event.
Impossible event : An event having no sample point is called an impossible event. It is denoted
by .
Sure event : The whole sample space S is called a sure event.
Mutually exclusive events : Two events are said to be mutually exclusive if they have no
common element.
Exhaustive events : The events are said to be exhaustive events if their union is the sample
space.
Equally likely outcomes : Two out comes are said to be equally likely if they have equal
chance of occurrence.
| A|
Probability : The Probability of an event A is denoted by P(A) and is defined by P(A)  ,
|S|
where S is the sample space.
Properties
1. O < P (A) < 1 for any event A.
2. P(S) = 1, P () = 0
3. If A  B, then P(A) < P(B)
4. P (A1) = 1 – P(A)
5. P (A  B) = P(A) + P(B) – P (A  B)
6. P (A–B) = P(A) – P (A  B)
7. P(A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B) +P(C) – P (A  B)
– P (B  C) – P (C  A) + P (A  B  C)
Equiprobable space : If each sample point in a finite probability space has the same
probability, then the probability space is called an equiprobable space.
Non-uniform space : A sample space which is not equiprobable is called a non-uniform
space.
Independent events : Two events A and B are independent if P (A  B) = P (A) P (B).
Conditional Probability : Let B be an event. The conditional probability of B relative
to event A is denoted by P (B/A) and is defined by
P( B  A )
P (B/A) 
P (A )
Note : If A and B are independent, then P (A  B) = P (A) P (B).
If A and B are not independent, then P (A  B) = P (A). P (B/A)
Extension : P (C  B  A) = P(A). P (B/A). P(C / A  B)
The law of total probability : Let S be the sample space and let E1, E2, ...., En be n
mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a random experiment. If A be any
event which occurs with E1 or E2 or ....... or En, then P(A) = P(E1) P (A / E1) + P (E2). P (A / E2)
+........+ P (En). P (A / En)
Baye’s theorem : Let S be the sample space and E1, E2,.....,En be n mutually exclusive
and exhaustive events associated with a random experiment. If A be any event which occurs
with E1, or E2 or ............. or En then
P( E i ). P ( A / E i )
P( E i / A)  n
 P ( E i ) P (A / E i )
i 1
Where i = 1, 2,.....n.
Random Variable and Binomial Distribution
Definition : A random variable is a numerically valued function defined on the sample space
S. It is a rule that assigns a numerical value to each possible outcome of an experiment.
Probability mass function :
Let X be a discrete random variable, which takes the possible values x1, x2,..........xn. With
each xi we associate a real number pi = P (X=xi), i = 1,2....n satisfying the following conditions :
(i) Pi  0 for each i
n
(ii) p
i 1
i 1
The function pi = P (X=xi) is called the probability mass funcion.

The set of all ordered pairs (x,p(x)) is called the probability distribution of X.
Mean and Variance :
Let X be a random variable having the following probability distribution :
x : x1 x2 x3 ................xn
p(x) : p1p2p3 ..............pn

n
Mean of random variable X  x   x p( x )
x 1
i i
n
2 2
Variance of random variable X     ( x i  x ) p( x i )
x 1
 x p( x )  b x g
n
2 2
=  i i
i 1
The positive square root of the variance of X is called the standard deviation of X and is
denoted by .
Trial : Each time an experiment if performed is a trial.
Bernouli trial : Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trial if the following conditions
are satisfied:
(1) The number of trials is finite
(2) Trials are independent
(3) The outcomes are dichotomous (success or failure)
(4) The probability of success (or failure) in each trial is constant.
Binomial Distribution :
If the number of trials is n, the probability of a success in each trial = P and the probability of a
failure in each trial = q, then P (r successes in n trials = nCr prqn–r
n
Mean =  rp( r )  np
r 0
Variance = r2 p (r) – (rp(r))2 = npq

STATISTICS :
Statistics deals with the collection, classification, tabulation, analysis and interpretation
of numerical data.
A few terms commonly used in statistics are :
Data : It is a collection of Observations expressed in numerical figures by measuring or
counting.
In otherwords, information in numerical terms collected though census or survey or any
other method is called data or raw data.
Population : It is a collection of all possible individuals, objects or measurements.
For example a population might consists of all workers in a plant, all items produced
by a machine on a particular day etc.
Sample : It is a part or portion of the population. It is examined with a view to assessing
the characteristics of the population.
Variable : A measurable characteristic is called a variable or variate, Examples are age,
height, income, weight etc.

Continuous and discrete Variables :

A continuous variable can assume any real value within limits, where as, a discrete
variable can assume only isolated values.
For example, the height of a person is a continuous variable, because height can be
measured within certain limits. Other examples of continuous variables are weight, temperature,
time etc.
Examples of discrete variables are number of workers in a factory, meter reading on a
taxi or tempo, prices of articles etc.
Frequency : The number of times a particular value occurs in a given series of
observations is called the frequency of that value.
For example, in the raw data 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 4; 2 occurs 3 times, 4 occurs 2 times, 3 occurs
once. Hence, we can say that frequencies of 2, 4 and 3 are respectively 3, 2, 1.
Grouped Frequency Distribution :
It is a statistical table which shows that data has been organised into groups, with their
corresponding frequencies.
The following table is a grouped frequency distribution.
Marks Frequency
0 - 10 4
10 - 20 8
20 - 30 6
30 - 40 5
Mid value or class mark
The mid value of the class interval is the value exactly at the middle of the class interval.
10  20
Midvalue of class interval 10 - 20 is  15 .
2
10 is called lower limit and 20 is called upper limit of the class interval 10 – 20. The
difference between lower and upper limit is called class size or class width. In the class interval
10 – 20, class width = 20 – 10 = 10.
In many frequency distribution, the tabulated values shows small frequencies at the
beginning and at the end and very high frequencies at the middle of the distribution. This
indicates that the typical values of the variable lie near the central part of the distribution and
other values cluster around these central values. This phenomena of the data about the
concentration of the values in the central part of the distribution is called central tendency of
data.
The cumulative frequency (c.f ) corresponding to any value is the number of observations,
which are less than that value. The c.f corresponding to a class is the sum of all frequencies
upto and including that class.

MEASURE OF LOCATION OR MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

The average of a set of data is that value which gives us an idea about the entire distribution.
The type of averages that are incommon use are :
(i) Arithmetic Mean (ii) Geometric Mean
(iii) Harmonic Mean (iv) Median (v) Mode.
(i) Arithmetic Mean or Simply Mean :
The mean X of n observations x1, x2,.....,xn is defined as
n
x1  x2  x....  xn x
i 1
i
X  
n n
n
x
Note : x
i 1
i can be writtan as x
n
 X
Arithmetic mean in continuous series can be obtained by any of the following methods.
(i) Direct method (ii) Deviation method
(iii) Step deviation method
Direct method,
f x  f 2 x 2  ...  f n x n
x  1 1
f1  f 2  ...  f n
n
 f i xi
 fx
i 1
 or ,
n f
 fi
i 1
where fi is the corresponding frequency of xi,
i = 1,2, ..., n.
Deviation method :
Let x1, x2, ..., xn be the set of n observations and d1, d2, ..., dn be the deviations of the
observations from any arbitrary value 'a' (called as assumed mean or provisional mean or
working mean).
 di = xi  a  xi = di + a
xi (di  a ) di  a
 x   
n n n
d  na d d
 i  a  i or a 
n n n
n n
 fi x i  f i ( di  a )
Again, x  i 1 i 1

n n
 fi  fi
i 1 i 1

n
 fi d i  fd
 a  i 1
or a 
n f
 fi
i 1
 x  a
 fd
f
WEIGHTED MEAN
If x1, x2, ...., xn be the values of a variable X and w1w2,...., wn denotes respectively their
weights, then their weighted mean X W is given by
x1 w1  x2 w2  ....  xn wn
XW 
w1  w2  ....  wn
n
x w
i 1
i i
xw
 n
or
w
w
i 1
i
SOME IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS

(1) The sum of the observations is equal to the product of the number of observations
and their A.M.
x
i.e., x 
n
 x nx
(2) The sum of the deviations of the observations from the arithmetic mean is always
zero i.e., if x1, x2, ..., xn are the n observations and x is mean then,
n
 ( xi  x )  ( x1  x )  ( x 2  x )  ....  ( x n  x )
i 1
= (x1 + x2 + ... + xn)  n x = n x  n x = 0
(3) If each of the n given observations is doubled, then their mean is doubled.
(4) If x is the mean of x1, x2,....., xn, then the mean of ax1, ax2,.......,axn where a  0 is
ax .
(5) If x is the mean of x1, x2, ...., xn, then mean of

x1 ± a, x2 ± a, ...., xn ± a is x ± a.
x1 x2 x x
(6) If x is the mean of x1, x2, ...., xn, then mean of , ,....., n is .
a a a a
(7) If the mean of n observations ax1, ax2, ....., axn is aX then (ax1 – aX) + (ax2 – aX)
+ ....+ (axn – aX) = 0

GEOMETRIC MEAN
The geometric mean (G.M) of n observations x1, x2, ..., xn is defined as the positive nth
root of their product i.e.,
G.M = (x1 . x2 . x3 ... xn)1/n, where none of the observations is zero.
In case of grouped data, G.M. of n observation x1, x2......, xn is
n
G.M. = d x1f1  x 2f2 ...... x nfn

1/ N
, i where N  f .
i 1
i
Properties of Geometric Mean :

1. If the given values of a variable are all equal, then the geometric mean will be equal
to their common value.
Let the n values of a variable X are x1, x2, ....xn & each equal to c.
 G.M. = XG
1 1
  c.c.....n times  n   c n  n  c
1
For example : G.M. of 7, 7, 7, 7, 7 is  75  5  7.
2. If G1 and G2 are geometric means of two variables X and Y, having m & n
observations and G is the geometric mean of the combined series, then
1
G   x1 . x2 .....xm . y1 . y2 ... yn  m  n
m n
1 mn 1 mn
   
   x1. x2 .....xm  m     y1 . y2 ..... yn  n   G1w1  G2w2 ,
   
m n
where w1  and w2  .
mn mn
3. The geometric mean of the ratio of the two variables X and Y is the ratio of their
geometric means.
4. If y = ax, then yG = axG.
HARMONIC MEAN
The Harmonic mean (H.M) of n observations x1, x2, ..., xn is defined by the total
number of observations divided by the sum of their reciprocals i.e.,
n n
H.M =  n .
1 1 1 1
  ...  x
x1 x 2 xn
i 1 i
If x1, x2,....., xn are n observations which occur with frequencies f1, f2,.....fn respectively,
n
fi 1
i
then H.M.  .
 FH f x IK
n
i
i
i 1

Realtion between A.M, G.M and H.M

For a given set of observations,
A.M > G.M. > H.M.
Here equality sign holds only when all observations are equal.
Proof :
Taking two positive values x1 and x2,
x1  x 2 2 2 x1 x2
we have, A.M  , G.M  x1 . x 2 , H.M  
2 1 1 x1  x2

x1 x 2
Now,  x1  x 2  2
0
 x1  x 2  2 x1 x 2  0  x1  x 2  x1 . x 2
2
i.e. A.M > G.M ......(1)
2
 2x x 
Again, x1 x 2   1 2 
 x1  x 2 
x1x2 (x1  x2 )2  4x12 x22 x13 x2  x1x23  2x12 x22
 
(x1  x2 )2 (x1  x2 )2
x1 x 2 ( x1  x 2 )2
  0
( x1  x 2 ) 2
2
 2x x  2 x1 x 2
 x1 . x 2   1 2   x1 . x 2  i.e., G.M > H.M ......(2)
x
 1  x 2  x1  x2
Combining (1) and (2),

we get A.M > G.M > H.M.
Note : A.M × H.M = (G.M)2
MEDIAN
If a set of values of a variable are arranged in ascending order or descending order of
their magnitudes, then the middlemost observation or the central value is called median.
Calculation of median :
(A) Median of Individual series :
In case of raw data, if total number of observations is n, then
 n 1
() For n odd, median = value of   th observation
 2 
() For n even, median
n n 
th observation    1th observation
= 2 2 
2

Note :
n
2
 x
i 1
i  A  is least if A = x
n
and | x
i 1
i  A | is least when A = median.
MODE
The mode of a set of observations is that value, which occurs with maximum frequency.
If each observations occurs equal number of times, the data is said to have no mode. We
say that mode is zero or the series have zero mode.
For example, the observation : 3, 5, 3, 5, 3, 5, 3, 5, has no mode.
Calculation of Mode
When all the classes are of equal width, mode is Calculated by the formula
1 0 f  f
Mode = l1  2 f  f  f ( l 2  l1 ),
1 0 2
where l1 = lower limit of the modal class
(i.e., the class having maximum frequency)
l2 = upper limit of the modal class
f1 = frequency corresponding to the modal class
f0 = frequency of the class preceeding the modal class
f2 = frequency of the class following the modal class.
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
In order to get a proper idea about the overall nature of a given set of values, it is necessary
to know, besides average, the extent to which the given values differe among themselves or
equivalently, how they are scattered about the average. This feature of frequency distribution
which represents the variability of the given values or reflects how scattered the values are, is
called is dispersion.
Various measures of dispersion are
(1) Range
(2) Mean deviation
(3) Standand deviation etc.
Range :
It is the difference between the greatest and least of its given set of values.
MEAN DEVIATION
Mean deviation of a set of observations is the arithmetic mean of all the absolute deviations
from a fixed value. The fixed value may be mean, median or mode. It is an absolute measure
of dispersion.
Mean deviation of n observations x1, x2, ..., xn from their mean is defined by
(i) Mean deviation (M.D)

n n
 xi  x  di
 i 1
 i 1
or
 d
n n n
where x is arithmetic mean, di  xi  x is called deviation of xi from x .
n
 xi  M
(ii) Mean deviation from median (M) is defined by M.D.  i 1
n
(iii) For a simple frequency distribution, mean deviation from mean
(x )
f xx or
f d,
f f
where x = value or mid value according as data is ungrouped or grouped.
(iv) Mean deviation from median (M)

 f x M
f
If 'a' be a fixed real number, we can define Mean deviation of x1, x2, ..., xn from ‘a’ by
n
 xi  a
i 1
M.D. 
n
If fi be the corresponding frequencies of xi (i = 1, 2, ..., n), then Mean
deviation from ‘a’ is defined
n as
 i xi  a
f
i 1
M.D. 
n
 fi
i 1
Note :
(1) If y = a + bx, then M.D of y about its mean
= |b| . (M.D. of x about its mean.)
(2) The mean deviation about median is least.
STANDAND DEVIATION
It is defined as
1
1 n 2 2
     xi  x   , for raw data
 n i 1 
For frequency distribution of x1, x2,....., xn with frequencies f1, f2,.....fn respectively, the
standand deviation is given by
n n
1 2

N
 f x
i 1
i i  X  , where, N   f i
i 1

2 2

fx

  f i xi 
i i

or
f i  f i 
In case of grouped frequency distribution,
2
1 1 
C  f i ui2    fi ui  ,
N  N 
1
where ui   xi  A ,
C
n
N   fi , A is the working mean & C is the width of the class interval.
i 1
Note :
1. If each observation 1, 2, 3, ....,n have frequency 1, then  can be obtained by using
the formula
2
x 2  x 
  .
n  n 
n2  1
2. Standard deviation of first n natural numbers is .
12
n  n  1
3. Standard deviation of a, a + d, a + 2d, ...., a + 2nd, d > 0 is .d
3
n  n  1
4. Mean deviation of a, a + d, a + 2d, ...., a + 2nd, d > 0 is .d
2n  1
5. Standand deviation a, a +d, a + 2d,... a + (n – 1) d, d > 0 is

 n2  1 d 2
12
6. If the values 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n have frequencies nC0, nC1, nC2, ....., nCn respectively, then
1
standand deviation is n.
2
7. If the values 0, 1, 2, ..., n have frequencies pn, nC1 .pn – 1 q, nC2 .pn – 2 q2,....., qn
respectively, where p + q = 1, the standand deviation is npq
8. If a variable assumes the values a and b & other (n – 2) values are all equal to
ab |a b|
, the S.D of these n observations is
2 2n
9. The standand deviation of first n odd natural numbers is equal to the standand
deviation of first n even numbers.
Properties of standand deviation :
1. If all the values of a variable are equal, then standand deviation is zero.
2. If y = a + bx is the relation betwen x and y, then Sy = |b| . Sx.

Hence the standand deviation is independent of change of origin (a) but depends on
change of scale (b).
3. If S.D of x1, x2, ..., xn is  then S.D of x1 ± a, x2 ± a, ...., xn ± a is 
4. If y = x – c where c is a constant, then S.D of y = S.D of x.
x1 x2 x
5. S.D of x1, x2, ...., xn is equal to k times the S.D of , ,...., n .
k k k
6. If  be the S.D of x1, x2, x3,...., xn , then the S.D of kx1, kx2,...., kxn is k, k > 0.
7. If a group of n1 observation has mean x1 and S.D and another group of n2
observations has mean x2 and S.D , then S.D ( of combined group
n1 + n2 (= n) observations is obtained by the formula :
n σ 2 =  n1σ12 + n 2 σ 22  +  n1d12 + n 2 d 22 
where d1  x1  x , d 2  x2  x
and N x  n1 x1  n2 x2 .
OR, n σ = n1  σ1 + d1  + n 2  σ 2 + d 2 
2 2 2 2 2
where x is the combined mean,

d1 = x1 – x , d2 = x2 – x .
1 

Note : If n1 = n2 & x1 = x2 , then  
2
     



Bridge Course Math PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bridge Course Math PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bridge Course Math PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bridge Course of Mathematics 1

Bridge Course of Mathematics

A mathematical prodigy, also known as the

She was able to answer all of his challenging mathematical

‘‘Just as a mountaineer climbs a mountain– because

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

 BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOMETRY

 THE EQUATION OF A LOCUS

= a3m × (a product of n – 3 factors, each one being am)

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

obtain the result

,and 7 will have to be either-left as it is or written as 2.65, after

consulting tables of square roots. Thus

is the simplification and

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Solution: Rationalise the denominator

The closeness of 2 of 2 is given by 2  2 

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

For any number ‘a’ and a positve integer ‘n’ we have

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

(xvi) If 0 < a < 1, then logax < b  x > ab

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

How to find the antilogarithm of a Given Number

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Example – 4 : Solve for x : logx (8x – 3) – logx4 = 2.

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Straight Angle : An angle of 180º is called a straight angle.

Complete Angle : An angle of 360º is called a complete angle.

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Each angle of polygon 

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Theorem : The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Polynomials means an algebric expression consisting of many terms involving powers

(A + B)4 = A4 + 4A3B + 6A 2B2 + 4AB3 + B4

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c are real and a  0 is known as

(3) Type ax  b  cx  d  ex  f such as 2 x  1  3x  2  5 x  3

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

B. Permutation and Combination

(2) The number of permutations of n different elements, taken r at a time, repetitions

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

 RELATION AND FUNCTIONS

 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLE

 THE EQUATION OF A LOCUS

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick

(fig 7.6) Many one function

Prepared by Dr. C. R. Mallick