Thermometer Notes

 Temperature is the measure of how hot an object is. The hotness of an object is a measure of
the kinetic energy of the molecules that make up that object.

 A thermometer monitors a suitable physical property. In the case of a liquid-in-glass

thermometer, it monitors volume of the liquid. Any device that includes a substance that
changes uniformly with temperature can be calibrated and be made into a useful thermometer.

 To calibrate (create a scale) a thermometer we need known upper and lower fixed points
(such as the steam point at 100°C and the ice point at 0°C). The Celsius scale was devised by
Anders Celsius.

 There are several types of thermometer including the mercury-in-glass or the alcohol-in-
glass thermometer, shown in the diagram below. This is a very common type of thermometer.
The volume of the liquid and hence the length of the liquid column changes uniformly with
temperature.

 Mercury is a liquid metal and as such is useful for measuring higher temperatures. Its boiling
point is 357°C and it freezes at –39°C.

 Alcohol has a very low freezing point and as such is useful for measuring low temperatures. It
has a boiling point of 78°C and freezes at –114°C.

 Other types of thermometers include:

o The liquid crystal thermometer – it contains heat-sensitive liquid crystals that change colour to
indicate different temperatures.

Notes

o The constant-volume gas thermometer – it contains a gas; when the temperature rises, the
pressure increases. The change in pressure is used to indicate a change in temperature.

 The range of a thermometer is the difference between the maximum and minimum
temperatures that the thermometer can read. A common range for liquid-in-glass thermometers
is from –10°C to 110°C.

 The range of a liquid-in-glass thermometer is limited by the length of the thermometer and can
be increased by:

o increasing the diameter of the capillary – this means that the liquid will not expand as far along
the tube per degree rise in temperature

o decreasing the volume of the bulb – this means there is less liquid and so it will not travel as far
along the capillary tube as it is heated.

 A liquid-in-glass thermometer is said to be linear if the liquid expands by the same amount for
every degree Celsius rise in temperature. This means that the scale will be marked in degrees of
equal size (as below).

 If the liquid did not expand uniformly, the scale would be non-linear. It would have to be
marked with degrees of differing sizes (as above). It would be very difficult to calibrate and to
use.

Top Tip

Characteristics that make a substance suitable for use in a liquid-in-glass

thermometer include:

 expanding uniformly over a large temperature range

 a low specific heat capacity for quick response

 a low freezing and high boiling point so that the substance remains
liquid over a good range of temperatures.
Physics - Thermometers: liquid-in-glass

Key Terms:

Capillary tube - A glass tube with thick walls and a narrow interior hollow tube (bore). It has a
bulb at one end.

Image source and credit: http://www.advancedaquarist.com

To the left is a labelled diagram of a thermometer, you don't need to know all of the different
parts of a thermometer, but I included it to help you understand.
How they work:

When the glass bulb is is heated, the liquid in the bulb starts to expand up the capillary tube.

The liquid must have the following properties:

 Be able to be seen easily

 Be able to expand and contract quickly over a wide range of temperatures
 Not stick to the inside of the capillary tube

Commonly Mercury and Alcohol (coloured) are used because Mercury boils at 357℃ and
freezes at -39℃. Alcohol boils at 78℃ and freezes at -115℃, therefore Alcohol is more suited to
low temperatures and Mercury is suitable for higher temperatures.

Clinical Thermometers

Image source and credit: http://www.http://www.pd4pic.com

Clinical thermometers are used by doctors and nurses to measure patient's body
temperatures, they are mercury-in-glass thermometers.

These are different from normal mercury-in-glass thermometers as their scale only extends for a
few degrees either side of 37℃, this is because 37℃ is the normal body temperature.

The capillary tube in these thermometers is very narrow, allowing for a very accurate reading to
be taken, a.k.a the thermometer has a high sensitivity.

How they work:

The capillary tube has a constriction (check diagram above if you don't know what this is) just
above bulb.

The thermometer is placed under the tongue and kept there for 1 minute, the mercury expands it
heats up and forces past the constriction. Once the thermometer is removed from the mouth, the
mercury in the bulb cools and contracts, breaking off from the mercury thread at the constriction,
but the mercury that's beyond the constriction stays in the tube, showing the body temperature is
at.

By flicking your wrist, the mercury returns to the bulb again.

Mercury thermometers (for clinical use) are now being replaced by digital thermometers,
because mercury is toxic.

Thermocouple Thermometers

Thermocouples are used to measure temperatures that change quickly or are very high.

Thermocouple thermometers have wires made of two different materials, e.g iron and copper that
are joined together. If one junction is at a higher temperature than the other one, an electric
current flows, producing a reading on a digital voltmeter, the voltage of the current is directly
related to the temperature.

They are used in industry to measure a vast range of temperatures from -250℃ to 1500℃, they
are also very good at measuring the temperatures on small objects or for rapidly changing
temperatures.

Resistance Thermometers

Resistance thermometers are used to measure temperatures accurately from -200℃ to 1200℃.
They work by using the fact that electrical resistance builds up in a platinum wire when the
temperature increases.
They are best used for steady temperatures and are bulky.

Constant-Volume Gas Thermometers

Constant-Volume Gas thermometers use the change in pressure of a gas to measure temperature.
It works over a wide rang of temperatures, and is bulky.

Thermistors

Thermistors work over a small range, ie. -5℃ to 70℃. It's resistance decreases with temperature.
Thermochromic Liquids

Thermochromic liquids change colour when heated or cooled, they have a limited range of
temperatures (around room temperatures).
Question and Answers

 what is temperature?
a measure of hotness

 what are fixed points used for?

to define a scale of temperature

 what are the two fixed points of the Celsius scale of temperature?
zero degrees Celsius (when pure ice melts)
100 degrees Celsius (when water boils)

 what is the thermometric property of a liquid-in-glass thermometer?

the thermal expansion of the liquid

 what does a liquid-in-gas thermometer consist of?

- a thin glass bulb joined to a capillary tube with narrow bore sealed at its other end
- the liquid fills the bulb and the adjoining section of the capillary tube

 what happens when the bulb becomes warmer in a liquid-in-glass thermometer?

- liquid in it expands more than bulb so liquid of bulb is forced into capillary tube
- thread of liquid in capillary tube increases in length

 what liquid is used in a liquid-in-glass thermometer?

mercury or alcohol

 which liquid is best for measuring lower temperatures in a liquid-in-glass

thermometer and why?
alcohol because it has a lower freezing point

 what are thermocouple thermometers?

electrical thermometers which make use of the voltage that develops when two dissimilar metals
are in contact because of the small size of the thermocouple junction,

 what is a thermocouple thermometer good for measuring?

rapidly changing temperatures and high temperatures

 what makes thermocouple thermometers efficient?

the voltage is measured and recorded automatically
  give 4 examples of where a liquid-in-glass thermometer can be used
home, office, greenhouse and hospital

 what is the thermometric property of a thermocouple thermometer?

voltage bewteen two different metals in contact

 give 4 examples of where a thermocouple thermometer can be used

in the oven (withstand high temperatures), temperature variation of gas flow, data logging and
remote locations

 what causes the volume of a gas at constant pressure to increase?

when the temperature is increased

 what is the range of a thermometer?

from the lowest to the highest temperature it can measure

 what is the sensitivity of a thermometer?

the extent of change in its thermometric property for a 1 degree change of temperature

 how does linearity affect the reading on the thermometer?

the greater the linearity, the closer the readings are with a standard thermometer

 what does the accuracy of a thermometer depend on?

sensitivity and linearity

 what is the structure of a thermocouple thermometer?

two dissimilar metals, heat source and a volt meter

 why is an alcohol liquid-in-glass thermometer more sensitive than a mercury one?

alcohol expands more than mercury for the same change of temperature

Thermocouple Thermometer
What is a Thermocouple?

The Thermocouple is a thermoelectric temperature sensor which consists of two dissimilar

metallic wires, e.g., one chromel and one constantan, coupled at the probe tip (measurement
junction) and extended to the reference (known temperature) junction.

The temperature difference between the probe tip and the reference junction is detected by
measuring the change in voltage (electromotive force, EMF) at the reference junction.

The absolute temperature reading can then be obtained by combining the information of the
known reference temperature and the difference of temperature between probe tip and the
reference.
How does a thermocouple thermometer work?

If two junction are at different temperatures (e.g. one junction is placed in a hotter region than
the other), a small voltage is produced. The greater the difference in temperature, the greater the
voltage produced across the ends of the two junctions.If one junction is kept at a fixed
temperature such as 0*C, then the other junction can be used as a tiny probe to measure the other
temperature.

e.m.f produced is inversely proportional to the temperature difference between reference

junction and the probe.

Advantages

- ability to measure a large temperature range

- very useful in a variety of circumstances in many different industries
- respond rapidly to changes in temperature and can be used at high temperatures at which other
sensors would be destroyed.
- very versatile, robust, fairly accurate
- small mass
- made rugged, simply constructed and are immune to shock and vibration
- can be made very small, fitting into applications that other temperature sensors
- measure the temperature, as well as be coupled with certain circuits in order to discontinue the
heating process once the wanted temperature is achieved.

(This can play an important part in safety measures, thus thermocouples can be considered
important safety )